POLITICSANDSOCIETY DURINGTHE EARLYMEDIEVALPERIOD CollectedWorks of ProfessorMohammadHabib Vol.Two EditedbyProfessorK.A.Nizami CentreofAdvancedStudy,DepartmentofHistory AligarhMuslimUniversity Price:Rs.150.00 PrintedbyJitenSenattheNewAgePrintingPress,RaniJhansiRoad,Ne,,:Delhi: 11 "nelnnblishedbvhimforPeople'sPublishingHouse(PlLtd"R)}j;'....,"J .::.Y;IJ() .>j. .....:1(,.",-/1"t....A!:/ li'1i))J If ProfessorHabib'stranslationisaccepted,Barani'sstatement Will have toberejectedoUhightas wasin. hiscradlewhen HasanandKhusrauwerebothintheserVIceofPrmceMuhammad. havebeenwronglytranslatedas 46.Kanpuredition,p.135. 11.7. Tarikh-iFiruzShahi,p.360, xxiiPoliticsandSocietyduringtheEarlyMedievalPeriod 'becamefriends'.ThiswouldlJavebeencorrectifthewordwas ......ld ~ q ywoumeanherematrimonialrelationshipwhich, quiteunderstandably,mighthavebeenarrangedbyBaraniandthe t"yohouseswouldhavecomecloser. Thelastarticleinthisvolumedealswiththeorganisationofthe CentralGovernmentduringtheearlyperiodoftheDelhiSultanate andwaspresentedat thethirdsessionoftheAllIndiaOrientalC o n ~ ferencein1924.Withthepublicationofmoreexhaustiveworkson theadministrativeaspectsoftheDelhiSultanatebyDrR.P.Tri-pathiandDr.I.H.Qureshithearticleceasestohavethesamefas-cinationwhichit hadwhenitfirstappeared. PerhapsProfessorHabib'sreluctancetopublishallhisarticlesin abook formwashisrealizationthat considerablework hassincebeen doneonthosethemesandtopics.Thefact,however,remainsthat inmanyspheresofresearchinmedievalIndianhistoryhewasa pioneer.Heshowedthewaywhichothersfollowed.Thedateon whichaparticulararticlewasfirstpublishedhasbeengivenatthe endofeacharticle.It wouldmakeiteasiertoassesstheimpact thatthisarticlehadonsubsequenthistoricalwritings.Allthe'pre-facf's'and'dedications'thatProfessorHabibwroteforhisworksare aisngiveninappendices.These'dedications'revealProfessorHabib's predilectionsatdifferenttimes. AligarhK.A.NtZAMI Uctober27,1980 ArabConquestofSind MahmudofGhazni CONTENTS TheMuslimWorldintheTenthCentury CareerofSultanMahmud TheCharacterandValueofMahmud'sWork FalloftheGhaznavidEmpire ihalbudldinofGhur TheRiseofGhur CampaignsofShihabuddinGhori LastYearsofShihabuddin BeingtheEnglish ationof"TheKhaza'inulFutuh"ofAmirKhusrau Preface Accession,ReformsandPublicWorks CampaignsAgainsttheMugha!s Gujarat,Rajputana,MalwaandDeogir CampaignofArangal TheCampaignofMa'abar \.l1".ll1l1l:e hundredhorsewasdespatchedtopreve.ntanyhelp Dal1ll' fWIrihissonFufi,whowasatAlor.RasIl,whowasnowgUldmgthe Arabarinyincooperation. ;vithMoka,tookittothe onthe.op-positesideofwhichDal1ll'sarmylay Then,If areto believe the ClutchNama,he ferriedthem across111 aboat wInchc,ould onlycarrythreemenatatimeandlanded atavillagebetweenthefortofRawarandDahlr ScoUiicsandSocietyduringtileEarlyMedievaiPeriod andahadiswouldcancelapreceptofthemujtahids.That should havebeenthenormalprocedure,whetherweconsidertheauthority that givesaninjunctionortheproofsavailable of thatinjunction hav-mgbeengiven.TheQuranhasbeenpreservedwithabsolutecor-rectness,but toomanyunauthentic hadises havebeen set afloat,while formanypreceptsofthemujtahidswehaveonlyan indirect evidenpe andnottheirwrittenword.Butthemedievalmullahslookedatthe matter fromadifferentangle.They did not-and they could not-pre-ventaneducatedMusalmanfromreadingtheQuranandguiding himselfbyhisowninterpretationofit intherealmoffaith.Butin thesphereofthesTwrratitwasdifferent.Theha'S1as0Ows; 354 PoliticsandSocietyduJ'/ngtheEarlyMedievalperiod "TheKhan-iJahanwasfromTelangandhisnamebeforehiscon-versiontoIslamwasKannu.Hewasamanofthegreatesthonour in hisowncommunityandhadapositionofdistinctionbeforethe raiof Telang.Muhammad bin Tughluq capturedraiand senttoDelhi,but theraidiedontheway.The Khan-lJahancameobedI-entlytoMuhammadbinTughlaqrecitedtheoathofaffirma-tion(kalima).ThesultangavehimthenameofMaqbul(Accepted) andh'eatedhimwithfavour.Lateron,whenthesultansawallthe signsofintelligenceandwisdomintheKhan-iJahan,heappointed himnaibwazirforthecityofDelhiandopenedthedoorsofpro-motiontohim.Whenthe 'Khan-iJahan46 