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Principles of Management & Organizational Behavior
Principles of Management and Organizational Behavior
Unit 2 The Individual
Individuals in Organizations Organizations and The Management of Learning
The Learning Organization - How People Learn
The outcomes of Learning Operant Conditioning Social Learning
Limitations of Behaviorist School Cognitive Theories
Learning Styles Complex Models of Learning Learning Models applied to study skills
Perception Importance Objective and Perceived reality
The Perceptual Process - Organization Translation
Perceiving Ourselves- Others Reducing Perceptual Others
The importance of Cultural Awareness to Managers Individualism- Collectivism Power Distance - Uncertainty avoidance
Masculinity- Femininity Time Orientation
Attitude Formation Change Work Related attitudes Importance Management of Employee
Attitudes
Work Motivation Content Theories
Process Theories of Motivation
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Individuals in Organizations
Personality : The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others
How do individuals differ?
Ethnic origin
Physique
Gender
Early family experiences
Social & cultural factors
National culture
Personality :Stable characteristics which explain why a person behaves in a particular way
Personality characteristics include:
Independence
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Self-control
Does a persons personality remain constant?
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Personality: its application in the workplace
Why should we value personality ?
Organisations regard personality as being of key significance in decision-making
Personality is taken into consideration at the selection interview
Personality is a powerful determinant of a managers effectiveness
The Nature of Learning
LEARNING :
Learning means change
Learning implies a different internal state that may result in new behaviours & actions or new understanding &
knowledge
Learning can be undertaken within a formal setting or be spontaneous or incremental
Factors influencing the learning process
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The significance of learning for managers
1. Powerful processes which can lead to positive outcomes, e.g. increased competence, understanding, self
esteem & morale
2. Individuals who enjoy learning are more likely to be flexible in times of constant change & therefore more
adaptable to organisational turbulence
3. Growing evidence that a learning culture can affect an organisations effectiveness
Organizations and the Management of Learning
Knowledge management : The promotion & formalisation of learning within the workplace with the aim of
aligning training with the needs of the business
Types of knowledge
Explicit knowledge knowledge that is easily communicated, quantified and systematic
Tacit knowledge knowledge and wisdom that is not easily communicated or quantified but is gained
through experience and communicated on an informal basis
The importance of knowledge management
Business pressure on innovation
Inter-organisational enterprises
Networked organisations & the need to co-ordinate geographically dispersed groups
Increasingly complex products & services with a significant knowledge component
Hyper-competitive marketplaces
Digitisation of business environments
Concerns about the loss of knowledge due to increasing staff mobility, attrition etc.
The learning organisation an organisation which facilitates the learning of all its members and continuously
transforms itself. -Pedler, Boydell & Burgoyne
Basic principles of a learning organisation - Lampel
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It can learn as much, if not more, from failure as from success
Rejects the adage if it aint broke, dont fix it as it constantly scrutinises the way things are done
Assumes that managers and workers closest to the design, manufacturing, distribution & sale of the product
often know more about these activities than their superiors
Seeks to move knowledge from one part of the organisation to another
Spends a lot of energy looking outside its own boundaries for knowledge
How people learn
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Social learning
Terms to understand
Stimulus : Any stimulating information or event; acts to arouse action
Response : A bodily process occurring due to the effect of some foregoing stimulus or agent
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
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Social learning
Drive -- Cue -- Response -- RewardDrive : A physiological state corresponding to a strong need or desire,The trait of being highly motivated
Cue : A stimulus that provides information about what to do
Response : A bodily process occurring due to the effect of some antecedent stimulus or agent
Reward : A recompense for worthy acts or retribution for wrongdoing
Limitations of the Behaviorist School
Methods
Learning Principles
Heart of the Matter
Account of Cognitive Factors
PERCEPTION
Perception
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The process by which people organize and obtain meaning from the sensory
(Involving or derived from the senses) stimuli they receive from the environment.
Personality
The collection of psychological characteristics or traits that determines a persons
preferences and individual style of behavior.
Culture
The way in which a society as a whole perceives the world and how it should
operate.
What we see is not what it is .
The Importance of Perception
Perception
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The process by which we become aware of, and give meaning to, events around us.
