Political Participation

A passive citizenry?

Political Participation

``actions undertaken by ordinary citizens that are intended, directly or indirectly, to influence the selection of government personnel and/or the policy decisions they make”

In Liberal Democracies

Voting in elections is only one of the activities of political participation.

Institutional context, especially the party system, has a clear impact on electoral or other forms of political participation.

Totalitarian Model of Political Participation

Citizens were involved in politics only when mobilized by the party-state to implement policies already made.

The author of ``Political Participation in the USSR" (1979) suggested that his book might as well be subtitled ``How and why do Soviet politics involve the people?"

In Mainland China

From ``mobilized” political participation to ``optional” political participation”

``Political Participation in Communist China” (1967)

``mass line” emphasizes direct contact between cadres and masses as the surest means of eliciting popular participation and keeping political leaders in touch with popular demands

In broadest terms, Communist mobilization of the masses has politicized an apolitical population.

``Citizens and Groups in Contemporary China” (1987)

``Chinese citizens do in fact regularly pursue their interests with a repertoire of tactics tailored to these constraints”

``Political Participation in Rural China” (1988)

In general, males, with ``good" class origins and some education, who were strong, skilled, and in their working prime, participated at higher rates.

Participatory Activities in Mainland China

Some common political activities in a democracy, such as donations for opposition parties or voting for government leaders, do not exist.

Other forms of activities, like reporting to the ``letters and visits offices" or utilizing patron-client relations, would be rare in a liberal democracy.

Five Participatory Modes

Mean score 1988 1996

Appeals 0.87 1.04

Adversarial activities

0.25 0.32

Cronyism 0.22 0.34

Resistance 0.28 0.16

Protest 0.05 0.19

Appeals

Complain through the bureaucratic hierarchy

Complain through political organizations

Complain through the trade unions Complain through deputies to local

people’s congresses …

Adversarial activities

Write letters to newspaper editors Write letters to government officials at

higher levels Complain through the ``letters and

visits” bureaus …

Cronyism

Use connections Send gifts to bureaucrats in exchange

for help …

Resistance

Slow-down on the job Whip up public opinion in work units

against leaders Organize a group of people to fight

against leaders …

Protest

Strike Participate in demonstration Sue bureaucrats in court …

Political Participation in Beijing (Shi 1999)

Peculiarities about Beijing:Capital of the PRCPer capita GDP US$3,060 (2001)61 institutions of higher education,

with total enrollment of 340,0002,328,000 residents have had at least

some college education1.28 million CCP members

Explanatory variables of political participation

Education Political interest Political efficacy Political knowledge Civic skills Party mobilization …

Political efficacy

Internal efficacy: beliefs about one’s own competence to understand and participate in politics

External efficacy: beliefs about the responsiveness of governmental authorities and institutions to citizen demands

Shi’s findings in Beijing

General level of education increased from 1988 to 1996

People became more concerned with politics and governmental affairs

Internal efficacy became stronger Frequency and intensity of political

activism increased

Shi’s findings in Beijing

Both adversarial activities and protest increased substantially between 1988 and 1996

Government activity and education became increasingly important in influencing the level and intensity of political participation

Shi (1999)’s Conclusion

Beijing residents have become more politically sophisticated and more assertive in the articulation of their interests

Compared with TW & HK

traditional orientationmoral governmentmoral leaderstate precedes over individualelitism (better educated)paternalismstability above pluralism

Traditional orientation

People with traditional orientation tend to be:less educatedolderliving in villages and townsemployed in blue-collar jobs

fairly consistent across the 3 societies

Effect on political participation

education is a most important factor the impact of political interest is far

more pronounced in TW & HK Party membership in ML HK: more individually-based traditional orientation has the least

influence