sealedandsip"nedaelocn-menthewrotehisnameasfollows- 'Maqbul,slaveofMuhammad Tughiuq.'Thoughthedistinguishedwazirdidnot know ho.w read andwrite,stillhewasthewisestofmenandthroughhISwIsdom headornedthecapitaloftheempire.ThetitleofQa,:"amulMulk wasgivento himduring hisearlycareer.The of wasassignedtohimandlateronhewasappomtednmbwazzr.The Khwaja-iJabanwasthewazirofSultanMuhammad. "TheKhan-iJahanasnaibwazir(deputywazir)madelawsawl regulationsandput thedepartmentofrevenueinperfectorder.The governorsoftheprovinceshadnot muchfearoftheKhwaja-ilahan buttheystoodinmortaldreadoftheKhan-ilahan.If theKhwai8-i labanwantedthegovernorofatelTitorytobeseverelytreated,he handedhimovertotheKhan-ilahan;andthelatterh'eatedhim withexcessivesternnessinaccordancewiththeregulations.Also whentheKhwaja-iJahan,areligiousman,retiredfromthediwan (for hisdevotions),the Khan-ilahan sat in hisplace;he dealt severelv withthegovernorsandcollectedplentyofcashandcommoditiesfor theroyaltreasury.TheKhwaja-ilahanhadnothingexceptthetitle ofwazir;alltheworkofthediwan-iwizarat(revenuedeparhnent) wascarriedonthroughtheexperienceandintelligenceoftheKhan-i Tahan." Thetwocolleaguesbecamebitterenemies,aswehaveseen,and theprimaryreasonwhytheofficersdemandedthedesh'uctionofthe Khwaja-ilahanwasthatthepostofwazir-andthedirectionofthe policyofthegovernment-hadtobe assignedtotheKhan-iJahan. ARfgivesusanideaofhismethodsofwork.c'Inaccordancewith thetraditionsofthegreatwazirs,theKhan-iJahansatbeforethe pillowofhisofficeeveryday;hecarefullyinvestigatedtheaccounts ofgovernorsandother officersandrealisedtheshareof thetreasury. Theincomeandexpenditureofthetreasurywereplacedbeforehim everyday.Hei[lsistec1andre-insistedthatmoneybeyondreckon.ing LifeandThoughtofZiyaflddinBarani 355 shouldbedailyputintothetreasury.Ifonanydaythemoneyre-ceived by theb'easury wasnot sufficient,he wou:d be exbemely. harsh towardsallhisofficersandwouldoftengoWIthoutfood to histhoughtfulnessandanXiety.'Thestabilityoftheh.e wouldsayonsuchoccasion,dependsthetreasUl:' ..If thel enotenoughmoneyinthetreasury,orIfthemoneyISImproperly spent,thefoundationsofthej!overnmentwillbeshaken:If,God forbid,thetreasuryofafarsightedkingbecomesempty owml!.t?any cause,themaintenanceofthethisreason the wazirwasbent on collectmg treasmes llIj!ht and clu). AnotheraspectoftheKhan-iJahan'slifEishouldnot beoverlooked becauseitrelevant.Hewas fondof womenand utilisedtothe ....rIMl'%nl"ltj-okeenapvHumberof flllli-hel'enmSSlOl1ort 1eusun.,"-'/.".-'".." slave-!!irls.HisagentssearchedfortheminaUcountries.It IS , ARftellsus,"thathehadtwothousandslave-girlsofallcountr.Ies fromRtlm(Byzantine)toChina inhislwrmn;everyoneoftheseadornedherselfwithflnedressesandornaments;andtheKh.an-l Tahan,inspiteof ofwork,spentmuchofhissl;,ecl.allv tPp- religiousholidavs,in hisharam.He had plenty of chIldren.FmIz Shah ananmialgrant (nan)ofeleventhousandtankasforevery sonoftheKhan-iJahanandof fivethousandtankllsforeveIY ter.FiruzShah himselftohisposition.'Thereal, kmgof Delhi',hewouldsay,'istheAzam-iHumavunKhan-ilahan .48 Tous,in theDelhisultanatwithaTurkishsultanborn ofaconvertedHindumotheronthethroneandaconvertedHindu withaninternationalharamoffemalesashiswazir,mayseemtobe someslightrectificationofthosedefects,whichwereinevitable whenthegovernmentwasinthehandsofasmallMuslimgoverning class.Also,thepositionattainedby theKhanjJ ahanwastheresult ofalongseriesofeffortsandmanyfailures.TheAbyssinianYaqut waskilledbytheTurkishbureaucracy,thoughhewasagoodand piousmanb\Tallaccounts.WeknownothingofRaihan,but hewa5 killedbvthepartyofGhivasuddil>P11banonaccmmtofhisJnrlinll birth.TheKhalji -revolution,withinverynarrowlimits,openedthe doortonewmen-totheIndianMusalmanswhoseancestorshad beenconveltedtoIslamandwhowerethebulkoftheMusalmans inthecountry,tonewconvertsfromHinduismandtounconverted Hindus.MalikKafuristhefirstconvertedHinduwhocarvedoutan excellentcareerintheadminish'ation;thedegenerationofhispolicy inthelaterdaysof'AlauddinKhaljiwasprobablycluetothefact that themassof theofficerswereagainst himonaccount of