POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

(B.C 200-A.D 300)

Introduction:

• The period 200 B.C-300 AD was the age between two greatest

empires of India, the Mauryas and the Guptas.

• Classical historians consider it as a ‘Dark Age’ in Indian

history due to the infiltration of foreign races and the

consequent changes taking place in the socio-political system

while, Modern Historians consider it as the ‘Mercantile Age’

of India.

• Even though this period witnessed political uncertainty and

disunity, it saw remarkable advancement in other fields such as

trade, literature, religion, art and architecture.

Political History

• In the Post-Mauryan period, political disunity and confusion

prevailed across the country.

• Many foreign tribes invaded India in this period and

established several kingdoms of their own-As a result, the

political power in India was shared between the native and

foreign dynasties.

Great Wall of China-Shi Hung Ti (220 BC)

Foreign Dynasties

• After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, India witnessed the

emergence of many foreign dynasties ruling over India.

• From different parts of Asia, foreign tribes intruded into India

and founded their own kingdoms.

• Among them Indo-Greeks, Scythians, Parthians and Kushans

are noteworthy.

1. Indo-Greeks/Indo-Bactrians/Yavanas

• The Greeks from Bactria (N.Afghanistan) established an

independent kingdom in North-West India, settled down

permanently and finally became the part and parcel of India.

• Within no time they lost their foreign identity, got assimilated

into Indian culture and came to be known as IndoGreeks.

• In Indian literature, they are mentioned as Yavanas as they

belonged to the Ionian tribe of the Greeks.

• In the 3rd century B.C., the Seleucid Empire weakened and

Bactria seceded from it and became independent.

• Demetrius, the ruler of Bactria invaded North-West India and

took possession of some territories.He is considered as the

second Greek hero to conquer the north-west territories of

India after Alexander.

• Demetrius appointed his military general Menander as his

representative in India.

• When Demetrius was assassinated in Bactria, Menander

declared independence and founded an independent Indo-

Greek kingdom with Sagala or Sakala (modern Sialkot,Pak) as

his capital.

Indo-Greek Kingdom

Menander (BC 165-145)

• Called Milinda in Indian literature.

• Greatest among the Indo-Greek kings.

• Capital:Sakala (Sialkot in Pak),known as ‘heaven on earth’.

• He embraced Buddhism and participated in frequent religious

discourses with a Buddhist philosopher, Nagasena who was in

his court.

• The dialogue between Milinda and Nagasena is contained in a

book written in Pali language, known as Milinda Panha or Nagasenabhikshu Sutra-It is considered as the most sacred book after the Tripitakas.

▪ Greeks introduced Military Governorships or Strategos.

▪ Indo-Greeks introduced revolutionary changes in the realm of numismatics in India.

▪ They replaced the earlier punch-marked coins with the double die struck coins.

▪ They also introduced gold coins in India with inscriptions in Prakrit language and Kharoshti script.

▪ The gold coins minted by Menander contain his image and his titles 'Devavrata' and 'Sudevavrata' engraved on one side and

Buddhist dharmachakra on another side.

▪ The Greeks influenced India theatre-Yavanika (curtain)

2.Scythians/Sakas

• The people who belonged to the Scythian tribe of Central Asia

were called Sakas in India.

• They invaded India at various times and established 5

independent kingdoms.

Saka Kingdom

Kingdom Capital Founder Importance

1.Kapisa Kapisa

(Afghanistan)

------------------ -----------------------

2.Taxila Taxila (Pak) ------------------ i)Struck coins with images

of Buddha,Shiva and

Abhisheka Lakshmi

engraved on them.

ii) King Moga took the title

of ‘Maharaja Mahatma’

3.Mathura Mathura (UP) Ranjuvulu who took the

title ‘Apratihatachakra’

-------------------

Kingdom Capital Founder Importance

4.Ujjain-

Kardamaka

dynasty

Ujjain (MP) Chastana i) Most important of the 5 Saka kingdoms

ii) Ruled over Malwa & Gujarat regions

iii) Rudradaman I (AD 130-150)-

Greatest;He issued the Junagarh/Girnar

inscription which is the earliest Sanskrit

inscription in India. It provides the

history of the Sudarsana lake located in

Junagarh (Guj).The lake was built in

the reign of CGM and repaired during

Ashoka’s reign, it was rebuilt under

Rudradaman himself when it was

destroyed by floods.It also reveals

Rudradaman’s victories and

matrimonial alliances.