Perception helps define reality.
Objective realitywhat truly exists in the physical world to the best abilities of science
to measure it.
Perceived realitywhat individuals experience through one or more of the human
senses, and the meaning they ascribe to those experiences.
Behavioral problems arise when an individuals perceived reality does not match
objective reality.
The Perceptual Process
The Perceptual Process
1. Sensation
An individuals ability to detect stimuli in the immediate environment.
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Our sensation abilities are limited, otherwise we will be in serious troubles of
overloading.
2. Selection
The process a person uses to eliminate some of the stimuli that have been
sensed and to retain others for further processing.
Two attributes that are particularly key to Selection are :
a) Physical Characteristics of Stimulus (Any stimulating information or event; acts to
arouse action)
b) Characteristics of Perceiver
Physical Characteristics of Stimuli
Contrast
The difference between one stimulus and surrounding stimuli that makes that
stimulus more likely to be selected for perceptual processing.
Which Blue circle is Bigger ? A or B
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Novelty
When the stimulus an individual senses differs from stimuli experienced in the
past.
Intensity
The forcefulness that enhances the likelihood that a stimulus will be selected
for perceptual processing.
Change
The variety that causes a stimulus to be selected for perceptual processing.
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Motive
Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individuals current active motives such
as a deficiency (e.g., hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of
the stimulus.
Personality
An individual characteristic that creates an increased likelihood that a
particular stimulus related to the characteristic will be noticed.
The Perceptual Process (contd)
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3. Organization
The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into a framework for
storage.
Stimuli become associated when they:
Are similar in physical resemblance.
Occur in close physical (space) proximity.
Occur in close time proximity.
Are used for figure-ground differentiation.
Are used together to achieve closurea perception of the whole or to
piece together a message.
Figure-Ground Illustration
Field-ground differentiation
The tendency to distinguish and focus on a stimulus that is classified as figure
as opposed to background.
Closure
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Closure
The tendency to organize perceptual stimuli so that, together, they form a
complete message.
The Perceptual Process (contd)
4. Transition
The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are interpreted and given
meaning.
Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective reality) of objective
reality :
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Stereotyping
Halo effect
Projection
Selective perception
Expectancy effects
Transition Errors
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Primacy effect : The disproportionately high weight given to the first
information obtained about a stimulus.
Recency effect : The disproportionately high weight given to the last
information obtained about a stimulus.
Stereotyping: The generalization (application) of a persons prior beliefs about
a class of stimulus objects during encounters with members of that class of
objects.
Halo effect : The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation of an
individual to specific characteristics of the person.
Projection: The process by which people attribute their own feelings and
characteristics to other people.
Selective perception : The selection of things consistent with ones own
personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are inconsistent with that
viewpoint;
A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs that conflict with
new information.
Expectancy effect: The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that confirm
expectations.
Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs when people
unconsciously adjust their behaviors to reflect their expectations in a
situation.
Self Perceptions: The Johari Window
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One way to conceptualize the possible combinations of what you know about
yourself and what others know about you.
Characteristics Affecting the Perception of Others
Perceiving Others
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Characteristics of the person perceived
Implicit personality theorythe tendency to ascribe personality traits to
people because they share certain characteristics (e.g., group membership,
status) with others.
Characteristics of the organization
An individuals association with an organization affects the perception of that
individual.
Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how other individuals are
perceived within the organization.
Characteristics of the perceiver
Attribution theoryexplains how people assign responsibility and the cognitive
processes by which they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the
behavior of others.
Locus of causalitythe attribution of the observed behavior of others to
internal or external causes.
Fundamental errorthe tendency to overestimate the effects of internal
causes and underestimate the effects of external causes when we judgeother peoples actions.
Reducing Perceptual Errors
Self-understanding
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The acknowledgement that you and people who interact with you are
susceptible to perceptual errors.
Conscious information processing
Carefully considering the facts during the perceptual process and consciously
questioning
the accuracy of what you perceive.
Reality testing
The comparison of developed perceptions about a stimulus object to another
(objective) measure of the object.
Another important factor in perception is .