hisorigin. KhUSralIKhan,aroyalfavouriteonly,doesnot count.But in the time 356PoliticsandSocietyduringtheEarlyMedievalPeriod ofMuhammadbinTughluqwehaveseenanumberofIndians, HindusaswellasMusalmans,pushingtheirwavuptheadminis-trativeladderthroughloyaltyandefficiency.Oftheseofficersthe Khan-iJahanwasthemostbrilliant. ToBarani,ascionofthegreat free-bornTurkishofficersofthe Bal-baniregime,allthisseemedwickedandaviolationoftheeternalor-dinancesofprovidence.He hated Hindus;he hated convertedHindus noless,fortohimIslamwasamatterofbirth,notofchoice.He hatednewmenintheadministration,whoseancestorshadbeenof noaccount.Hehatedefficiencyandloyaltyasthetwocriteriaofser-vice,forhisonlycriteria forgovernment postswasnoblebirth,com-paredwithwhichnootherqualificationmattered.Andgoodbirth forhimmeantbelongingtoanimmigrantfamilyfromCentralAsia orPersia,whichhadheldhighofficeinIndiaandwas,preferably, free-bornandnot servileinitsorigin. TheKhan-iJabancouldnothavereadBarani'sbooks,whichhad notbeenwrittenbythen,but everythingBaranisaidinthecowtof. thelatesultanmusthavebeenbroughttohisnotice.Wordsagainst convertedHind1ls.thelow-born,etc.whichseemeddiVinelyinspired toBarani,naturallyappeared'pOisonous'tothemembersofthese j!"roups.SotheKhan-iJahanmadeuphismind.HesparedBarani's lifeoutofree;ardforFiruzShah,butconfiscatedmostofhispro-pertyandorderedhimtokeepawayfromthecourt.Thisorderalso impliedacommandtothemenofthecourttokeepawayfrom Barani.It istobewishedthattheKhan-iJahanhadbeenmore liberaltoBaraniinthematterofexpenditure,butsubstantiallytlie orderwascorrect.TherecouldbenoplaceforBaraniintheneVI< governing-classorinacourtdominatedbytheKhan-iJahan.Barani hasnowherenamedhisenemies.Thereasonissimple,fortheanI v enemyhecouldhavenamedwasthegreatwazirof theday!. 1.pp.165-00. 2.Iaminclinedtointerpret'mymajlis(mailis-iman)'tomeanthatBaraniwas himselfatonetimeinapositiontoemploythesedancing-girls,bhands(baffoons) (tc..oratleasttopaytbemforentertainingbisfriendsathisparties. 3.ItakethissentencetomeanthatQubbatutTarikhwasthenameBaranihad giventoavolumeofhiseroticghazals. 4.ThetenTI,'mastersofliteraturewhoweremyfriendsand obviously referstoAmirKhusrauandAmirHusan.Nooneoftheirstaturewasleft.Still therewereliterarypersonsofnote,likeAinulMulkMahru(whoseI""hahasbeen editedbyProfessorS.A.RashidofAligarh);TatarKhan,whoseFatawa(Legal Tudgments),compiledbyagroupofscholarsunderhisdirection,wastobeamonu-fllen-t(tlenterpriseQfwhiG"onlypartshavesurvived;Ma\ll.naJ alaluddinR\lffii,head LifeandThoughtat Ziyauddinilaralll357 oftheCollegeofFiruzShahbythesideoftheAlaiTank,andSaiyyidNajmuddin Samarqandi,whowasincbargeofthecollegeneartheSiridam(Ima1'at-ibalabar ab-iSi1'i).BaranipraisesallthefourinhisaccountofFiruzShah'sreign.Butob-viouslyhepraisedthemfromafarandwasdeniedpersonalaccessaswellasthe privilegeofcorrespondence(Tal'ikh-iFiruzShah;,pp.562-65_579-00). 5.Tarikh-iFiruzShahi,p.354. 6.Ibid,p.349. 7.Ibid,pp.359-60. B.Khusl'llumeansking. 9.AmirKhusraustartedhisfivevolumesofromanticverses,thePaniGani,with atotbeKhar""a(fivepoeticalvolumes)ofNizamiGanjvi.Butinhislast volmneheadmittedthatNizamiwassuperior:"Becausehespecialisedinoneart, hehasremainedunsurpassed-(C!JuIlyakfarwhbud,shudyaganah)." 10.Thatisbyanticipation.KhwajaSanailivedinthereignofSultanBahram,the lastdescendantofSultanMahmudtoreignatGhaznin. 11.InaversequotedbyDaulatShahinhisTazkiratushShu' ara.AmirKhusrau declarestbatbismusicalinventions,haditbeenpossibletowritethem,wouldhave HlIedthreevolumesinthesamewayashisghazalsfilledthreediwans.Hisfourth Ditccwwaswrittenlater. 12.NotSanjariasisoftenwrittenbymistake.Sijzimeat'.belongingtoSijistan, IheancjentShakistan(thelandoftbeShakas),nowcalledSistan. 13.ThisassertionseemsstrangeinviewofthefactthatAmirKhusrauandAmir Hasanwerebothinthe' serviceofSultanMuhammad(Khan-iShahid)whileBarani wasstillinhiscradle.Butmaybe,therelationsbetweentbembecamecloserowing tothefriendshipofbothoftbemwithourautbor. 14.TheFawa'idulFIt'adwa'Spreparedinfivethinvolumes;printedtogetherthey makeabookofabout250lithographedpages. 