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Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Articulatory Phonetics
Phonetics k Phonology
(Clark & Yallop, Chapter 2 & 6)
Christian Ebert
christian.ebert@uni-tuebingen.de
Universität Tübingen
Seminar für Sprachwissenschaft
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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organizational issues
revised schedule
22.10. introduction29.10. articulatory phonetics: anatomy & physiology05.11. articulatory phonetics: consonants12.11. articulatory phonetics: vowels & complex articulation19.11. phonology: basic concepts of generative phonology26.11. phonology: phonological processes03.12. phonology: distinctive features10.12. phonology: distinctive features & rule ordering17.12. autosegmental phonology: tone14.01. autosegmental phonology: syllables21.01. review session28.01. exam04.02. discussion of exam solutions (and handout of corrected exams, if possible)
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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organizational issues
tutors
Nadine Hollmannnadinehollmann@online.deNiko Votsosnikolaos.votsos@student.uni-tuebingen.de
tutorials
mondays 12-13 room 1.13 starts 8. November
tuesdays 12-13 room 0.35; Brechtbau starts 2. November
wednesdays 11-12 room 1.13 starts 3. November
wednesdays 16-18 room 0.35; Brechtbau starts 3. November
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Reminderarticulatory vs. acoustic vs. auditory/perceptual
Vorlage: Karl-Heinz Wagner, Skript zur Phonetik und Phonologie; http://www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/linguistik/khwagner/phonetik/
a simple model of communication
speech productionarticulatory phonetics
sound propagationacoustic phonetics
speech perceptionauditory/perceptual phonetics
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Sound
sound waves are longitudinal waves in a propagating medium (e.g. air)
longitudinal wave: at some places the medium is compressed, and at others the medium expands
i.e. the pressure in the medium varies
What is sound?
air molecules
amplitude
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Sound
to produce sounds, some energy source must cause the compression of the medium
in the case of speech sounds, an stream of air must be produced; we hence speak of the airstream process/mechanisms
this airstream is modified at later stages. First by a process that is responsible for voice/voicelessness called phonation, ...
... and then by articulation, responsible for further shaping the eventual speech sound.
What is sound?
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Speech organs
Speech organs are those parts of the human body that are actively or passively involved in the production of speech sounds.
They include the lung, the larynx, the pharynx, the tongue, the lips, etc.
Obviously, their participation in the production of speech is only a secondary purpose; they actually fulfill more vital functions (respiration, swallowing, food processing)
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Speech organs
lips
tongue
larynx, includingthe glottis
lung (pulmo)
windpipe (trachea)
diaphragm
pharynx
oral cavity
palate
nasal cavity
supr
aglo
ttal
subg
lott
al
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Speech organs
lips
tongue
glottis
lung volume
pharynx
oral cavity
hard palate (palatum)
nasal cavityschematics
soft palate (velum)
lung air pressure
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Speech organsschematics
in most languages (z.B. German,English, etc.) the lung is the sole source for providing anairstream (ð airstream process)
this air flows through the glottis, an aperatur build by the vocal folds
depending on the pressure and the exact position of the vocal folds the air is causedto vibrate (ð phonation)
the air flows through the pharynx and through the oral or nasal cavity, depending on the position of the soft palate, and is further shaped by tongue, lips, etc. (ð articulation)
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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The airstream processbasics
to produce speech sounds an airstream has to be generated
this airstream can be oriented in two ways:
egressive — the airstream is directed away from the body, i.e. air is pushed out off mouth or nose (as in the case of exhaling).
ingressive — the airstream is directed inwards, i.e air streams into mouth or nose (as in the case of inhaling).
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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The airstream processpulmonic airstream mechanism
most languages of the world make use of lung airflow that is the result of activities of the respiratory system (lung, diaphragm, trachea, etc.)
such an airstream is called pulmonic (from lat. pulmo, lung)
all languages make use of egressive pulmonic airstream for speech sound production, many as the sole process (e.g. German, English, Spanish, Indonesian, Chinese)
ingressive pulmonic airstream can in principle also be used for speech production, but no language is known where this is done in a systematic way
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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the respiratory system is contained within the chest (lat. thorax), i.e. a cage of ribs, the sternum and the vertebral column
the lung itself does not have any muscles,but she is connected to the thoracic cage by pleural linkage, an interface of fluids
through this linkage changes in the thoracic cavity volume cause changes in the lung volume vertebral column
sternum
ribs
The airstream processpulmonic airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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during inspiration the diaphragm moves downward and the external intercostal muscles are contracted
this causes the rib cage structure to be raised and hence the thoracic cage volume and thus the lung volume are increased
this lowers the internal air pressure in the lungs relative to external air pressure and allows air to flow into the lungs via nose and mouth to equalize pressures
The airstream processpulmonic airstream mechanism
trachea
heart
diaphragm
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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for expiration, the lung volume is reduced, causing an increase in internal lung air pressure and hence a flow of air out of the lungs
this is achieved while all inspiratory muscles are relaxed (without contraction of any other muscles) by the elastic recoil forces set up during inspiration only
for this reason the resultant air pressure is known as relaxation pressure
The airstream processpulmonic airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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however, the relaxation pressure is greater than required for normal conversational speech.
