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Possibilities of reducing CO2 emissions from energy-intensiveindustries by the increased use of forest-derived fuels inIreland
Neil Walkera,*, Morgan Bazilianb, Pearse Buckleyc
aSchool of Geography, Planning and Environmental Policy, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, IrelandbElectricity Research Centre, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, IrelandcSustainable Energy Ireland, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 25 July 2007
Received in revised form
15 January 2009
Accepted 6 May 2009
Published online 17 June 2009
Keywords:
Bioenergy
Biomass
Woodchip
Forest residues
CO2 emissions
Co-firing
Cement industry
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ353 87 969 06E-mail address: neil.walker@ucd.ie (N. W
0961-9534/$ – see front matter ª 2009 Elsevidoi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2009.05.012
a b s t r a c t
A range of EU environmental policies support the goal of reducing fossil-fuel use in
commercial thermal applications. Combustion installations which are covered by the EU
Emissions Trading Scheme now face a substantial opportunity cost for fossil-fuel CO2
emissions. However, it is unclear whether the EU ETS will provide a sufficient incentive for
switching to forest-derived biomass fuel by energy-intensive installations currently firing
on coal or peat. Using Ireland as a case study, the paper analyses the availability and cost
competitiveness of forest residues produced within the vicinity of three cement kilns. EU
Allowance prices observed during much of 2007 and 2008 would appear to be sufficient to
equalise the carbon-adjusted purchase costs between chipped pulpwood and bituminous
coal. However, no such fuel switching has been observed to date by kiln operators and
none appears to be envisaged. The apparent reasons for this include (1) a ready availability
of cheaper substitute fuels such as Meat and Bone Meal; (2) technical issues regarding the
chemical consistency of the woodchip; and (3) the prospect of pulpwood prices rising in the
medium term due a growing supply shortage. The prospect of such a constraint is an
unintended consequence of Irish government policy to promote biomass co-firing in peat-
fired power stations.
ª 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction According to the European Commission’s Biomass Action
This paper assesses the potential for reducing CO2 emissions
in energy-intensive industries through the partial substitution
of solid fossil fuels with forest-derived fuels. It discusses the
issues in the context of EU climate change policy targets and
illustrates some of the obstacles by reference to the scope for
co-firing in the electricity generation sector and the cement
manufacturing sector within Ireland.
78; fax þ353 1 716 2776.alker).er Ltd. All rights reserved
Plan [1] biomass already accounts for about half of all
renewable energy used in the EU but offers considerable
potential for further growth particularly in the area of heating
and electricity generation. Achieving the targeted 100%
increase will involve a substantial increase in the supply of
dedicated energy crops, although much progress can be made
simply by more effective extraction of conventional forestry
resources. The Biomass Action Plan states, for example, that
.
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 81230
35% of the annual wood growth in EU forests is currently not
used. The Commission has also published a Forest Action Plan
[2] whose priorities include the promotion of forest biomass
for energy generation by means of research and dissemina-
tion of information. It has been actively encouraging Member
States to develop national biomass action plans with the
objectives of improving the environmental sustainability and
security of Europe’s energy supply and stimulating the
economic development of rural areas [3].
A range of EU environmental legislation exists which could
promote the demand for biomass fuel, notably:
� the Renewables Directive [4] which specifies national targets
for electricity generation
� the Biofuels Directive [5] which specifies national targets for
the transport sector, and
� the Emissions Trading Directive [6] which places a cap and
trade obligation on the CO2 emissions from specified
combustion installations and energy-intensive industries.
Nevertheless, the European Commission’s recently-pub-
lished Renewable Energy Road Map [7] argues that the uptake
of biomass has been unduly slow to date, particularly in
commercial and industrial heating applications. It cites inertia
and a lack of coherent policy approach as being responsible
for this lack of progress.
The remainder of the paper is organised as follows. Section
2 briefly sets out the Irish policy framework for bioenergy.
Section 3 reviews various estimates of the forest resource
potential in Ireland and the associated supply cost for biomass
fuel. Section 4 describes the expected evolution of demand for
pulpwood and for sawmill residues in Ireland. It discusses the
possibility of a supply shortfall emerging over the period to
2016 as an unintended consequence of Government policy on
renewable generation. Section 5 suggests that various types of
biomass ought to be commercially viable co-firing options for
the cement manufacturing industry but also explains why
cement kiln operators have not utilised forest-derived fuels to
date. Section 6 discusses the technically feasible demand for
woodchip from the cement sector within Ireland. Section 7
presents recent research into the geographic distribution of
forest resources throughout the island of Ireland, providing an
estimate of the local supply availability of pulpwood at three
cement plants located in the Republic. Section 8 concludes
with an assessment of policy implications relating to the
electricity and cement sectors.