15.ThePersiantextoftheSiyaslRtNamawaseditedbythelateProfScheffer. Butthateditionhasbeenlongoutofprint.Ihaveusedtheexcellenteditionof AghaAbbasIqbal,printedbytheMajlisPress,Tehran,UrdiBihisht,1320.Prof. ScheHertranslatedtheSiyasatNamaintoFrench.ThereisnoEnglishtranslation. 16.Amedievalgameplayedwithdice. 17.i.e.themedievalpolo. 18.Tarikh-iFiruzShahi,pp.465-66. 19.Ibid,p.466. 20.'IsamidescribestheserebellionsinhisFlttuh-ttsSalaNn,pp.456-80,insome detail. 21.Tal'ikh-iFiruzShahi,pp.507-8. 22.Ibid,pp.509-11.Sinceitwasthefastingmonth,thisconversationmusthave takenplaceatthetimeofsahriorthepre-morningmeal. 23TheauthoroftheTarikh-iKisl'aviwasobviouslytryingtodefinetreasonunder medievalconditions.Healso\vantedpunishmentsfortreasontobebasedonper-manentlawsaswellasevidenceandnotonthepersonaldiscretionoftheking. BaranibasdevelopedtheseideasinhisFatawa-iJahandari(AdviceVII). 24.Tarikh-iFirttzSllIIhi,.PP.510-11.Bytheterm,'people'weshouldunderstand officersandselectmen_ndnotthemassoftheinbabitants. 25.Ibid,pp.516-17. 26.Ibid,pp.521-22. 27.'Isami,Futllh-usSalatin,p.433(Dr.MehdiHusain'sedition). 28.ThesefactsabouttheKhwaja-iJahanarerelatedbyAfifinhisTarikh-iHrttz 358 PoliticsandSocMyduringtheEarlyMedievalPeriod Slwhi(uptop.78).ARtreferstoBarani'swurkandsaysheisgoingtucontinueit; butnevertheless,hegivesacompleteaccountoftheKhwaja-iJahan's'rebellion'be" causeBaranihadgrosslyluisIepresentedtheactionsandmotivesofthedeadwazir. 29. on\knuwnnlanuscdptoftheNa'tiA,fohammacliisintheHampurLibrnry. Someextractsfromit,introductionweremadeforProfessorS,A,Rashid.Thispassage hasbeentranslatedfromtheseextracts. 30.Tarikh-iFiruz5hahi,p,554, 31.Ibid"p.552. 32.Ibid,p.557. 33.lbill,p.199-201, 34.Acarefulexaminationofthisparagraphwillshowthatafterthelapseofsome sixtyyearsBaraniwasunahletorecollectthenamesofthefollowing:the'Onsof HaibatKhanandNizamKharitadar;thedaughterofFigai;and'theaccomplished daughterofNusratBibi'.ButBaraniseemstohavehadaverystrongemotional memory,andherememberedwhathehadfelt.ElsewhereintheFiruzShaMalsowe findthatBaraniisunabletorecollectthenamesofpersonsandreferstothemin-directly-e.g.'AzizHimarandhisbrother'. ButwhataboutBarani'svisualmemmv?ThereaderoftheFiruzshahiwillnot findanaccountof,thepersonality-theformsandfeatures--ofanyofthe personswhosec1HU'aclershehasdelineated,What(lid'AlauddinKhalji,MalikiCafur, KhusrauKhan,etc.,looklike?Baranicouldhaveeasilydescribedthembuthenever does.DidBarani'svisualmemoryfailhimoristhi,unfortunategapintheTarikh-i-Fi1'1lZShahiduetohistoricaltradition?Iaminclinedtothelatteralternative,for thetraditionofPersianhistorydidnotclemandadescriptionofthepersonalityofits prominentfigores. 35.Hursarebeautifulwomenwhowillconsolego;dMusalmansinparadise;varis arebeautifulwomenwhoinhabittheCaucasianmounrains,atpresent. 36.ThetranslationoftheseverseshasbeentakenfromProfessorS,A.Rashid's \York,ZiallddinEm'ani,aStudy. 37.DirhamsanddinarswerecopperandsilvercoinsoftheRomanempireadopted bythel\,fusalmans.Agoldcoinwasgenel'a1Jycalleddinar-iSHl'lch(reeldinar). 38.Tarikh-iFiruzShahi,pp.204-5. 39.Ibid,p.553. 40.Ibid,p.554. 41.Ibid,p.554. 42.Ibid,p.554. 43.Ibid,pp.556-57. 44.Ibid,pp.576-86aredevotedtothepraiseoftheroyalfamilyandthehigh officers.ShahzadaFathKhanwasonlysixyearsold,butBaraniclaimsthattheShah zadawaskindtohim. 45.pp.394-98. 46.IhavereferredtohimastheKhan-iJahan,butthistitlewasgiventohim byFiruzShahafterhisaccession. 47.AIlf:FiruzShahi,p.397-98. 48.Ibid,p.400. ChapterVII THEORYOFKINGSHIP Bat'anitalksasifmonarchyhasbeenauniversalpoliticalpheno-menonofhumanhistoryandhehasnosuspicionthattherehave beendifferenttypesofmonarchiesbasedondifferentprinciples.And hereducesthetheoryofmonarchytotheutmostsimplicity.From thetimeofAdamtotheriseofIslamonlyafewroyalfamiliesgov-ernedtheglobe.Theprophetandthepiouscaliphswerenot'kings' intheordinarysenseoftheword.Theiradventwasduetodivine interventionandit wasnotpossibletocontinuetheirsystem.Barani isnotabelieverin the'latercaliphatesnorintheso-called'theoryof theMuslimstate'.WiththeUmayyadstheworldreturnedto theold