iv) Gupta ruler Chandragupta II killed the

Kingdom Capital Founder Importance

last Kardamaka king Rudrasimha III and took

the title ‘Sakari’ (destroyer of Sakas)

5.Saka kingdom of Deccan-Kshaharatadynasty

Mandasore Bhumaka i) Nahapana-greatest ruler,Greek records call him Mambaras

ii) Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahanas killed Nahapana and captured his kingdom as evidenced from-

a) Gautamiputra Satakarni in his Nasik inscription is called ‘Kshaharata-vamsaNirvasheSakara’ ie,the terminator of Kshaharata dynasty

b) About 10,000 silver coins have been unearthed at Jogaltambi village near Nashik.They bear the name of Gautamiputra Satakarni reinscribed over the name of Nahapana.

Indo-Parthian Kingdom

3. Parthians/Pahlavas

• Belonged to Parthia in N.Iran,

• They invaded India, established a small kingdom in the north-

west.

• Are called ‘Pahlavas’ in India.

• Most famous ruler:Gondophernes (1st century A.D.)

• St Thomas, one of the 12 apostles of Jesus Christ and a

missionary from Syria visited his court.

• St Thomas was supposed to be the first Christian to arrive in

India.

• Marco Polo who visited India in the 13th century informs that

he saw the tomb of St Thomas in Chennai (Mylapore,Chennai)

• Marco Polo visited Motupalli (Prakasam dt, Andhra Pradesh),

the main seaport of the Kakatiyas and gave an account of the

then Kakatiya ruler Rudrama Devi.

4.Kushans

• Kushans belonged to the Yue-chi or Tocharian tribe of Central

Asia.

• The Kushans established an extensive kingdom that spread

from river Oxus in C.Asia to river Ganges in India.

• 1st Capital:Purushapura (modern Peshawar,Pak)

2nd Capital: Mathura (on the bank of river Yamuna)

1. Kujula Kadphisis

• Founder

• Titles:Dharmasthitha,Sacha Dharmasthitha and

Maharajadhiraja.

2. Vima Kadphisis:

• He issued gold coins called ‘Dinars’.

• They contain the images of Shiva, Nandi, Trishul with his title

‘Maheswara’ inscribed on them.

3. Kanishka:

• Greatest

• He minted gold and copper coins with figures of Greek and Indian deities engraved on them.

• He struck coins with the image of Buddha and Sakya Buddhoengraved on it.

• He assumed the title of Kaiser and Devaputra by imitating the emperors of Rome and China.

(Kaiser / Ceaser was the title taken by Roman Emperors and 'Son Of God' by the Chinese Emperors.)

Coins of Kanishka

Empire of Kanishka

• He built the city of Kanishkapura in Kashmir

• Kanishka embraced Mahayana Buddhism and held the 4th

Buddhist council at Kashmir.

• He patronised 2 Mahayana scholars.

i. Vasumitra:He presided over the 4th Buddhist council; wrote a

Sanskrit book called Mahavibhasha Shastra

ii. Asvagosha:

a. He served as the vice-president of the 4th Buddhist council.

b. Shauriputra Prakarana and Sundara Nandana written by him

are the earliest dramas in India.

c. He also authored kavyas (poems) named Buddha Charita,

Vajra Suchi and Gandhistotra.

• Charaka (physician)and author of Charaka Samhita lived in

his court. It is considered as the 'Encyclopedia of Indian

Medicine'.

• Kanishka erected a Vihara at Purushapura and built a huge

Stupa there which excited foreigners.

• Kanishka strated the Saka era in 78 AD.

• According to some Chinese chronicles, Kanishka was defeated

by a Chinese military general named Panchao.

❑ The Kushans controlled the Silk Route

❑ They were the first to issue gold coins on a large scale.

❑ First traces of large-scale irrigation in Pakistan, Afghanistan

and West Central Asia belong to the Kushan period.

❑ The Kushans introduced the ‘Satrap system’ ie,hereditary dual role of a Mahasatrapa and a Satrapa (joint rule of Raja & Yuvaraja).

❑ They also strengthened the idea of Divine Origin of Kingship.