1 http://ec.europa.eu/energy/climate_actions/doc/2008_res_directive_en.pdf.
2 www.agriculture.gov.ie/index.jsp?file¼schemes/bioenergy/bioenergy.xml.
3 http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/forestry/woodbiomasscheme/biomassscheme.pdf.
4 Since renamed the Department of Communications, Energyand Natural Resources.
2. The Irish policy context – targets andmeasures
The Irish Government’s 2007 White Paper on Energy [8]
includes the following national renewable energy share
targets.
� RES-H: 12% of thermal energy consumed in 2020 with an
interim 2010 target of 5%.
� RES-E (recently updated): 40% of gross electricity
consumption in 2020 with an interim 2010 target of 15%.
� RES-T: 10% of petrol and diesel transport fuel in 2020 with an
interim 2010 target (recently updated) of 3%.
These targets are broadly consistent with Ireland’s
impending obligations under the Renewable Energy Directive,1
namely a 16% share of final energy consumption in 2020.
The Energy White Paper envisages that solid biomass fuels
will contribute towards the achievement of RES-E targets
through a gradual move towards 30% co-firing in three State-
owned peat-fuelled power stations and through the uptake of
combined heat and power (CHP) projects, supported by
renewable feed-in electricity tariffs. Solid biomass, especially
wood fuel, could also contribute towards the RES-H targets by
displacing oil and kerosene consumption in the industrial and
commercial sector.
As outlined in Howley et al. [9], a range of domestic policy
measures is currently in place to promote the increased use of
biomass energy, including grants for establishing dedicated
energy crops2 as well as for specialised wood harvesting and
chipping machinery.3 These policies have been developed
over a period of several years. A Bioenergy Strategy Group was
first established in 2003 by the Department of Communica-
tions Marine and Natural Resources (DCMNR).4 The Group’s
strategic report [10] identified significant short to medium
term growth potential from wood residues, but also a number
of barriers to achievement. Inter alia, it identified the need for
a clear policy to promote investor confidence, a ‘kick-start’ for
the supply chain enabling wood fuel to compete more effec-
tively against conventional fossil fuels and a streamlining of
the regulatory procedures governing bioenergy projects.
DCMNR subsequently chaired a Ministerial Task Force leading
to the publication of a National Bioenergy Action Plan for
Ireland. The Plan, which contains over 50 action items,
includes proposals for an expansion of the existing commer-
cial combined heat and power (CHP) incentive scheme. The
main emphasis for the industrial sector was on the use of
woodchip for co-firing in existing peat-fired power stations,
whereas the key recommendation for the commercial sector
was on grant support for bioheat systems.
3. Fuel availability and supply cost fromIrish forest resources
3.1. Supply estimates
Excluding forest and sawmill residues, fuelwood in Ireland is
primarily derived from pulpwood, a category of roundwood
with top diameter of 7–14 cm. In 2001, Gallagher and O’Carroll
[11] estimated the total afforested area in Ireland to be 0.65
Million Hectares and the then-current pulpwood production
to be 0.84 Million m3. These statistics imply an annual
300
250
200
150
100
50
02001 2003 SEI
COFORD
Pulpwood Residues
COFORD COFORD
2005F 2010F SEI 2015F
kT
on
ne
s (O
ve
r D
rie
d)
Fig. 1 – Woodchip fuel availability estimates for 2001–2015.
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 8 1231
pulpwood harvest of circa 1.3 m3 per Hectare across all types
of forest. The yield figure may, however, change somewhat
over time reflecting changes in the average age and predom-
inant species. For example, Gallagher and O’Carroll forecast
a near-doubling in the expected production of pulpwood to 1.5
Million m3 by 2015, mainly from spruce varieties in grant-
aided private forest stands which have been established since
the mid-1980s. This is consistent with Fitzgerald [12] who
forecasts 1.6 Million m3 per annum of pulpwood and thinnings
by 2016, with an additional 1.3 Million m3 per annum from
forest residues.