ways.Baraniisconvincedthatthereisarealdifferencebetweenthe monat'chyoftheMusalmansandtheoldpagan monarchies;noMus-limking,forexample,couldopenlyclaimdivinitylikethePharoahs ofEgypt;stillhe hasnoclearconceptionofthisdifference,whichhe confinesentirelytothereligiOUSsphere,Buthebelievesthatpre-Muslimpreceptsofgovernmentarestillvalid;andbecauseMuslim kingsadoptedwhat wasbelieved to be theSasatliancourt-procedure, Bm'anitendstooverlookthebasicdifferencesbetweentheSasanian andtheMuslimmonat'chies.Barani'sknowledgeofworldhistory, andevenofthehistoryofAjam,isnotonlysuperfiCialbutgrossly misleading.SincehisFatawa-iJahandariissupposedtohavebeen written inthetimeofSultanMahmud,heisdebarred fromreferring toany.zulerofDelhi.But hediscussestheIndiansocialand'political orderin theJahandari,and thereal valueofhispoliticalthought lies inthefactthatitisbasedonanexaminationoftheworkingoftbe institutionsofDelhisultanatforoverninety-fiveyears.Butother elementsofquitedifferentoriginhadalsotakenpossessionofhis mindandit isnecessaryto separatethetwo. IfBarani'spostulatesaboutmonarchym'ecaretullyexamined,it willbeseenthathehasnotonebuttwotheoriesofmonarchyor kingship.Hisfirsttheoryisbasedontradition(orsupposedtradi-tion),thepostulatesofthecheapermullahs,outofdatecanonsof wisdom,andcurrentproverbsofthatmostsuperficialtype.This theorynaturallylandsBaraniinamassofcontradictions.It isun-.%0 l'OiitiC8andSocietyduringtheEariyMedievaiPeriod necessarytoexaminethemindetail,andonlythemostimportantot themneedbeenumerated. (a)Theking isagreat sinnerbythevery natureofhisoffice,which theQuranandtheProphethavenotsanctioned.Neverthelessifhe actstothepreceptsof Barani,hisplacewillbeamong thesmntsandprophets,It islikesayingthataMuslimrobberwill bedivinelyblessedifheisagoodrobber-ifherobsnon-Muslims onan scaleforthegoodofthefaith,givesafairpercent-ageofhISin.(includinggenerousgiftstothemuZ-andISgUIdedUlIllSworkbyreligiOUSprecepts. (?)The,kingisthe'deputy'and'representative'ofGodonearth; heIStheshadowofGod(zzllallah)andhismindandthemindsof his.advisersar,e, divi?elyinspired.Thispostulatecontradictsthepre-cedmgproposItion;Itisalsocontradictedbyfacts.Inpractjcethe ,:ere not prepared toadmit that themindofthekingwas dIvmelymsprred;mostofthe hereditarykingsamongtheMusalmans havebeenhereditaryasses,whiletheusurpershavebeen Thepowerofthekinglastedonlysolongashecouldmain-tamItbytheexcellenceofhisadministrationandthesharpnessof hissword,If hefailed,hisopponentshadnomercyforhim,They wouldkillhimlikeadogandpubliclydisplayhiscarcassor hishead , onaspear.ThemajorityoftheMuslimkingshavebeenmurdered atrociously,andsowerethemajorityoftheAbbasidcaliphsafter Mutawakkil.So longasaMuslimkingwassovereigndefacto,he washedgedbyasortofpseudo-divinityandpeopleprostrated them-selvesbeforehim.Butwhenhispowervanished,hisdivinityalso vanished,Muslimpoliticalconsciousnessdidnotrecogniseanyking assovereigndeture,Adeposedkingwasgenexallyaseveredhead oracorpse,publiclydisplayed, ,(c)The t?'Barani,governsthekingdomthrough hISqualItIes-lIke .God ,himself,In doing sothekinghas thelllsolencetoclaImpartnershIpWithGodandthisisshirktheone unpardon.ablesillaccordingtotheQuran.Neverthelessit is forthekingtohavethesecontradictoryqualitiesfortheconductof the. . But ,he b,ethoroughlyrepentantofhis acbonsIII hISheart,Ifhe ISto obtaIndIvineforgiveness;otherwisehis placewillbewiththePharoahs.Thisdoctrineofthecontradictory qualitiesotGodandthekingcontainsadualerror,It isb'uethat the attributesgiventoGodbytheQuran,supposedtobeninety-nineir. number,contradicteachotherintheirdictionarymeaning.Butit isemphaticallynot truetosaythatthinkingMuslimshaveconceived Godasabundleofcontradictoryattributes.Theirbasicconception fAteandthoughtofZitwuddinBarani 361 ofGodhasbeenaGodofmercy(rahmat).Thefearfulqualities ofGodarereallyduetoHismercy,fortheyhavemercyfortheir object.Similarlytheking(ortheshlte)isnotabundleofirrecon-cilablecontradictions;theobjectofthestate(asBm'anihashimself madeclear)isthe publicgoodthroughtheenforcementofPunishment