Post on 27-May-2020
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
Phonology
Darrell Larsen
Linguistics 101
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
Outline
1 Understanding PhonologyBasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
2 Doing PhonologyHow to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
3 Summary
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
What Is Phonology?
Definitionthe study of the sound systems of languages and the mentalrepresentation of sounds
sound system = inventory of sounds + rules + constraints
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Why DoWe Need Phonology?
to account for how sounds are groups together despite beingphonetically distinct.
to explain regular sound alternations (e.g. aspiration of /p t k/)
to explain how we extend these alternations to novel words
to explain how we extend these alternations to mistakes likespoonerisms
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Why DoWe Need Phonology?
to explain how we pronounce loan words
to explain how we determine what possible words of ourlanguage are
to save storage space
etc
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
How Do Phonetics and Phonology Differ?
Phonetics:concerned with actual pronunciationconcerned with articulation
Phonology:focuses on mental representations of soundshas rules mapping mental representations to pronunciations
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
How Do Phonetics and Phonology Differ?
Phonetics
The /k/ in call [khAl] and in key[kff
hi] are phonetically distinct.
PhonologyThe /k/ in call and key have thesame mental representation./kAl/→ [khAl]/ki/→ [kff
hi]
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
How Do Phonetics and Phonology Differ?Letter Analogy
a A
Pseudo-phoneticsThe symbols above are distinct.
Pseudo-phonologyThe symbols above belong to asingle mental representation ofthe letter ‘a’.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
From Phonology to Phonetics
Phonology is the starting point, while phonetics is the ‘output’of phonology.
Phonological rules change sounds from mentalrepresentations (phonemes) into phonetic forms.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
From Phonology to Phonetics
Letter AnalogyThe single letter ‘a’ is written as 〈a〉 or 〈A〉 in accordance withthe following (simplified) set of rules:
Use 〈A〉 at the beginning of a sentence.Use 〈A〉 at the beginning of a proper noun.Use 〈a〉 elsewhere.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
From Phonology to Phonetics
Actual ExampleThe single phoneme /k/ is pronounced as [k] or [kff] inaccordance with the following (simplified) set of rules:
Use [kff] in front of the vowel /i/.Use [k] elsewhere.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Phonemes and AllophonesThe Basics
A speech sound in isolation is a phone.
The mental representation of a sound is a phoneme.
Allophones are phonetic realizations of phonemes.
Allophones are generally minimally distinct from phonemes.
A phoneme consists of one or more allophones.
Every speech sound we produce is an allophone of somephoneme.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Phonemes and AllophonesNotation
Allophones are written between square brackets [ ].
Phonemes are written between forward slashes / /.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
From Phonology to PhoneticsPhonemes & Allophones
Native speakers generally think of sounds at the phonemiclevel.
Phoneme Allophone Example
/t/
[t] ‘stop’[t^] ‘cat’[P] ‘cat’[th] ‘tie’[R] ‘atom’[tS] ‘train’
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Types of Distributions
When comparing the speech sounds of a language, we canclassify their relative distribution as one of the following:
1 contrastive2 complementary3 free variation
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Contrastive Distribution
Two sounds are contrastive when:1 they occur in the same environment, and2 replacing one sound with the other can change a word’s
meaning
QuestionAre [s] and [z] contrastive in English?
Are [k] and [kh] contrastive in English?
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Contrastive Distribution
Two contrastive phones are allophones of different phonemes.
Two non-contrastive phones are allophones of the samephoneme.
QuestionDo [s] and [z] belong to the same phoneme or differentphonemes in English?
How about [k] and [kh]?
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Contrastive DistributionMinimal Pairs
Minimal pairs provide evidence that two phones are incontrastive distributionA minimal pair is two words...
1 with the same number of sound segments, and2 which differ in segment only, and3 which have different meanings
Minimal Pairs
[bin] ‘bean’ [min] ‘mean’[m2d] ‘mud’ [T2d] ‘thud’[læf] ’laugh’ [khæf] ‘calf’
NotMinimal Pairs
[sænd] ‘sand’ [stænd] ‘stand’[bin] ‘bean’ [bæm] ‘bam’[khæt] ‘cat’ [khæP]
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Complementary Distribution
Sounds in complementary distribution...1 never occur in the same environment2 occur in predictable environments (with respect to each other)
Sounds in complementary distribution are allophones of thesame phoneme.