Although pulpwood does have competing non-fuel uses
(notably the manufacture of panel board), some of the
expected future growth in supply is likely to be available for
fuel use. Unfortunately, the available forest data does not
allow a detailed disaggregation across regions and ownership
categories. Nevertheless, there has been a series of recent
studies into the availability and cost of fuelwood across
Ireland. Several of these have sought to assess the feasibility
of co-firing in peat-fired generation. For example, van den
Broek et al. [13] considered the use of a dedicated energy crop
such as Short Rotation Coppice5 for co-firing. They found
considerable uncertainty in the project economics due to
a lack of reliable data on the supply cost. In a follow-up study
[14], van de Broek et al. considered the potential for wood fuel
derived from conventional forestry and sawmill residues.
They estimated a technical potential equivalent to 0.56 Million
Oven Dried Tonnes (ODT) per annum of annual growth not
already committed to other commercial uses, of which nearly
0.2 Million ODT might be suitable for commercially viable
extraction. A subsequent review [15] commissioned by
COFORD (the National Council for Forestry Research and
Development) presented estimates of the then-current
potential, as well as projections to 2015, for forest-derived
fuel. The COFORD figures suggested a significant dip in supply
availability between 2001 and 2005 followed by a strong
increase out to 2015. This projection reflects the trend towards
private forestry holdings, including a large number of small
plantations availing of the EU-funded Forestry Premium grant
scheme. A follow-up study commissioned by Sustainable
Energy Ireland (SEI) [16] resulted in similar supply cost esti-
mates to those in the COFORD report. The various COFORD
and SEI estimates6 of fuelwood availability are collated in
Fig. 1. The SEI study included estimated supply cost curves for
peat-fired power stations located in Edenderry, Shannon-
bridge and Lanesborough. It did so by considering the timber
production across every county in the Republic and calcu-
lating road transport costs from the geographic centre of each
county to the three points of consumption. Each of the supply
curves effectively included the entire estimated national
supply of available pulpwood and forest residues, so poten-
tially includes some double counting. It should in any case be
noted that several of the other studies include the assumption
that such fuels, being bulky and of relatively low commercial
5 Densely planted high-yielding varieties of willow or poplar,typically harvested on a three-year cycle.
6 Conversion from green Tonnes to ODT assumes moisturecontent of 60% for pulpwood and 50% for other forest residues.
value, are likely to be used near to the forest in which they
originate.
Other studies have focused on the potential for local
applications of forest-derived fuel products to contribute to
rural development. Farrelly [17,18] estimates that more than
20,000 separate private holdings have been established since
1990 and that many of these are already overdue for first
thinning. The availability of new markets such as wood
energy could help stimulate harvesting of private forests,
particularly in areas where no competing wood-using facili-
ties are based. The woodchip produced in this way would
most likely be marketed primarily to small commercial heat-
ing or CHP schemes. This minimises the suppliers’ transport
costs and it makes commercial sense because such potential
customers currently use expensive kerosene or heating oil
rather than cheap coal.
Luker [19] considers that the Western Region of Ireland
should be able to maintain a supply of wood fuel which
exceeds the most optimistic market demand up to 2015.
However, this assumes that that the peat-fired power gener-
ators will account for only 10% of regional woodchip demand.
3.2. Supply cost
Analysis by van den Broek [14] suggests that the delivered cost
of fuelwood should be approximately V8 per MWh Net Calo-
rific Value (NCV)7 assuming that:
� a small stumpage fee is paid to the landowner;
� the material is seasoned outdoors to reduce the moisture
content to circa 40% before being chipped; and
� it is transported no more than 40 km to the power station.
Similarly, COFORD [15] have estimated that the cost of
supplying woodchip from such thinnings, including a 40 km
road journey to the point of consumption, should be in the
range V8–V18 per MWh (NCV) depending on the type of
timber. Although the COFORD study included an explicit
treatment of road transport freight rates, it did acknowledge
7 The NCV of oven dried timber is typically 5.4 MWh per Tonne.This is roughly three times higher than that of pulpwood fuel asreceived by the end users.
Table 1 – Woodflow in Ireland for 2006.
Source
Coillte
(state forest agency)
80%
Private forestry 7%
Net imports 6%
Recycled material 7%
100%
Application
Sawn timber 32%
Panel Board ingredients 50%
CHP and Boiler fuel 6%
Horticulture/Other 12%
100%
Source: Knaggs and O’Driscoll.