CULTURE
Cultural Differences Among Organizational Members
Culture defined : How a society perceives the
world and how it should operate based on the
beliefs, values, attitudes, and expectations for
behavior that the society believes to be good,
effective, desirable, and beneficial.
Cultural Awareness and Managers
Culture affects:
The success of expatriate employees in overseas assignments.
The effectiveness of management practices and leadership styles in different cultures.
Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)
Individualism-collectivism
The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to act as individuals, as opposed to a group.
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Power distance
The acceptance of large differences in power between the most and least powerful in society.
Uncertainty avoidance
The degree to which cultures differ in the extent to which they tolerate uncertainty.
Masculinity-femininity
The degree to which a society displays mostly traditionally male or traditionally female traits.
Time orientation
The degree to which cultures possess a short or long perspective on time.
Attitudes and Their Components
Attitude
An individuals predisposition to think, feel, perceive, and behave in certain ways toward a particular tangible
or intangible phenomenon (attitude object).
Cognitive componentwhat we know, or think we know, about the attitude object.
Affective componentthe feelings a person has toward an attitude object.
Behavioral tendency componentthe way an individual is inclined to behave toward an attitude object.
Attitudes develop over time and are resistant to change.
Illustration of the Attitude Behavior Relationship
Attitude Formation
Personal experience
Coming into direct contact with an attitude object creates perceptions about the objects
characteristics which are transformed into an attitude about the object.
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Association
The transference of parts or all of an attitude about an old object to a new attitude object.
Attitude Formation
Social learning
The influence of persons with whom an individual works on the formation of the individuals
attitudes.
Heredity
The transmission from parents to offspring of certain defining characteristics; a genetic
predisposition to behave or think in certain ways.
Attitude Change
Strategies for changing an attitude:
Present new information (cognitive component).
Present a different emotional reaction to the attitude object (affective component).
Provide a new experience with the attitude object that conflicts with prior experience.
Create new associations for the attitude object.
Use others more experienced with the attitude object for social learning.
Change the behavior associated with the attitude.
Cognitive dissonance
An unpleasant psychological state that occurs when a person possesses conflicting thoughts
about an attitude object.
Work-related Attitudes
Job satisfaction
The attitude that results from the appraisal of ones job as attaining or enabling the attainment of
ones important job values.
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Positive job attitudes arise when
jobs enable persons to
attain their values.
Facets of job satisfaction
Job contentwhat is done on the job
Job contextthe environment in which the job is done
Overall job satisfaction
A combination of facet satisfactions
that describes a persons overall
affective reaction to a set of
work-related factors.
Causes of job satisfaction
Experience with the work environment and job content
Association of the current job with past occupations/jobs
Social learning from others in the workplace
Genetic predispositions
Individual personalities
Organization goals and management actions
Measuring job satisfaction
Observing worker behavior
Interviewing workers about satisfaction levels
Distributing questionnaires to obtain information systematically
Measurement instruments: Faces (Kunin), Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ),Job
Descriptive Index (JDI)
Consequences of job satisfaction
Employees are less likely to:
Consider quitting
Be absent or tardy
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Refuse to be good organizational citizens
Job performance does not appear to have a significant relationship to job satisfaction.
The Management of Employee Attitudes
Organizational influences on employee attitudes
Determinants of Performance
Theories of Motivation
Content motivation theories
Theories that focus on the content ofwhat factors (needs) motivate people.
Process motivation theories
Theories that address how and whypeople become motivated.
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Needs
Need
A human condition that becomes energized when people feel deficient in some respect.
Needs provide direction for motivation:
When a need is energized, people are motivated to satisfy it; once satisfied, the need no
longer motivates.
Hedonism
Early motivation theory that assumes people are motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek
pleasure, avoid pain).
Content Theories of Motivation
Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)
Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
ERG Theory (Alderfer)
Motivator-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg)
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Content Theories of Motivation
Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)
The theory assumes that behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy manifest (most current) needs.
Latent needsneeds which an individual may have but are not evident in their current
behaviors.
Primary (instinctive) needsphysiological needs.
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Secondary (learned) needspsychological needs.
Content Theories of Motivation
Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)
The theory assumes that peoples behavior in organizations is based on three principal needs:
Need for Achievement (nAch)the need to excel at the tasks they are performing.