Question
Are [p] and [ph] in complementary distribution in English?
How about [t] and [d]?
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Free Variation
Two sounds are free variation when:1 they occur in the same environment, and2 replacing one with the other does not change the meaning
Sounds in free variation are allophones of the same phoneme.
QuestionAre released [b] and unreleased [b^] in free variationword-finally?
Are released [b] and unreleased [b^] in free variationword-initially?
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Crosslinguistic Variation
The distribution of any two sounds is language-specific.
English [su] ‘sue’ Finnish [ku:si] ‘six’[zu] ‘zoo’ [ku:zi] ‘six’
English [pi] - Korean [pi] ‘rain’[phi] ‘pee’/‘pea’ [phi] ‘blood
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Multiple Distributions
The distribution of two sounds may vary depending on theenvironment.
Consider the sounds [t], [t^] and [P] in English
‘cat’ [kæt] [kæt^] [khæP]‘stop’ [stap] *[st^ap] *[sPap]
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Multiple Distributions
A phone may be allophones of more than one phoneme.
E.g., [R] can be an allophone of /t/ or /d/.
‘atom’ [æR@m] cf. ‘atomic’ [@thamIk]‘addict’ [æRIkt] cf. ‘addictive’ [@dIktIv]
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Distinctive Features
A distinctive feature is a feature which, when changed, maycreate minimal pairs.
Any feature may potentially be distinctive.
Which features are distinctive is language-specific.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Distinctive FeaturesExamples
Voicing, [±voice], is a distinctive feature in English, but not inKorean.
[p] and [b] are contrastive in English.[p] and [b] are in complementary distribution in Korean.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
BasicsPhonology vs. PhoneticsDistribution of SoundsDistinctive Features
Distinctive FeaturesExamples
Aspiration, [±aspirated], is a distinctive feature in Korean, butnot in English.
[p] and [ph] are contrastive in Korean.[p] and [ph] are in complementary distribution in English.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Doing Phonology
Given a set of data from a language, how can we determinethe distribution of two sounds in that language?
1 Determine the distribution type (contrastive, complementary,free variation).
2 If complementary distribution, determine distribution of eachallophone.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Determine the Distribution Type
1 Are there any minimal pairs for the sounds in question?Yes? They are contrastive and allophones of differentphonemes. You are done.No? They are allophones of the same phoneme. Continue tonext step.
2 Are they in free variation?Yes? You are done.No? They are in complementary distribution. Continue to nextstep.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Determine Complementary Allophone Distribution
To find the distribution of allophones in complementarydistribution...
1 Make a chart of the environment in which each allophone inquestion appears. Exclude duplicate environment.
2 Look for patterns.3 Decide what the phoneme is.4 Write a rule showing the distribution.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Korean [s] and [S]Determine Distribution Type
Given the Korean data below, determine the distribution of [s]and [S].
First, determine the distribution type.