andrewardemplovmentanddismi:,sal,taxationandex-pendituremayseemopposedthings;buttheyarenot. really dictory.If thepowersofthestateareproperlyexercIsed,theChIef featurewillbeharmonyandnotconb'adiction,Ofcourse,thecom-pleteeliminationofcontradictionsisnotharmoniolls actionforthepublicgoodshouldbethemalllobJective. InfaimesstoEaI'aniheshouldnotbeblamedforthesestupid ideaswhichheinheritedfromtraditionandneedlesslyenlarged. secondtheoryofRm-ani,forwhichhealoneisresponsible, placestheinstit1ltionofmonarchyontheneedsofthesocialorder, speCiallytheenforcementofiustice.Theprimaryneeds0:manasa memberofsocietvdemandthemaintenanceofacentralIsedexecu-tiveauthority, wasnotawareoftheexistenceof ortheslave-owningcity-republicsofGreecean?theanCIent Thisknowledge,inanycase,wouldhavebeenurelevanttohISpur-pose.Republicangovernmentswere only possible instates.There couldbenoslave-owners'democracyinIslam;forwhIleontheone handtheslave-merchantskeptbringingslavesintothe on theotherhandthejudicialprocedureoftheqaziskep.tsettmgthoseslavesoftheworking-classgroupswho satisfy, theqazIs that theywouldgiveone-third oftheir dailyt? theIr Slaveryisahideousinstitution.ButwhateverItsdefects,b:s ofIndiansocietywaswage-labourandnote s )}wl'eotcontracttheMuslimshal'i'at. permits on grounds.Further, Muslim political conSCIousnessfora ofreasonsdemandedlargeterritorialstates,andthesestatesh notbeadministeredexceptbythecentralisationof po,",:erwIC onlytheinstitutionofmonarchymadepossibleundermedIevalcon-ditions. Monarchygiven,itsotherinstitutionsareimplied.Thekingshould beabletoappOint,promoteand dismisstheofficersofthestate, secularandreligiOUS,andBaranigivesdetailedadvice tohowthIS shouldbedone.HeshouldalsobeabletoappointvarIOUStypesof spies,reportersandintelligenceofficerstotellhim ,ho;nhis cracyisworking,Oneofthefoundationsoftheking sIS phYSicalpower;the kingshould,therefore,becarefulabout hISarmy, andwithreferencetothearmyEaranithoughtalltalkofeconomy FotiticsandSocieiyduringtheEmiyMedievalPeriod tobeoutofplace.Butaboveallthekingshouldhavethepowerof makingstate-laws (zawabit),evenifinextremecasestheyhad. to overridetheshal'i'at.Iftheselawswereproperlymadeandenfor-ced,tbeuniformworkingoftbedepartmentsofthegovernmentover tbevastareacoveredby it wouldbeassured,and tbesubjectswould alsoknowwheretbeystood."Astate-lawintbetechniqueofministration",hedeclares,"meanspursuing(alineof)actionwl11ch thekingimposesasanobligatorydutyonhimselfandfromwhich heneverdeviates(Advice-XIV)."Thisdefinitionincludesadministra-tiveorders,whichconcernonlygovernmentemployees,aswellas laws,properlyso-called,whichimposeandrights ontbesubjects.Butwemustrememberthatl!lBaram stimethe statewasnotexpectedto interfere,unlessverynecessary,intheper- , sonallawsofthevariouscommunities. But if tbelawsweretobemadeby tbekillgpersonally,evcrything woulddependuponhisintelligenceandstrengthofcharacter,upon hiswisdomand hiswill power;aweak king may nol havethestre.qgtb to resistillegitimatepressure.Inanycaseit wouldbeuselessmaking lawsif theykept onchanging withevery new occupant ofthethrone. Secondly,themakingoflawsisadifficultanddelicatetask;it quiresknowledgeofexistinglawsandexistingcircumstances,wis-dom,sanityandforeSight.Sokeepingtbeseandotberinview,andbasinghisargumentontheQuranicinjunctionabout consultation,Baraniwantedtoinstitutionalizethemonarchyhv givingtbeauthorityoffmminglawsandadministrativereguhitiori's totheking'scouncil(AdviceHI).Themembersotthecouncilwere tobeselectedbytbekingwithcare,presumablyinaccordancewith theprincipleslaiddownbythecouncilitself.Thekingwastobe presentattbediscussionsandtopropoundthequestion.Butthe councilwastobeleft quitefreetodiscusseveryaspectofthematter witboutbeinginformedoftheking'sopinion.If tbememberscould reachunanimity,tbeiradvicewastobeaccepted by the king;if they disagreed,itwasbetter,whenpossible,todiscussthematteronce more.A meremajorityoftbecouncil had no meaning,forit wasonly anappOintedbody.ButastbebasicprincipletbeCOUllCil'swork Baraniboldlylaysdowntheprecept-HNoopinionforkings".The typeofcouncil suggested byBarani wasnever