hence, muscles primarily associated with inspiratory activity (particularly the external intercostals) are used to resist the effects of elastic recoil forces until relaxation pressure has lowered to the appropriate level of speech.
once relaxation pressure has dropped below the needed pressure for speech, the expiratory muscles (internal intercostals, abdominal muscles) compress the rib cage further.
the goal of all this is to maintain a consistent subglottal pressure
The airstream processpulmonic airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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air volume
subglottal pressure
diaphragm
external intercostals
expiratory muscles
time
speech
mus
cle
acti
vity
The airstream processpulmonic airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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glottalic airstream mechanism
instead of the respiratory system, the larynx may be used to produce an airstream
more precisely, the glottis has a prominent role since it is closed completely to create a body of air about it that is moved by the larynx
for this reason, this airstrem mechanism is called glottalic
as in the case of pulmonic airstream, glottalic airstream may be egressive or ingressive
The airstream process
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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The airstream processglottalic airstream mechanism
an egressiv glottalic airstream is produced by
1. forming an oral closure,oral closure2. forming a velar closure, velar closure
3. closing the glottis,
glottal closure
4. rapidly moving the larynx and hence the closed glottis upward
upwardmovementof larynx
Hence the supraglottal body of air is compressed increasing the internal pressure. At release of the oral closure a „burst“ sound will obtain.
Vorlage: Karl-Heinz Wagner, Skript zur Phonetik und Phonologie
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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the sounds that are produced with a egressive glottalic airstream are called ejectives
ejectives are marked with a diacritical apostrophe ¤ in the IPA
due to the complete closure of the glottis, ejectives are voiceless
ejectives occur in many American Indian languages as well as in some African languages
Examples: Montana Salish „six“ t¤aæq¤@nQuechua „tomato sauce“ q¤aLuHausa „increase“ k¤a:ra
The airstream processglottalic airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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an ingressive glottalic airstream is produced by
1. forming an oral closure, oral closure2. forming an velar closure, velar closure
3. closing the glottis to voiced position,
vibrating glottis
4. rapidly moving the larynx and hence the closed glottis downward
downward movement of larynx
Hence the supraglottal body of air is rarefied reducing the internal pressure. At release of the oral closure an „implosion“ sound will obtain.
Vorlage: Karl-Heinz Wagner, Skript zur Phonetik und Phonologie
The airstream processglottalic airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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the sounds that are produced with a ingressive glottalic airstream are called implosives
since the glottis is not closed completely, some lung air may still be pushed out and hence the sound us usually voiced
for implosives the IPA provides special symbols with little hooks at the top e.g. �
implosive occur in several American Indian and African languages
Examples: Owerri Igbo „to gather“ iæa (voiceless)„to dance“ iæa (voiced)
Sindhi „handle“ anu„ear“ kanu
The airstream processglottalic airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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A last possibility concerns velaric airstream. It is produced by
1. forming an oral closure
2. forming a velar closure by raising the back of the tongue to the velum
3. rapidly moving the tongue downwards
velar closureoral closure
downward movement of tongue
Hence the body of air in the frontal oral cavity is rarefied reducing the internal pressure. At release of the oral closure a „click“ sound will obtain.
Vorlage: Karl-Heinz Wagner, Skript zur Phonetik und Phonologie
The airstream processvelaric airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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this mechanism is ingressive (an egressive version is conceivable, but not known to be used in any language)
the sounds that are produced with an ingressive velaric airstream are called clicks
for clicks there are special symbols in the IPA, e.g. « Å Ç Æ !
clicks are occur in some African languages
examples: Zulu „left hand“ ès è:NÇeæ:leèXhosa „to lie on back, knees up“ ukuæNÇoNÇaNama „hollow“ k!oas
The airstream processvelaric airstream mechanism
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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The airstream processsummary
two directions (egressive/ingressive) and three modes (pulmonic/glottalic/velaric) for airflow
pulmonic egressive: the respiratory system is responsible for generating an outgoing airstrem ð consonants/vowels
glottalic egressive: upward movement of larynx with closed glottis results in higher internal oral pressure ð ejectives
glottalic ingressive: downward movement of larynx with glottis in 'voiced' position results in lower internal pressure ð implosives
velaric ingressive: downward movement of back of tongue placed at the velum results in lower internal pressure ð clicks
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Phonation
reminder:An egressive pulmonic airstream passses through the larynx, more precisely the glottis
the glottis is the first place where this egressive pulmonic airstream can be modified
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Phonationthe larynx
Vorlage: Karl-Heinz Wagner, Skript zur Phonetik und Phonologie
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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the basic function of the larynx is as a valve in the respiratory system
in particular, it is responsible for directing food or drink into the esophagus and to deflect it from the windpipe by shutting the epiglottis during swallowing.