❑ Shakas and Kushans introduced into India:

i. Better cavalry, reins & saddles

ii. Turbans,tunic,trousers,heavy long coat (Sherwani)

iii. Caps,helmets,boots

iv. Gold flowed into India

Native Dynasties

• In the Post- Mauryan period, the political power in India was

shared between native and foreign dynasties.

• The important native dynasties were:

1. Sunga

2. Kanva

3. Satavahanas

4. Meghavarman

1. Sunga Dynasty:

• Capital:Vidisa (MP)

• Sungas were brahmins belonging to the Bharadwajagotra(clan).

• They served as higher officials in the Mauryan administration.

• They brought an end to the Mauryan rule and established their own rule.

• Puranas:10 kings in the Sunga dynasty.

Sunga Empire

1. Pushyamitra Sunga:

• Founder

• He as CNC killed the last Mauryan king Brihadratha and

established the Sunga rule.

• Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) were defeated twice by him-

Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa also mentions about it.

• Pushyamitra performed 2 Asvamedha sacrifices at Ayodhya.

• According to the Buddhist text Divyavadana,Pushyamitra was

a staunch opponent of Buddhism and destroyed 84,000

Buddhist stupas

(But this claim was rejected by scholars as there is enough

evidence to suggest that he built many Buddhist monuments at

Gaya, Barhut and Sanchi).

• He patronised Patanjali who wrote the Mahabhashya (a

Sanskrit book on grammar),which is itself a commentary on

the Ashtadhyayi written by Panini.

2. Agnimitra (S/o Pushyamitra)

• He was the hero of the play Malavikagnimitra written by

Kalidasa. (story of the romance and marriage of Agnimitra

with princess Malavika)

3. Kasiputra Bhagabhadra (6th ruler)

• A Greek ambassador Heliodorus came to his court.

• The Besnagar pillar inscription set up by Heliodorus near

Vidisa(MP) reveals that he was sent by the Greek King

Antialcidas to the court of Bhagabhadra-The inscription is in

the Prakrit language and Kharoshti script.

• The coins of Bhagabhadra have been found in the Karimnagardistrict of Telangana.

4. Devabhuti

• Last ruler of the dynasty

• His military commander Vasudeva Kanva assassinated him and founded the Kanva dynasty.

Pillar Inscription of Heliodorus-Besnagar

2. Kanva Dynasty

• Capital:Pataliputra

• They were brahmins belonging to the kanvayana gotra.

• Very less information is available about the Kanvas.

• Puranas:Vasudeva was the first king & Susarma being the last .

• Puranas:A king of Andhra invaded Pataliputra, killed Susarma

and put an end to the Kanva dynasty.

The Satavahanas

Satavahana Empire

3. Satavahanas

• In the Post-Mauryan period, the Satavahanas united and ruled

over present day Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and

Andhra Pradesh for more than 4 centuries.

• Matsya Purana:30 kings of the dynasty ruled for about 450

years from 225 BC-225 AD.

• Inscriptions and literary evidence mention that they had many

capitals during their long reign-They were:

1. Srimukha/ Simuka:

• Puranas:Simuka was the first king of the dynasty.

• 8 coins issued by him were found at Kotilingala.

S.No. Capital Location

1 Kotilingala Jagityal dt,Telangana

2 Pratishtanapura Paithan,Aurangabad dt,Maharashtra

3 Srikakulam Krishna dt,Andhra Pradesh

4 Dhanyakataka Amaravati,Guntur dt,Andhra Pradesh.

2. Shatakarni-I:

• 3rd king of the dynasty.

• The Nanaghat inscription issued by his wife Naganika records

his achievements

➢ The inscriptions of Satavahanas were written in Prakrit

language and Brahmi script.

• Titles:Dakshinapadapati and Apratihatachakra.

• He performed many sacrifices apart from Asvamedha and

Rajasuya.

• He donated many cows, horses, elephants, gold and 13 villages to the brahmans.

• The tradition of land grants to the brahmans was started by the Satavahanas.

➢ The villages or lands that were donated to the brahmans were called as brahmadeya or agrahara from the Age of Guptas.

• The statues of Shatakarni-I, his father Simuka, his wife Naganika and some other members of the royal family were found at a Buddhist cave in Nanaghat.

3. Kuntala Shatakarni:

• He was the 13th king of the dynasty.