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 81232
the need for a more detailed analysis of the logistics costs. In
particular, it suggested that Geographic Information System
(GIS) technology could be of use in optimising the local supply
chain for each power station location.
Kofman [20] reports the results of more recent research in
Ireland suggesting that that whole tree harvesting and chip-
ping of thinnings can be achieved at a cost of between V16.00
and V21.50 per green Tonne. The resulting delivered cost of
fuel would be equivalent to between V9.00 and V11.00 per
MWh, again assuming a nominal stumpage fee and an
average road journey of 40 km, but an average moisture
content8 of 45%. However, van den Broek’s estimates of the
feasible production cost for dedicated energy crops such as
Short Rotation Coppice were somewhat higher than for
pulpwood and thinnings, ranging between V17 and V30 per
MWh.
4. Demand for timber and wood industryresidues in Ireland
The estimates and projections of woodchip fuel supply
availability presented in Fig. 1 should be viewed in the wider
context of demand for timber products in Ireland. Knaggs and
O’Driscoll [22] describe the structure and evolution of the Irish
timber market, estimating that approximately 3.4 Million m3
of wood was processed in 2006. As summarised in Table 1, the
use of this material for fuel applications currently represents
a relatively small component of overall demand, and there is
direct competition for the pulpwood resource from panel
board manufacturers. Fitzgerald [12] estimates the net
amount available for energy applications in 2007 to be 0.35
Million m3 (thermally equivalent to circa 0.12 Million ODT).9
However, he forecasts a significant increase in demand from
panel board manufacturers. He also estimates that the
demand for wood in energy applications (mainly co-firing)
could increase to the equivalent of 0.5 Million ODT by 2016.
Consequently, he suggests that the overall demand for pulp-
wood and wood residues from the energy sector and panel
board sector in Ireland could outstrip supply by as much as
0.35 Million ODT in 2016. O’Carroll [23] projects an even higher
wood fuel demand figure for 2016, namely 0.7 Million ODT.
About 0.4 Million ODT of this would result from co-firing of
wood in peat-fired power stations in accordance with the
renewable generation target in the Energy White Paper. A
further 33% would be in the industrial and commercial sector,
partly encouraged by SEI equipment grants. The balance of
demand would be in the domestic sector, where equipment
grants are also available.
It may be possible to mitigate the expected shortfall by
increased imports of biomass for energy users located close to
seaports, although there are restrictions on the importation of
8 In a related research project, Kent and Kelly [21] found that thefinal moisture content of bundled Sitka Spruce thinnings rangedbetween 41% and 57% after being stored outdoors over a five--month period in the summer of 2006.
9 This is an approximate figure. The conversion betweenproduction volume and oven dried tonnage will vary dependingon the density and moisture content of the wood being harvested.
products containing bark. Another possibility is that pulp-
wood prices will increase, stimulating investment by forest
farmers in supplying dedicated energy crops such as Willow
or Miscanthus. However, planting of such crops in Ireland to
date has been limited (circa 3000 Hectares in total) despite the
introduction of grants for planting and harvesting machinery.
Clancy et al. [24] present an economic analysis of why this is
the case. Assuming a productive lifespan of 16 years for both
crops; the first harvest takes place after two years for Mis-
canthus and after four years for Willow. Including the benefit
of establishment grants, the estimated payback period is 9
years in the case of Miscanthus and 16 years for Willow. This
appears to be less attractive than the rates of return available
from alternative (arable) crops. Given the restrictions on land
use under the REPS10 scheme, they conclude that it would not
be logistically feasible to supply a peat-fired power station
with sufficient volumes of dedicated energy crops from the
immediate locality. The same logic would presumably apply
to a large industrial coal user such as a cement kiln.
5. Economic value of woodchip to thecement sector
Because cement kilns are covered by the EU Emissions
Trading Scheme the economics of using biomass as a substi-
tute for fossil fuel become more attractive if the perceived cost
of CO2 emissions is high. For each Tonne of CO2 emitted by
a cement kiln in the EU during the period 2008–2012, the
installation operator must surrender a tradable permit known
as an EU Allowance (EUA) to the relevant regulatory authority.
Cement kilns in Ireland and elsewhere in the EU are typically
fuelled by bituminous coal and/or petroleum coke. The
combustion of one Tonne of these fuels results in approxi-
mately 2.7 Tonnes of CO2 being emitted to atmosphere.