tried.The majlis-ikhas oftbeDelhisultanswasadifferentinstitution.It couldbeignored; it couldalsobeoverriden.Ofcourse,kings,likeotberpersons,resort toconsultationwhenindifficulties;andtbegreatestachievements whichBaranihadwitnessed-tbeland-revenueandotherreformsof 'AlauddinKhaljiaswellashiseconomicregulations-wereduetothe majlis-ikhasofthe sultan.But 'Alauddin latetongaveup consulting LifeandThoughtofZiyauddinBm'ani 363 themajIis.MuhammadbinTughluqhisin discussion'heneverconsulted.JalaluddmKhalJI(IfBm'amIStobe believed)hismajlisquiteoften;but his officerstalked likecourtiers;thesultaninterferedandoverrodehiSnephew,Chap;andcomequently,themajlisnever toa .correctdeclSlon. TheotberrulerswereeitbergUidedbytbelrfavountesorconsulted tbeirofficersseparately. Believingin monarchybut distressedat tbe erratic of kingshehadseen,Baranievolvedtbetheorytha.t, thekIng s shouldbvcustomorconvention,bemadeaquasl-JIldependentbody, sothatthepolicyoftheadministrationmaynotvary.with .tbepantsofthethroneortheirchangingThe of.the schemeareobvious.ThekingwasrespoIlSlble-respunslblebecause hisheadhadtoanswerforhismisgovernment.Oftheseventeenth rulersofDelhifrom1200to1357,ten(including Khusral!Khan),:ere killedpoisonedorlefttodieinprison.If the responsibilitiesofwere'tobeensuredbycapitalpunishments,thenthiswascertaI,?ly areasonablepercentage.Butacouncildiscussing secre.tand byunanimityofvotescouldnotbehel:1responSIbleeltberb)the publicor bygovernmentofficers.AddtoIt,tbel:ewasthe.dangerthecouncilwouldextinguishtheroyalanthontyItS wouldinaugurateallera ofanarchylikethatthe !Ulb. Betbisasit may,tbeDelhisultanssawtoItthattbemaJhs-Ikhas neverdevelopedanytJ'aditionsof itsown. Anotherdefectofmonarchy,whichBaraniwishedtocorrect,ap-pertainedtothesphere politicalfHlllishments.The. Quranrefers topersons,called1nllnaflqs(hypocntes),whowereeitheropposed tothe Prophetorwereslack in tbeperformanceoftheir duties.But theQuran dvesnot namethemandtbeProphet did not punishthqm. Noquestionoftreasonaroseintbetimeofthefirsttwocaliphs;in thE:bter rei):'lJofthethirdcaliphanarchyprevailodandinthereign oftbefourthcaliphtherewascivilWaI.Thepiouscaliphate,as Baranicorrectlypointsout,wasbasedon'theagreementofthepeo ..pIe'and not onanyinjunctionoftbeQuran or Prophet.The crime oftreason,properlyso-called,couldonlybepOSSIbleaftertbeUmay-yadshadestablishedthe!rpowerontbeprinc.ipleofahereditarv monarchyandagovernmg-classdrawnexclUSivelyfromthenoble Arabclans.ThereisnothingintbeQuran ortbeprecept',;ofthePrn-phetorderingaMusalmantoobeysucha orpreventing him fromopposmg it.TheUmayyadshad their vlltlles,but thev based theirgovernmenton 'forceandterror',thingsunknownintheperiod oftbepiouscaliphate.Therewereplentyofrebellionsandallof 364 PollttcsandSocietyduringtheEarlyMedieva!Period themexceptthelast-werebrutallysuppressed.Theruthlesspunish-mentofopponentswasthemethodbywhichtheUmayyadssought tomaintaintheirpower.TheAbbasids,whentheyoverthrewthe Umayyads,behaved in thesameway.. The'shari'at'oftheSunniswasorganisedduringthepenoelofthe greatAbbasids;it preferred to remain silentboth about monarchy and -treason.. Duringtheninety-fiveyearsoftheDelhisultanat,which surveys,allgovernmentsresortedtotheruthlesspunishmentof opponents,except duringafewshort reigns.He recordsthesepumsh-mentsfromthetimeofBalbantilltheyreachedtheirmaximumdur-ingthereignofSultanMuhammadbin It isatragicand heartrendingstory,speciallythemurderofIIlnocentwomenand children. Baraniispreparedtomaintaintheprestigeofthegovernmentby areasonableamountofpunishmentsandhissympathiesthroughout arewiththecentralgovernment,neverwithitsopponents.Eveilif hedislikesaking,hewillneversympathisewithrebels.Heiswell awareofthedangerofaweakandovermildgovernmentlikethat ofJalaluddinKhalji.'ThesemischievousHindus tanis',he 'cannotbecontrolledexceptbyastemandharsh-temperedkmg. But hewashonifiedbythepunishmentsandtortureshesawaround himand repeatedly condemnsthem in hisTal'ikh-iFiruz In the lahandari(AdviceXIII)hesetsouttodiscoverthepnnclplesofa