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© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill Ryerson
3
C H A P T E R:C H A P T E R: T H R E E T H R E E
Perception and Learning in Organizations
2 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Perception
Why different people perceive the same object and event differently?
Perception is a cognitive factor of behavior. There can be no behavior with out perception.
Perception means giving meaning to the environment around us.
3 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Perception-Definition
Perception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting ,organizing, interpreting,checking and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.(Udai Pareek).
“A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”
Perception is an important meditating cognitive process through which persons make interpretations of the stimulus or situation they are forced with”.
4 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
PerceptionPerception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us.
Perceptual process is the dynamics of selecting , organizing and interpreting external stimuli.
•It involves deciding which information to notice
•How to categorize the information
•How to interpret it within the frame work of existing knowledge.
•Perception vary from person to person
•Employee tend to behave and act on certain things on the basis of their perception
•Perceptual Process: Organizational behavior processes influenced by our personality.
5 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Attitudes andAttitudes andBehaviourBehaviour
Organization andOrganization andInterpretationInterpretation
Selective AttentionSelective Attention
Perceptual Process Model
Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling TastingFeeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting
Environmental StimuliEnvironmental Stimuli
6 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Selective Attention
Selective Attention:Filtering information received by our sense is called selective attention.
Characteristics of the object size, intensity, motion, repetition.
Perceptual context: eg- An employee working in an organization sees the important areas of his work other unnecessary things ignoring.
Characteristics of the perceiver attitudes perceptual defense expectations -- condition us to expect events
7 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Perceptual Organization/Interpretation
Categorical thinking Mostly unconscious process of organizing people and
things Perceptual grouping principles: Process of placing
people and objects into recognisable and manageable patterns or categories.
Occurs when we make assumptions about people based on their similarity.
• Closure -- filling in missing pieces• Identifying trends• Similarity or proximity
Mental models Broad world-views or ‘theories-in-use’ Help us to quickly make sense of situations May block recognition of new opportunities/perspectives
8 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
An Individual’sAn Individual’sSocial IdentitySocial Identity
AllianceAllianceStudentStudent
Social Identity Theory- A model that explains
self perception and social perception in terms of persons unique
characteristics and membership in various social groups.
Live inLive inIndiaIndia
University ofUniversity ofNew BrunswickNew Brunswick
GraduateGraduate
Employees atEmployees atother firmsother firms
People livingPeople livingin other countriesin other countries
Graduates fromGraduates fromother schoolsother schools
9 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Social Identity Theory Features
Categorization process compare characteristics of our groups with other
groups
Homogenization process similar traits within a group; different traits across
groups
Differentiation process develop less favourable images of people in
groups other than our own
10 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Ottawa Citizen
Social Identity & Gender in Engineering
Women are underrepresented in engineering partly because:
Social identity --”geek” stereotype of engineers and computer scientists doesn’t fit the self-images that most women want for themselves.
Sex role stereotyping -- women are not encouraged to become engineers because the profession has a male stereotype
Prejudice -- Still some bias against female engineering students
(Prejudice-Unfounded negative emotions towards people belonging to a particular stereotyped group.)
11 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Stereotyping
Process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category Categorical thinking
Strong need to understand and anticipate others’ behaviour
Enhances our self-perception and social identity
Ottawa Citizen
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J5s5WTis3nU
12 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Minimizing Stereotyping Biases
Diversity awareness training Educate employees about the benefits of diversity
and myths
Decision-making accountability Making people accountable for their decisions
motivates them to consider objective information rather than stereotypes
13 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Attribution Process
Internal Attribution Perception that person’s behaviour is due to
motivation/ability rather than situation or fate
External Attribution Perception that behaviour is due to situation or
fate rather than the person
14 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Rules of Attribution
External AttributionExternal Attribution
FrequentlyFrequently
ConsistencyConsistency
(Past behaviour)(Past behaviour)SeldomSeldom
Internal AttributionInternal Attribution((behaviour attributed tobehaviour attributed to
the internal factorsthe internal factors))
FrequentlyFrequently
DistinctivenessDistinctiveness(Behaviour in (Behaviour in other setting)other setting)
SeldomSeldom
SeldomSeldom
ConsensusConsensus(Behaviour in (Behaviour in
similar situationssimilar situations))
FrequentlyFrequently
15 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Attribution Errors
Fundamental Attribution Error attributing own actions to external factors and
other’s actions to internal factors
Self-Serving Bias attributing our successes to internal factors and
our failures to external factors
16 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle
SupervisorSupervisorformsforms
expectationsexpectations
ExpectationsExpectationsaffect supervisor’saffect supervisor’s
behaviourbehaviour
Supervisor’sSupervisor’sbehaviour affectsbehaviour affects
employeeemployee
Employee’sEmployee’sbehaviour matchesbehaviour matches
expectationsexpectations
17 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Contingencies
Self-fulfilling prophecy effect is strongest: Expectations about other person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations.