The ‘carbon-adjusted’ cost11 of burning coal depends very
much on the market price of EUAs. Three feasible Allowance
10 http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/index.jsp?file¼schemes/reps_cover.xml.
11 Coal prices and calorific value are based on current SEIdata [25].
Table 2 – Fuel and emissions costs for a coal-fired cementkiln.
Low EUAprice (V1)
Medium EUAprice (V20)
High EUAprice (V35)
Cost per Tonne
of fuelaV79.00 V79.00 V79.00
EUA opportunity
cost
V2.70 V54.00 V94.50
Carbon-adjusted
fuel cost
V81.70 V133.00 V173.50
NCV of coal (MWh
per Tonne)
7.8 7.8 7.8
Adjusted cost
per MWh
V10.47 V17.05 V22.24
a Typical ex works cost for industrial users, October 2008.
Table 3 – CO2 emissions and implied coal consumption bycement plant.
Cement plant CO2 emissionsrecordedin 2005
(000 Tonnes)
Implied consumptionof bituminous coal
(000 Tonnes)a
Irish Cement,
Platin – Drogheda
1460 205
Irish Cement,
Mungret –
Limerick
840 118
Quinn Cement –
Ballyconnell
1030 145
Lagan Cement –
Kinnegad
470 66
Total 3800 534
Source: EPA.
a Fuel-related emissions represent circa 38% of total plant
emissions.
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 8 1233
price scenarios are shown in Table 2. The medium one
corresponds roughly to the forward EUA prices for 2008 as
reported in Point Carbon12 throughout much of 2007. In this
scenario, the adjusted cost of coal would be above the V9–
V11/MWh range for woodchip energy cost as estimated by
Kofman. However, the use of dedicated energy crops (typi-
cally costing rather more than V17/MWh) would be unat-
tractive unless EUA prices were to approach V35, as was the
case during 2008 immediately prior to the ‘credit crunch’.
Understandably, EUA prices have since eased back consid-
erably, trading at circa V15 in January 2009. However, even
at these Allowance prices, it ought to be commercially
feasible for the operators to co-fire their kilns with woodchip
biomass from conventional forestry resources. Nevertheless,
none of the cement producers in Ireland or in any other EU
Member State has so far expressed any interest in pursuing
this option.
One possible reason for the apparent lack of interest is that
the woodchip supply chains in most Member States are
currently geared to local markets which command substan-
tially higher prices than the marginal cost of production.
Another key factor is that EU cement firms can obtain alter-
native sources of biomass which are cheaper than woodchip.
For example, in countries where livestock farming is prevalent
(such as Ireland) there is a supply of Meat and Bone Meal
(MBM). A significant proportion of this material needs to be
disposed of by incineration. In some EU countries, notably the
UK, cement producers have sought and obtained permission
to burn other materials such as Solid Recovered Fuels from
commercial waste, and used tyres. In such circumstances the
kiln operator can often charge a fee for using the waste
material as fuel. By contrast, pulpwood and wood industry
residues do not pose any particular disposal hazard.13
Consequently, these materials will not be marketed as wood
fuel unless they command a market price comparable to that
non-fuel uses. It is evident that although many cement firms
12 www.pointcarbon.com.13 One reported exception [26] is a cement plant located in
Colorado USA. The use of woodchip appears to be commerciallyfeasible there despite the absence of any emissions tradingobligation, primarily because the organised removal of forestresidues is necessary in order to reduce the hazard of forest fires.
are actively pursuing opportunities for substitute kiln fuels,
they currently regard woodchip as a relatively unattractive
option.
6. Potential demand for woodchip in theIrish cement sector
Ireland’s four cement factories account for about 5% of the
country’s total emissions of CO2. The recorded emissions from
each plant in 2005, and the implied annual coal usage, are
summarised in Table 3.