[son] ‘hand’ [som] ‘cotton’ [Sihap] ‘match, game’[Silsu] ‘mistake’ [sos@l] ‘novel’ [sEk] ‘color’[isa] ‘relocating’ [sal] ‘skin’ [Sipsam] ‘13’[Sinho] ‘signal’ [maSida] ‘drink’ [oSip] ‘50’
They are in complementary distribution. Continue to next step.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Korean [s] and [S]Determine Complementary Allophone Distribution
Step 1: Make a chartData[son][som][Sihap][Silsu][sos@l][sEk][isa][sal][Sipsam][Sinho][maSida][oSip]
s S# o # i# o # il u # i# o # io @ a i# E o ii a# ap a
Simplify→
s S# o # i
l u
o @ a i# E o ii a# ap a
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Korean [s] and [S]Determine Complementary Allophone Distribution
Step 2: Look for patterns on preceding / following sounds.Data[son][som][Sihap][Silsu][sos@l][sEk][isa][sal][Sipsam][Sinho][maSida][oSip]
s S# o # il u a io @ o i# Ei a# ap a
Helpful order for searching:1 C, V, #2 Voicing on consonants3 Vowel features4 Other consonant features
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Korean [s] and [S]Determine Complementary Allophone Distribution
Step 2: Look for patterns on preceding / following sounds.Data[son][som][Sihap][Silsu][sos@l][sEk][isa][sal][Sipsam][Sinho][maSida][oSip]
s S# o # il u a io @ o i# Ei a# ap a
[S] appears in front of [i]
[s] does not appear in front of [i]
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Korean [s] and [S]Determine Complementary Allophone Distribution
Step 3: Decide what the phoneme is.Data[son][som][Sihap][Silsu][sos@l][sEk][isa][sal][Sipsam][Sinho][maSida][oSip]
s S# o # il u a io @ o i# Ei a# ap a
In general, the allophoneoccurring in the greatest numberof distinct environments is thephoneme.
Here, /s/ will be our phoneme.
[S] and [s] are both allophones of/s/
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Korean [s] and [S]Determine Complementary Allophone Distribution
Step 4: Write a rule showing the distribution.Data[son][som][Sihap][Silsu][sos@l][sEk][isa][sal][Sipsam][Sinho][maSida][oSip]
s S# o # il u a io @ o i# Ei a# ap a
Start with ‘opposite’ sound(s)./s/→ [S] / i
Do the ‘same’ sound./s/→ [s] / elsewhere
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
When two sounds are in complementary distribution, we canshow the distribution through the use of rules.
Phonologist argue that these rules are psychologically real.
Example 1
V → V[+nasal] / C[+nasal]pre-change becomes post-change when environment
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
The rule below says that a vowel becomes nasalized when itoccurs immediately in front of a nasal consonant.
Example 1
V → V[+nasal] / C[+nasal]
‘mom’ /mAm/→ [mAm]
‘mop’ /mAp/→ [mAp] (rule does not apply because [p] is notnasal.)
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
In Korean, /p/ becomes voiced intervocalically.
We can write a sound-specific rule as follows:
Example 2
/p/ → [b] / V V
‘idiot’ /papo/→ [pabo]
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
In fact, Korean has four voiceless stops /p t c k/, and they allbecome voiced intervocalically.
If we write four sound-specific rules, it doesn’t capture thegeneral pattern.
Instead, we can write rules with features.
Example 3
/+stop/ → [+voice] / V V
The above rule subsumes the following: /p/→ [b], /t/→ [d],/c/→ [é], /k/→ [g]
Note that we only need to write the feature that changes afterthe arrow. Everything else stays the same.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
English voiceless stops /p t k/ become aspirated word-initially(and at the beginning of stressed syllables, which we willignore for now)
Example 4
/-voice, +stop/ → [+aspirated] / #
The # stands for a word boundary. # means ‘at thebeginning of a word’, while # means ‘at the end of a word’.
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
How to Solve a Phonology ProblemExample Phonology ProblemWriting Phonological Rules
Rules come in sets. The final rule is always the ‘elsewhererule’.
Consider aspiration in English. For ease of presentation, I’lluse sound-specific rules for /p/.
/p/→ [ph] / # (i.e. beginning of a word)/p/→ [ph] / [ ...]σ[+stress] (i.e. beginning of a stressed syllable)/p/→ [p] / elsewhere
Thus, ‘pat’ [pæt]→ [phæt], ‘superb’ /supô"b/→ [suphô
"b], and
‘spot’ /spAt/→ [spAt]
(Don’t waste your time trying to understand the stressed-syllable rule. You won’t need such rules in this course.)
Darrell Larsen Phonology
Understanding PhonologyDoing Phonology
Summary
SummaryKeyWords and Concepts
phonology vs phonetics
phoneme vs allophonedistribution types
contrastivecomplimentaryfree variation
minimal pair
distinctive feature
phonological rules
solving phonology problems
Darrell Larsen Phonology