§ Primary Effect: A perceptual error in which we quickly form an opinion of people based on the first information we receive about them.
At the beginning of the relationship: (e.g., employee joins the team)
1. When several people have similar expectations about the person
2. When the employee has low rather than high past achievement
§ Recent Effect: Most recent information dominates our perception of others.
18 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Other Perceptual Errors
Primacy first impressions
Recency most recent information dominates perceptions
Halo Error: A perceptual error where by our general impression of a person , usually based on one prominent characteristics, color our perception of other characteristics of that person one trait forms a general impression
Projection believe other people do the same things or have the same
attitudes as you
19 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Improving Perceptions
Empathy Sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situation
of others
Cognitive and emotional component
Self-awareness Awareness of your values, beliefs and prejudices
Applying Johari Window
20 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Known to Self Unknown to Self
Knownto Others
Unknownto Others
OpenOpenAreaArea BlindBlind
AreaArea
UnknownUnknownAreaArea
HiddenHiddenAreaArea
Know Yourself (Johari Window)
OpenOpenAreaArea
BlindBlindAreaArea
HiddenHiddenAreaArea
UnknownUnknownAreaArea
DisclosureDisclosure
FeedbackFeedback
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Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Projection
Attributing one’s own
characteristics to
other people.
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.
22 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Definition of Learning
A relatively permanent change in
behaviour (or behaviour tendency) that
occurs as a result of a person’s
interaction with the environment
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Learning and Behaviour
Learning affected behaviour through three MARS model elements: Ability -- learning increases skills and knowledge
Role perceptions -- learning clarifies roles and priorities
Motivation -- learning is necessary for some need fulfillment
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Behaviour Modification
We “operate” on the environment alter behaviour to maximize positive and minimize
adverse consequences
Learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment
Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant
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A-B-Cs of Behaviour Modification
ConsequencesConsequences
What happensWhat happensafter behaviourafter behaviour
Co-workersCo-workersthank thank
operatoroperator
ExampleExample
BehaviourBehaviour
What personWhat personsays or doessays or does
Machine Machine operator turnsoperator turns
off poweroff power
AntecedentsAntecedents
What happensWhat happensbefore behaviourbefore behaviour
WarningWarninglightlight
flashesflashes
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Contingencies of Reinforcement
Behaviourincreases/maintained
Behaviourdecreases
Consequenceis introduced
Consequenceis removed
PunishmentPunishment
PositivePositivereinforcementreinforcement
ExtinctionExtinction PunishmentPunishment
NegativeNegativereinforcementreinforcement
Noconsequence
27 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Behaviour Modification in Practice
Behaviour modification is used in: every day life to influence behaviour of others company programs to reduce absenteeism,
improve safety, etc.
Behaviour modification problems include: Reward Ethical concern Behaviorist philosophy vs. learning through
mental processes
28 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Social Learning Theory
Behavioural modelling Observing and modelling behaviour of others
Learning behaviour consequences Observing consequences that others
experience
Self-reinforcement Reinforcing our own behaviour with
consequences within our control
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ConcreteConcreteexperienceexperience
ReflectiveReflectiveobservationobservation
AbstractAbstractconceptualizationconceptualization
ActiveActiveexperimentationexperimentation
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model
30 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Developing a Learning Orientation
• Value the generation of new knowledge
• Reward experimentation
• Recognize mistakes as part of learning
• Encourage employees to take reasonable risks
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Action Learning
Experiential learning in which employees, usually in teams, investigate and apply solutions to a situation that is both real and complex, with immediate relevance to the company Concrete experience
Learning
Team conceptualizes and applies a solution to a problem
32 © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McShane/ Canadian OB 6e
Employment Interview Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of
interviewers’ judgments of applicants.
Performance Expectations Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or
higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.
Ethnic Profiling A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is
singled out—typically on the basis of race or ethnicity—for intensive inquiry or investigation.
Specific Applications in OrganizationsSpecific Applications in Organizations
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Specific Applications in Organizations (cont’d)
Performance Evaluations Appraisals are often subjective (judgmental)
perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job performance.
Employee Effort Assessment of individual effort is a subjective
judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.