In preparing Ireland’s National Allocation Plan (NAP) for
the 2008–2012 EU Emissions Trading Period, the Department
of Environment Heritage and Local Government (DEHLG)
commissioned a consultancy study [27] which suggested the
possibility of avoiding nearly 700,000 Tonnes per annum of
fossil-fuel CO2 emissions, at an abatement cost of less than
V17 per avoided Tonne, by substituting woodchip for up to
40% of the coal currently consumed in Irish cement kilns. This
implies the displacement of more than 200,000 Tonnes of coal,
and hence a requirement for the equivalent of 0.3 Million ODT
of woodchip. However, the consultants’ report acknowledged
considerable uncertainty over the supply availability, and
recommended a more detailed empirical analysis. Moreover,
the Irish NAP assumed that emissions abatement projects
would occur only up to a marginal abatement cost of V15 per
avoided Tonne of CO2. The potential contribution from
woodchip biomass in cement kilns was therefore not included
in the national emissions projections for 2008–2012. Never-
theless, as previously noted, EU Allowances for 2008 were
traded at well above V17 for most of 2007 and 2008. It is
therefore appropriate to consider whether the degree of kiln
fuel substitution envisaged in the DEHLG study is actually
capable of being achieved in each cement plant locality
through conventional forest resources.
The next section describes empirical work recently con-
ducted by the authors with the objective of generating
a detailed estimate of the potential supply availability of forest-
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 81234
derived biomass in the immediate vicinity of three cement
factories located in Ireland. A fourth plant (Lagan Cement) was
excluded because it has already sought and received permis-
sion from Westmeath County Council and from the EPA to burn
Meat and Bone Meal as a substitute kiln fuel.
7. Spatial analysis of forest fuel availabilityfor the Irish cement sector
Data on the spatial distribution of forest resources in the
Republic of Ireland was obtained from the Department of
Agriculture and Food’s Forest Service14 and from the Northern
Ireland Forestry Service. A map showing the location of each
of the four plants, and tabular summaries of the spatial
distribution of forest parcels, are shown in the Appendix. The
analysis was conducted at University College Dublin using Arc
GIS Network Analyst software.
In order to convert forest land areas into feasible estimates
of woodchip supply availability, it was necessary to make
assumptions about the effective yield of pulpwood per planted
Hectare of forest. As a first approximation, the above-
mentioned analysis by Gallagher and O’Carroll suggests
a figure of 1.3 m3 (equivalent to 0.44 ODT15) per Hectare.
However, in reality, most of the pulpwood from thinnings and
clearfelling in Coillte forests is likely to be contractually
committed, given that this state-owned firm operates two
board mills in the Republic.16 The cost of diverting such
supplies to fuel usage would probably be prohibitive. The
extent of contractually uncommitted resource is not known,
but it probably corresponds to a sub-set of the private forest
stands, particularly those in the ‘Planting Grant Application’
category. Within this group, there may be local variations in
yield because of differences in forest age profiles or in the
willingness or ability of owners to undertake thinning opera-
tions. The latter depends partly on economies of scale in
harvesting but also on the perceived risk of wind-throw
damage with/without thinning. For this reason, the following
resource estimates should be treated with caution. However,
it is evident that even the theoretically available quantity of
fuelwood within the vicinity of each plant is substantially
lower than that required for a 40% substitution target.
7.1. Irish cement, Platin, Drogheda, Co Louth
Circa 59% of the theoretically available local forestry land
(i.e. within 60 min drive of the plant) is privately owned. The
estimated pulpwood resource in these private forests
amounts to 2400 ODT per annum, of which 17% is in the
14 This analysis was conducted using the Forest Inventory andPlanning System (FIPS) 1998 database. An updated version (FIPS2007) has since been released.15 This equates to 367 kg/m3 dry matter, consistent with a typical
range of 350–400 kg/m3 for Sitka spruce. http://www.woodenergy.ie/iopen24/pub/firewood.pdf.16 There is a possibility that the state forest agency Coillte will
increasingly seek to supply quantities of pulpwood from theprivate sector, partly to meet growing demand from its boardmills, but possibly also to replace supplies that are currentlybeing transported long distances.
Planting Grant category. The hypothesized 40% substitution
rate would entail using 120,000 ODT per annum of wood fuel.17
7.2. Irish cement, Mungret, Co Limerick
Circa 33% of the theoretically available forestry land is
privately owned. The estimated pulpwood resource in these
private forests amounts to 16,200 ODT per annum, of which
58% is in the Planting Grant category. The 40% substitution
rate would entail using 71,000 ODT per annum of wood fuel.
7.3. Quinn cement, Ballyconnell, Co Cavan
Circa 27% of the theoretically available local forestry land is
privately owned. The estimated pulpwood resource from
these private forests amounts to 9400 ODT, of which 54% is in
the Planting Grant category. The 40% substitution rate would
entail using 87,000 ODT per annum of wood fuel.