• He patronized poets-

i. Gunadya:wrote Brihatkatha in Paisachi dialect of Prakrit

language.

ii. Sarva Varma:wrote Katantra Vyakarana on Sanskrit grammar.

4.Hala

• 17th king of the dynasty.

• Wrote the ‘Gathasaptasati’(containing 700 erotic poems) in

Maharastri Prakrit language.

• Title:Kaviraja.

• He conquered Ceylon and married the Ceylonese princess at

Draksharama (E.Godavari dt).

• Had a short reign of 5 years.

5. Gautamiputra Shatakarni:

• 23rd king, greatest of the dynasty

• The tradition of metronymic was started during his period.

• His victories are recorded in the Nasik inscription issued by his mother Gautami Balasri.

• He conquered-

i. Assaka/Asmaka (Bodhan - Telangana)

ii. Mulaka (Godavari region- Maharashtra)

iii. Rishika (Krishna region)

iv.Vidarbha (Maharastra)

v. Setagiri (Nagarjuna Konda - Andhra Pradesh).

vi. Vyjayanti (Banavasi- Karnataka) and

vii.Aparanta (Konkan)

• He killed Nahapana and Usavadatta (Nahapana’s SIL) and

totally extirpated the Ksaharata dynasty-Gautamiputra

assumed the title ‘Kshaharatavamsa NirvasheSakara’.

• Gautamiputra Shatakarni also assumed the following titles-

i. Eka Brahmana

ii. Kshatriya-darpamana-mardhana

iii. Saka,Yavana, Pahlava nisudhana

iv. Trisamudra-toya-pita-vahana

v. Dwijakulavardhana

vi. Rajaraja

Coins of Gautamiputra Shatakarni

6. Vasishtiputra Sri Pulomavi:

• 24th king

• He shifted the capital from Pratisthana (Navanagara) to

Dhanyakataka.

7. Siva Sri Shatakarni:

• 25th king.

• He married Rudradamanika (D/o Kardamaka Saka king

Rudradaman).

8. Yajnasri Shatakarni:

• 27th and last great king of the dynasty.

• He issued potin coins with a ship image indicating the

maritime trade of the period.

• According to some he was a contemporary of Acharya

Nagarjuna.

• Acharya Nagarjuna-

i. Propagated two new philosophies of Mahayana Buddhism-

a. Madhyamaika Vada and

b. Sunya Vada.

ii. Wrote Sanskrit works such as Madhyamika karika,

Sunyasaptati, Suhrullekha, Prajna Paramita, Arogya manjari

& Rasaratnakara.

iii. He is called 'Second Tathagatha' and 'Indian Einstein'.

9. Pulomayi-III

• last king of the dynasty.

❑ After the decline of Satavahanas many small independent

kingdoms emerged in Deccan.

Kingdom Capital Region

Ikshvaku Vijayapuri Telangana & Andhra

Abhiras Nasik Maharashtra

Chutu Banavasi Karnataka

4.Meghavarman Dynasty

• Ruled Orissa

• Only the Hathigumpha inscription(a prashasti) found in a Jain

cave temple in Udayagiri hills (near Bhubaneswar) gives

information about this dynasty.

• King Kharavela (2nd century B.C.) issued the inscription in

Prakrit language and Brahmi script.

• It records the chronology of the victories of Kharavela.

Hathigumpha inscription on Udayagiri Hills,

Bhubaneswar

• According to this inscription:

i. Kharavela rebuilt his capital Kalinganagari that was destroyed by floods.

ii. He got the irrigation canals of the Nanda era at Kalingarepaired.

iii. He twice invaded Pataliputra and plundered its wealth.

iv. He defeated the Satavahanas and destroyed their cities.

v. He defeated an alliance of the Cholas,Pandyas and Cheras.

vi. He patronized Jainism

❑Foreign trade in the Post-Mauryan Period

• The period BC 200-300 AD is known as the ‘Mercantile age’

of India

• There was an extraordinary maritime trade and commerce with

China, Iran, SE.Asia and the Roman Empire.

• As a result India was swimming in the sea of wealth and the

prosperity percolated down to the grass-roots level in this age.

Trade in Post-Mauryan Period

A. Trade with China:

• Ptolemy’s ‘Geography’ written in 200 A.D, gives information about the trading routes connecting India and China.

• Silk fabrics and porcelain utensils were imported from China.

• Chinese coins belonging to the 2nd century B.C. were found in Mysore.