lawoftreason,whichwhilemaintainingthestabilityofthegovern-mentwouldnotbeundulyharshtothesubjectsandwouldnotbe dcompleteneO'ationoftheprinciplesofhumanity.Histionscertainlv'" deservedthemostcarefulconsiderationofthoseill authorityini'nedievalIndia.It istoberegretted,therefore,.!hatas theFatawa-ilahandariwasneverproperlypublished,Baranl svery saneviews on thequestionofpunishmentsforpoliticaloffencescould notgetahearing.. ThoughBaranibelievesinmonarchy,hehasnoillusionsconcern-ingitsshortcomings.Heisnot satisfiedwiththepolicyofanyofthe sultansheexaminesexceptGhiyasuddinTughluq,whowascalled upontocontinuethesystemof'AlauddinKhaljiwithouthavingto resorttothoseterroristicmethodsbywhichthesystemwasestablish-ed.It isobviouslythisconvictionthatmonarchyasasystemhasits unavoidableshortcomings,andthatakingaskingwouldneverbe uptohisduties,whichdrivesBaraniinhislastAdvicetorecom-mendthattheheart ofthekingshould bealwaysfullof supplication totheAlmightyandthat heshouldbealwaysconsciousofhisneed fordivinemercyandgrace. LifeandThoughtofZiyauddlnBaranl365 ThoughtheFatawa-iJahandariwaswrittenaftertheTarikh-i Fil'UZShahi,alltheideasinitwerepresentintheauthor'smind whentheFirllzShahiwascomposed.Thus,totakeoneexample. BaranimakesBalbangiveaIon!!advice(coveringsometenpal!es) tohisson,SultanMuhammad(Khan-iShahid).AlltheideasinadvicearetobefoundintheIrzhandari.TheobjectoftheFatawa-i Jahnndal'i,asBaraniplanned it,wastoprescribe anorm forthework-ingoftheinstitutionsoftheDelhisnltanat andtop'ivethenecessary toitsofficers.It hasbeenalreadvpointedoutthat atradi-tionaltheory,funofcontradictionsandsheernonsense.votmixed witha evolvedbyBaranihimselfinthelivhtofexperience andobservatIon.whichwasfundament'lIlvsecular.If thefirsttheOl'v iscompletelyignored,thenthesecondtheorv,whichremains,can beacceptedtothereservationsalreadydiscussed.Onedan, I!erforthehistorianofmedievalIndialiesinthefactthatheis temptedtojudrremedievalinstitutionsbymodemconceptsanddemstandards.Thevalueofthelahandm'iliesinthefactthatIt I!ivesusthestandadsprescribedbyagreatmedievalmindforthe evaluationofmedievalinstitutions. It hasbeennecessaryinthecourseofthisworktopOintout manv thingsderoe-atorytoourauthor-hisfailinl!memory,hishoneles< vanityof birthwhichpartly contributed to hisruin, hisirrationalpre-iUdic'esaO'ainsttheHindus,forwhichIslamsupnliesnoiustifl"'1tions andwhichwerenotacceptahletothoseinauthoritv.andhisverv superficialcomprehensionoftheMuslimcreed.Ithasalsobeen necessarytoquotemuchthatBaraniwrotetohisowndiscredit.Rnt afterallthesedeductionshavebeenmade,theTilrikh-iFiruzSh(1/" remainsthel!reatestbookthathassurvivedtousfromthesultanr>t period.Its eminenceinthisrespect isunchallenl!able.NosinQ'lework ofAmirKhnsrauor AmirHasancanbecomparedwithit.Thevwere morecapablemenwithrrreaterreputations,bnttheirachievements areboundupwithaparticularsystemofthoughtandaspecificlan-guage.Thevreatness,orperhapsthegood luck,of theTarikh-iFiruz Shahiliesinthefactthatitisboundupintegrallvwiththehistorv ofIndia;andsolong asthehistoryofIndiaisstudied,Baranicannot beignored.Themanuscriptsofhisworkwerenoteasilyavailable inthe middleages;very often peoplecame to know ofit only through summariesorbvhearsay."SherKhan",savsAbdulFazl,"dividedthe wholeofHindl;stan,withtheexception'ofBengal,intoforty-seven iqtas.Heresortedtothebrandingofthetrooper'shorses.Healso heardofthedesignsof'AlauddinKhalji,whichhavebeendescribed by theTarikh-iFimzShahi,andadoptedsomeofthem."lToday gravesof Balban and 'AlauddinKh"lii!1l'Pnnlr"'Aum. ------366PoliticsandSocietyduringtheEarlyMedievalPeriod inSiriindicatetheplacewheretheHazarSutunpalaceoncestood. But Barani,old,half-blindandinacutedistress,brought theto lifebya.tremendouseffortofmemoryand deser,:,edlY}lelIves alongwiththem.NohistorianundercondItIonssodlstressmgand atanagesoadvancedhasproducedaworksogreat. inMedievalIndia,QI/arterly,Aligarh,Jan-AprilHI,58,,JIt,I,to 1t'oThePolitiC'll!Theoryofthe[Jell"Sl/itlllUlte,hClIlgt1(, Scp.1rate, \'agnIOC lIt.:101 '. l' Af _, . EnglishtlanslationofB;;lrani'sFlfltawa-i]a/u/lu{aribyProf.HabibaJ1(01.sal AI7..alu