None of the three plants in question has so far expressed
any interest in developing indigenously-grown woodchip as
a substitute kiln fuel. Nor do any of the plants appear willing
to consider the use of imported wood fuel. This partly reflects
legitimate technical concerns which are specific to clinker
production; variations in the chemical or thermal properties
of the kiln fuel material may cause temperature fluctuations
in the clinkering process and hence affect the quality of the
final cement product. However, the unwillingness may also
reflect logistical problems which presumably would also apply
to peat-fired power stations. Woodchip has a much lower
calorific value per delivered Tonne than coal or peat, and its
bulk density is substantially lower than that of these fuels.
Additional investment in materials handing equipment would
therefore be required in the case of retrofit to existing plants.
Moreover, supplying 40% of a cement kiln’s thermal load with
wood fuel would entail a doubling of the number of daily fuel
deliveries by lorry. In this regard, it is worth noting that one of
the main environmental concerns expressed by local resi-
dents objecting to the proposal by Lagan Cement to burn Meat
and Bone Meal was the likely impact on noise and traffic
congestion. The plant operator was able to demonstrate that
the use of MBM would entail only a minor increase in local
traffic.
8. Conclusions and policy implications
8.1. The Irish context
Although the supply of pulpwood and wood industry residues
in Ireland is set to increase by 30% over the period to 2016, the
demand for these products could feasibly increase by more
than 70% over the same period. Much of the expected demand
growth is expected to result from energy and environmental
policy initiatives developed in response to EU Directives.
17 The kiln was replaced in 2008. The new plant is more ther-mally efficient but has a higher daily throughput. Consequently,the annual fuel requirement is broadly similar to that of the oldplant.
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 8 1235
Despite the reference in Ireland’s NAP to the potential for
fossil-fuel substitution by forest-derived biomass, there is no
specific obligation on Ireland’s cement producers to undertake
such conversion projects. Of the four plants operating in
Fig. 2 – Forest parcels in proximity
Ireland, two would appear to have reasonable access to local
forest resources. However, neither of these producers appears
to regard the opportunity as commercially attractive at
present. Technical and logistical concerns, along with the
to cement plants in Ireland.
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 81236
prospect of a supply shortfall, would appear to be the major
barriers to adoption.
The largest contributors to expected demand growth in
Ireland are its peat-fired electricity generators. The use of
woodchip by such installations is likely to be driven by the
asset-owner’s ‘command and control’ target of 30% fuel
substitution by 2015 rather than any market-based incentive
from the EU ETS. The expected fuel switching could therefore
entail a marginal abatement cost which is substantially higher
than that associated with the prevailing cost of EU Allow-
ances. Such an obligation would impact directly on the costs
faced by State-owned electricity generators but could also
indirectly affect the competitiveness of other biomass users
such as CHP installations and firms in the panel board sector.
Such potential for unintended consequences means that the
situation needs to be kept under continual review.
8.2. The international context
Ireland is somewhat unusual in having peat-fired power
stations operating as base load electricity generators.
However, the interaction of national and EU climate change
policies on biomass-fired electricity generation does have
parallels in other Member States, notably the UK where
several coal-fired stations have recently started co-firing with
up to 10% crop-derived biomass, much of which is imported.
The relevant UK policy instrument is a Renewables Obligation
Certificate scheme which, it is hoped, will promote an
increased domestic supply of dedicated energy crops. In this
regard, it has been estimated [28] that the long term energy
potential from Short Rotation Coppice is vastly greater than
that from conventional forestry.
Although the economics of switching from coal to biomass
in cement production could in principle become commercially
viable as a result of Emissions Trading, the scope for increased
Table 4 – Hectares of forestry within 60 min drive of Irish cem
Ownership Category 0–30 min
Coillte Broadleaf forest 60
Cleared 2
Conifer forest 100
Mixed forest 51
Other forest
Coillte Total 213
Private Broadleaf forest 584
Cleared 9
Conifer forest 23
Mixed forest 143
Other forest 24
Planting Grant App 99
Private Total 882
Total – Republic
of Ireland
1095
Northern Ireland 0
Overall Total 1095
Source: FIPS.
use of forest-derived fuel within the European cement sector
appears to be very limited in the short term. The longer-term
use of dedicated energy crops as a substitute kiln fuel might be
logistically feasible, but it would require EU Allowance prices
to remain substantially higher than the levels currently
expected for 2008–2012. Moreover, whatever the level of EU
Allowance prices, there are likely to be other sources of
biomass (e.g. MBM) which offer a greater profit opportunity.