B. Trade with Africa:

• According to literary evidence, Indians exported several goods including steel cutlery to Egypt and Abyssinia.

C. Trade with South-East Asia :

• Ancient Indian literature refers to SE.Asia as Suvarnabhumi or

Suvarnadvipa (Golden Islands)

• The Tamil epic Silappadikaram mentions that ships loaded

with sandalwood and spices were coming to India from SE

Asia.

• India exported sandalwood, textiles and spices to the Roman

Empire.

D. Indo-Roman Trade:

• There was unprecedented trade b/w India and the Roman

Empire in the early centuries of the Christian era.

• Pliny's Natural History (1st century A.D.)gives details of

Indian exports to the Roman Empire-It included muslin and

calicoes (from Chola and Satavahana kingdoms),spices(from

Chera kingdom) and pearls (from Pandyan kingdom).

• Pliny says there was a drain of bullion (gold and silver coins

from Europe to India to the tune of 550 million sesterces.

• Roman coins in great numbers have been discovered at several

places in India.

• Periplus of Erythraean Sea (1th century A.D.) written by an

anonymous sailor of Alexandria (Egypt), gives the list of

Indian seaports such as-

i. Barygaza (Broach - Gujarat)

ii. Calliena (Kalyan - Maharashtra)

iii. Suppara (Sopara - Maharashtra)

iv. Tyndis (Calicut - Kerala)

v. Muzuris (Cranganore near Cochin, Kerala)- A settlement of

Roman traders has been discovered here.

vi. Poduka (Arikamedu- Pondicherry) - A Roman settlement has

been discovered here.

vii. Masula (Machilipatnam - Andhra Pradesh)

viii.Gang (Tamralipti - Bengal)

Indian Ports mentioned by Periplus

❑ The flourishing foreign trade of India in the early centuries of

the Christian era was aided by-

i. Monsoon mechanism discovered by Hippalus(Egyptian

Greek sailor) in A.D. 46 brought about revolutionary changes

in maritime activities.

ii. The diversion of the silk route to India.

• Earlier, Sino-Roman trade was carried through Central Asia

which was disrupted by nomadic tribes).As a result, the

Chinese products (silk,porcelain) were diverted to India

through the north-east and exported to the Roman Empire from

the western ports-This transit trade added to the prosperity of

India.

❑Religious Conditions:

• Post-Mauryan period witnessed the following developments in

the religious field:

1. Final schism in the Buddhist Sangha-Hinayana and Mahayana

emerged in the 4th Buddhist council held at Kashmir in the 1st

century A.D.

• Mahayana Buddhism introduced idol worship

2. Vedic religion revived during the Post-Mauryan period due to

the efforts of Sungas,Kanvas and Satavahanas.

• Rituals and sacrifices regained their importance which had

received a death blow during the Mauryan period.

3. Bhagavatism emerged as a new religion.

• It opposed rituals and emphasized on bhakti (personal

devotion to God).

• 5 deities (who belong to Vrishni clan of Yadu tribe) are

worshipped in this religion known as the Panchratra cult.

• They are:

i. Vasudeva Krishna

ii. Sankarshana or Balarama- Elder brother of Krishna

iii. Samba- Son of Krishna by Jambavati

iv. Pradyumna- Son of Krishna by Rukmini

v. Aniruddha- Son of Pradyumna and grandson of Krishna

❑ Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador to the court of Bhagabhadra

(Sunga ruler) embraced Bhagavata religion.

• In his Besnagar inscription, he called Krishna as 'devadeva'

and himself as 'parama bhagavata'.

• Many foreigners of the Post-Mauryan period were attracted

to the Bhagavata religion.

SANGAM AGE (BC 300-AD 300)

❑ Megalithic Culture?

• Megalithic burials-types

❑ Sangam Literature (in brief)

▪ Sangam Kingdoms-Pandyas,Cholas,Cheras

• Administration

• Social Life

• Religion

• Trade

❑Megalithic Culture:

• Iron tools and implements appeared much later in South India

than in the North.

• People who used these iron tools & implements also buried

them with the dead-These burials help us to reconstruct

material culture of the period.

• This culture is known as ‘Megalithic Culture’ (ie,Big Stone

Age Culture) because of the use of large stone slates in the

burials.

• Such burials have been found in the upland areas of the

peninsula.