during speaking, the vocal folds contained in the larynx are responsible for making the sound voiced or voiceless.
the vocal folds are attached to the thyroid cartilage in front and the arytenoid cartilages at the back.
the arytenoid cartilages can be tilted by various muscles leading to different shapes of the aperture between the vocal folds, the glottis
Phonationthe larynx
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Phonationvocal folds and glottis
the larynx seen from above
thyroid cartilage
vocal folds
glottis
arytenoid cartilages
Glottis in Stimmstellung Glottis in Atemstellung
thyroid cartilage
vocal folds
glottis
arytenoidcartilages
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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the arytenoid cartilages can be moved and tilted in several ways by various muscles
this determines the shape of the glottis (and in particular whether it is open or closed) and the tensioning of the vocal folds
when the glottis is closed expiratory airflow will cause the vocal folds to vibrate
this causes the airstream to vibrate periodically in the same way and a kind of „tone“ is produced — the resultant speech sound is voiced
when the glottis remains open (as in the case of expiration) the airstream passes unmodified and the resultant speech sound is voiceless
Phonationvocal folds and glottis
epiglottis
vocalfolds
trachea
falsevocalfolds
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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air pressure forces vocal folds apart
cleavage gets bigger glottis open
glottis closed, vocal folds adducted
vocal folds
Vorl
age:
Kar
l-H
einz
Wag
ner,
Skr
ipt
zur
Phon
etik
und
Pho
nolo
gie
Phonationvocal folds and glottis
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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airflow through open glottis air pressure drops at glottis (Bernoulli effect)
elasticity of vocal folds causes them to close again glottis closed
Vorl
age:
Kar
l-H
einz
Wag
ner,
Skr
ipt
zur
Phon
etik
und
Pho
nolo
gie
Phonationvocal folds and glottis
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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inspiration:
vocal folds are pulled apart by arytenoid cartilages
pulmonic airstream can pass unhindered
the resulting sound is voiceless
voicelessness is indicated in the IPA by a diacritical (where it makes a difference, i.e. with sounds that are not voiceless anyway such as [t])
normal phonation:
vocal folds are close together
pulmonic airstream causes them to vibrate the →resulting sound is voiced
Vorl
age:
Kar
l-H
einz
Wag
ner,
Skr
ipt
zur
Phon
etik
und
Pho
nolo
gie
Phonationglottis state and phonation modes
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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whisper:
the glottis is closed completely, but the arytenoid cartilages are tilted such that they form a little aperture
the resulting sound is voiceless
breathy voice / murmur:
arytenoid cartilages are in similar position as in the whisper mode, but the vocal folds do not close the glottis completely and may vibrate
the resulting sound is murmuredVorl
age:
Kar
l-H
einz
Wag
ner,
Skr
ipt
zur
Phon
etik
und
Pho
nolo
gie
Phonationglottis state and phonation modes
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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breathy voice is a distinctive feature in some southeast-asiatic languages (i.e. there are identical sequences of segments with different meanings where breathy voice makes the sole difference).
breathy voice is noted by a diacritical Ð in the IPA
examples: Gujarati „dirt“ mEl „palace“ mEÐl
Marathi „to hit“ maar„a caste“ mÐaar
Phonationglottis state and phonation modes
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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creaky voice/ laryngealization:
arytenoid cartilages are tightly together, so that vocal folds can vibrate only at the anterior end at very low frequency
this produces a „creaky“ sound
Vorl
age:
Kar
l-H
einz
Wag
ner,
Skr
ipt
zur
Phon
etik
und
Pho
nolo
gie
laryngealized sounds are noted in the IPA by a diacritical Ñexamples: Kambaata „it will be green“ gorÑano
Mazatec „seed“ t{æ„buttocks“ nd{æÑ„horse“ nd{æÐ
Phonationglottis state and phonation modes
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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the glottis is the gap that is formed by the vocal folds, which are positioned by the arytenoid cartilages
in normal phonation/voiced mode, an egressive pulmonic airstream causes the vocal folds to vibrate and a voiced sound ensues
in inspiration mode, the airstream passes unhindered and a voiceless sound ensues
further modes of phonationsarten include whisper, breathy voice/murmur and creaky voice/laryngealization
Phonationsummary
Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert
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Übersetzungen
larynx Kehlkopf
pharynx Rachen
palate Gaumen
soft palate weicher Gaumen
nasal cavity Nasenhöhle
oral cavity Mundhöhle
glottis Stimmritze
trachea Luftröhre
diaphragm Zwerchfell
thoracic cage Brustkorb
external intercostal Zwischenrippenmuskulaturmuscles
arytenoid cartilages Stellknorpel
epiglottis Kehldeckel
hyoid bone Zungenbein
thyroid cartilage Schildknorpel
cricoid cartilage Ringknorpel
vocal folds Stimmlippen
(vocal chords Stimmbänder)
breathy voice Behauchung