Nevertheless, during the run-up to EU Emissions Trading, the
EU’s leading cement producers lobbied the European
Commission about their concerns about loss of international
competitiveness as a result of EU Allowance costs. More
recently [29] the same producers have also expressed
concerns about the potentially damaging consequences of any
imposed technology standard that might set minimum
amounts for biomass use in the European cement industry.
They argue that placing such an obligation on the cement
sector could lead to increased competition for a scarce
biomass resource.
Acknowledgements
Neil Walker’s research at UCD was funded by an SEI/IRCSET
Special Energy Scholarship. The authors are grateful for the
information provided by the DAF Forest Service, the NI Forest
Service and COFORD. Assistance with the GIS analysis was
provided by Daniel McInerney of UCD’s Urban Institute. The
obi data was licensed through UCD UII.
Appendix.
The colour-shaded areas in Fig. 2 show the regions within
a journey time of 30, 45 or 60 min respectively from one or
ent (Drogheda).
31–45 min 46–60 min Total
20 47 127
102 104
214 1866 2180
22 356 430
1 1
256 2372 2842
968 1212 2764
1 10
87 132 242
530 613 1286
44 105 174
146 673 918
1777 2735 5394
2033 5108 8236
0 920 920
2033 6028 9156
Table 6 – Hectares of forestry within 60 min drive of Quinn cement (Ballyconnell).
Ownership Category 0–30 min 31–45 min 46–60 min Total
Coillte Broadleaf forest 111 406 344 861
Cleared 1753 2736 1321 5811
Conifer forest 6384 10596 7510 24489
Mixed forest 165 350 505 1019
Other forest 1 3 1 5
Coillte Total 8414 14090 9683 32187
Duchas Broadleaf forest 18 18
Conifer forest 14 14
Mixed forest 24 24
Duchas Total 56 56
Forest Parks Broadleaf forest 1 1
Cleared 13 17 33 62
Conifer forest 21 21 42
Parks Total 13 38 54 105
Private Broadleaf forest 1448 1181 2751 5381
Cleared 381 144 284 809
Conifer forest 548 540 684 1772
Mixed forest 484 395 871 1750
Other forest 70 45 99 215
Planting Grant App 3142 2918 5403 11,464
Private Total 6074 5224 10,092 21,390
Total – Republic
of Ireland
14,500 19,352 19,885 53,737
Northern Ireland 9307 8503 6914 24,723
Overall Total 23,807 27,855 26,798 78,461
Source: FIPS.
Table 5 – Hectares of forestry within 60 min drive of Irish cement (Limerick).
Ownership Category 0–30 min 31–45 min 46–60 min Total
Coillte Broadleaf forest 201 431 491 1123
Cleared 533 5831 9160 15,525
Conifer forest 1968 23,774 29671 55,413
Mixed forest 401 950 726 2077
Other forest 1 3 4
Coillte Total 3103 30,987 40,051 74,141
Duchas Broadleaf forest 18 98 116
Cleared 8 8
Conifer forest 5 101 106
Mixed forest 26 260 286
Duchas Total 49 466 515
Forest Parks Broadleaf forest 3 3
Cleared 42 27 69
Conifer forest 55 11 9 76
Parks Total 59 53 36 148
Private Broadleaf forest 1444 3864 3139 8447
Cleared 70 1036 1066 2172
Conifer forest 155 1089 733 1976
Mixed forest 684 882 1081 2647
Other forest 95 109 101 304
Planting Grant App 1737 9699 9870 21,306
Private Total 4185 16,678 15,990 36,853
Overall Total 7346 47,768 56,543 111,657
Source: FIPS.
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 8 1237
b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 3 3 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 2 2 9 – 1 2 3 81238
more cement plants. Within each colour band, the forest
parcels are shown by dark shading.
Tables 4–6 respectively present a more detailed analysis of
the forest parcels by ownership and species type in the
vicinity of three of the four plants, namely
� the Irish Cement plant in Platin (Drogheda)
� the Irish Cement plant in Mungret (Limerick) and
� the Quinn plant in Ballyconnell.
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