• Largest number have been found in E.Andhra Pradesh & Tamil

Nadu-They have also been found in Karnataka,Kerala,hilly

areas of S.UP and even Sri Lanka.

• Along with the dead, people placed many pots (polished Black

and Redware) and iron implements with the belief that these

might be used by the dead in the next world-These materials

provide us with an idea of their sources of livelihood.

• As compared to agriculture tools, tools meant for fighting and

hunting were larger in number.This shows that megaliths did

not practice advanced type of agriculture.

▪ Distribution of Megalithic sites in Peninsular India

❑ Types of Megalithic burials

1) Urn burial: Bones of dead person were collected and put in a

pot or urn.

• Urn was buried in a pit, usually surrounded by a circle of

stones and covered by a flat stone called a Cap Stone.

2) Pit circle grave: The body was placed flat on a wooden board

and placed in an open pit. A stone circle was built around it.

3) Cist grave:It was a enclosed tomb. These graves were made of

granite slabs and surrounded by a circle of stones and covered

with a flat stone.

• The Cholas,Cheras (keralaputras) & Pandyas were in the Late Megalithic phase.

• Traces of early megalithic life appears in Sangam literature.

❑ The beginning of civilized communities in South India was because of:

i. Megalithic people moved from upland areas into fertile river basins.

ii. Coming of Jain and Buddhist missionaries made them aware of North Indian material culture.

iii. Roman contacts.

❑ Sangam Literature:

• The earliest Tamil literature is termed as ‘Sangam’literature

because it was standardized by an Academy (Sangam) of

scholars and poets maintained by the Pandya rulers at

Madurai.

• The literary works are confirmed by Greek and Roman

accounts as well as archaeology.

• Sangam literature was finally compiled in c.600 AD.

• The main theme of the Sangam literature is war between the 3 dynasties-Cholas,Cheras & Pandyas.

• Sangam literature is divided into 5 sections called:

i. Early works

ii. 8 Anthologies (Ettutogai)

iii. 10 short poems or idylls (Pattu pattu)

iv. 18 minor works (Padinenkilkanakku)

v. 5 epics

Sangam Kingdoms

❑ PANDYAS (Emblem-Fish)

• The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthenes who said that their kingdom was famous for pearls.

• Their capital was Madurai (on the banks of Vaigai river)

• The Pandyan king profited from trade with Roman Empire and sent emissaries to Roman emperors Augustus and Trojan.

• The Pandyas find mention in the Ramayana and Mahabharata

• Their greatest king was Nedunjelian who performed an Ashwamedha.

• The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukudumi, who

ruled from Madurai. He accused Kovalan of theft. As a result,

the city of Madurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi

(Kovalan's wife).

❑ CHOLAS (Emblem -Tiger)

• Ruled the SE Coast with their 1st capital city at Uraiyur and the

2nd capital city at Kaveripattinam (Puhar).

• Chola kingdom was called Cholamandalam

• Uraiyur was famous for cotton trade.

• Kaveripattinam was their main port.

• King Elara was the 1st Indian to conquer Sri Lanka.

• Their greatest king was Karikala (man with charred leg) who

founded Puhar and constructed a dam on the Cauvery

(Kallanai dam or Grand anicut at Srirangam).

❑ CHERAS (Emblem-Bow)

• Ruled Malabar coast (present Kerala)

• Capital:Vanjji.

• Main ports:Muzris (Cranganore) and Tondi.

• The Romans set up two regiments and also built a temple of

Augustus at Muzris.

• One of their early rulers,Udiyangeral is said to have fed both

the armies of the Kurukshetra war.

• Their greatest king was Senguttuvan or Red Chera who

founded the ‘Pattini cult’ related to worship of goddess of

chastity-Kannagi

❑ Sangam Administration:

• The king was the center of administration. He was called Ko,

Manna,Vendan,Korravan or Iraivan.

• Avai was the court of crowned monarch.

❑ Officials

• Amaichhar-Ministers

• Purohitar-Purohit

• Dutar – Envoys

• Senapatiyar-Senapati

• Orar-Spies

❑ Kingdom was divided into:

Province-Mandalam * Pattinam-name of coastal town

District-Nadu * Puhar-Harbour areas

Town-Ur * Cheri-suburb of town

Big village-Perur

Small village-Sirur

❑ Revenue Administration:

• Karai-Land tax

• Irai-Tribute paid by feudatories and booty collected in war

• Ulgu-Custom duties

• Iravu-Extra demand or forced gift

• Variyar-tax collector

❑ Social Life:

• Sangam literature refers to many tribes and also traditional

castes.