Need for Affiliation (nAff)the need to establish and maintain warm and friendly
relationships with other people.
Need for power (nPow)the need to control things, especially other people; reflects a
motivation to influence and be responsible for other people.
Content Theories of Motivation
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
The theory assumes that a higher order need is not manifest and cannot remain manifest unless
lower order needs are satisfied.
Physiological needsair, water, food, and sleep.
Safety and security needsfreedom from danger.
Social needsreceive love and affection from others.
Ego and esteem needsto be respected by others.
Self-actualizationthe need for self-fulfillment.
Content Theories of Motivation
Alderfers ERG Theory
The theory compresses Maslows five need categories
into three: existence needs, relatedness needs, growthneeds.
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Content Theories of Motivation
Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene Theory
The theory posits that there are two sets of needs (motivators and hygienes) that affect individual
motivation and that they are not on a single continuum.
Motivators (growth needs/satisfiers)long-term needs related to job content; to having
sense of achievement (growth and self-actualization) from performing a job.
Hygienes (dissatisfiers)job context needs that must be met for an individual to avoid
dissatisfaction; they do not necessarily provide satisfaction or motivation.
Content Theories of Motivation
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) : The theory seeks to explain both the causes of motivation and how extrinsic
rewards affect intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivationperformance of a behavior to acquire an external reward that will
satisfy a lower-order need (e.g., working for wages).
Intrinsic motivationperformance of a behavior that in and of itself is rewarding (e.g.,
completing a crossword puzzle) and satisfies a higher-order need.
Increases in extrinsic rewards can decrease the level of intrinsic motivation in the performance of anactivity.
Process Theories of Motivation
Operant Conditioning Theory
Equity Theory
Goal Theory
Expectancy Theory
Process Theories of Motivation
Operant Conditioning Theory
The theory posits that people learn to behave in a particular fashion as a result of the consequences
that have followed their past behaviors.
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Operant conditioninga learning process based on the results produced by a person
operating on the environment. The reaction of the environment is to reward, punish, or
ignore the person.
Reinforcementoccurs when a consequence makes behavior more likely to be repeated.
Extinctionoccurs when a consequence or no consequence makes behavior less likely to be
repeated.
Process Theories of Motivation
Operant Conditioning Theory
Learning process steps:
Stimulus (S)any situation or perceived event to which an individual responds.
Response (R)any behavior or action taken in reaction to a stimulus.
Consequence (C)any event (positive or negative) following a response that makes the
response more (or less) likely to recur.
General Operant Model: S R C
Process Theories of Motivation
Operant Conditioning Theory (contd)
Making a response more likely by:
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Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Avoidance learning
Making a response less likely by:
Punishment
Nonreinforcement
Process Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory
Theory states that motivation is affected by the an individuals perception of the equity
(fairness) of the outcomes (rewards) they receive in return for their inputs (efforts),
compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people (referent others).
Referent other ratio comparisons:
State of equityratio comparison is satisfactory.
Overrewardratio comparison favors the individual.
Underrewardratio comparison favors the referent other.
The Equity Theory Comparison
Process Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory (contd)
Responses to a perceived state of inequity:
Alter inputs of the person
Alter outcomes of the person
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Alter inputs of the referent other
Alter outcomes of the referent other
Distort perceptions of inputs or outcomes
Choose a different referent other
Leave the situation
Process Theories of Motivation
Goal Theory
The theory states that people will perform better if they have difficult, specific accepted
performance goals or objectives.
People will attempt to achieve those goals that they intend to achieve.
Difficult goals result in better performance than easy goals.
Specific goals are better than vague goals.
People must accept goals as their own if they are to work toward achieving them.
People must commit to goals to achieve them.
Process Theories of Motivation
The Goal Setting Process
Process Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory
The theory posits that rational people will exert high levels of effort to perform at high levels so
they can obtain valued outcomes.
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Directionwhich alternative to choose?
Intensityhow much effort to implement the alternative?
Valencethe degree to which a person perceives an outcome as being desirable, neutral, or
undesirable.
Organizations must make outcomes contingent upon performance and they should also equitably
distribute outcomes based on performance.
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
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