• 4 fold division of society-Andanar,Arasar,Vaisiyar and Velalar.

• Society was not priest-dominated although priests were slowly

trying to assume powers of advice and supervision.

• Civil and military offices were held by rich peasants called

Vellalars.

• Status of women was inferior to that of men. They did not own

property.

• Untouchability and Sati existed.

❑ Religion:

• Chief god:Murugan or Subramanya

• Vishnu worship with Tulasi was popular

• Buddhism & Jainism found a footing.

• Kings did not perform Vedic sacrifices

• Cremation was popularly practised.

God/Goddess Devotees

Varuna Fishermen

Indra Peasants

Murugan Hunters

Korravai Warriors

❑ Trade:

• Tremendous growth of external trade b/w the deep south and

Rome

• By 1st century AD, Romans occupied Egypt and a merchant of

Venice named Hippalus discovered the monsoon trade winds.

• Romans exported large quantities of spices from the port city

of Muziris (Cranganore).

• Black Pepper was called ‘Yavanapriya’(liked by Greeks)

• Kaveripattinam (Puhar) on the SE Coast was maximum

frequented by the Roman ships.

• Arikamedu was called by the Greeks as Poduca-A Roman

factory was found here.

Questions

1. The term ‘Yavanapriya’ mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts

denoted (1995)

a) A fine variety of Indian muslin

b) Ivory

c) Damsels sent to Greek courts for dance performance

d) Pepper*

2.Which one of the following was a corporation of merchants in

ancient India?

a) Chaturvedimangalam

b) Parishad

c) Ashtadikgaja

d) Manigrama*

3.Many of the Greeks,Kushanas and Shakas embraced Buddhism

rather than Hinduism because (1998)

a) Buddhism was in the ascendant at that time

b) They had renounced the policy of war and violence

c) Caste-ridden Hinduism did not attract them

d) Buddhism provided easier access to Indian society*

4.What is the correct chronological order in which the following appeared in India?

i. Gold Coins

ii. Punch marked silver coins

iii. Iron plough

iv. Urban culture

Select the correct answer using the codes given:

a) iii,iv,i,ii c) iv,iii,i,ii

b) iii,iv,ii,i* d) iv,iii,ii,i

5.The Indo-Greek kingdom set up in North Afghanistan in the

beginning of the 2 BC was

a) Bactria*

b) Scythia

c) Zedrasia

d) Aria

6.The practice of military governorship was first introduced in

India by the (2000)

a) Greeks*

b) Shakas

c) Parthians

d) Mughals

7.Who among the following presided over the Buddhist Council

held during the reign of Kanishka at Kashmir?(2001)

a) Parsva

b) Nagarjuna

c) Sudraka

d) Vasumitra*

8.Consider the following statements:

i. The last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha was assassinated by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga

ii. The last Sunga king Devabhuti was assassinated by his Brahmanaminister Vasudeva Kanva who usurped the throne

iii. The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty was deposed by the Andhras.

Which of these statements is/are correct?

a) i and ii c) Only iii

b) Only ii d) i,ii and iii*

9.With reference to the invaders in ancient India, which one of

the following is the correct chronological order?

a) Greeks-Shakas-Kushanas*

b) Greeks-Kushanas-Shakas

c) Shakas-Greeks-Kushanas

d) Shakas-Kushanas-Greeks

10.With reference to the guilds (shreni) of ancient India that played a very important role in the country’s economy, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2012)

i. Every guild was registered with the central authority of the state and the king was the chief administrative authority on them.

ii. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild

iii. The guild had judicial powers over its own members.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

a) i and ii only

b) iii only

c) ii and iii only

d) i,ii and iii*

11.Which one of the following books of ancient India has the

love story of the son of the founder of Sunga dynasty?(2016)

a) Swapnavasavadatta

b) Malavikagnimitra*

c) Meghdoota

d) Ratnavali

12. Which of the following Chola kings was first to conquer Sri

Lanka?

i. Elara*

ii. Rajaraja I

iii. Rajendra I

iv. Kulottunga I

END