Post on 04-Aug-2020
Pediatric Injuries Gassem Gohal FAAP FRCPC
Learning Objectives o Understand Major pediatric anatomical issues
o understand and describe the utility and benefit of the primary and secondary surveys
o Gain exposure to general categories of pediatric
trauma
Epidemiology
o 25% of traumatic injuries occur in children
o Trauma is the leading cause of death after infancy (age 1-14y)
Epidemiology o Most common causes of injury-related
deaths: n Traumatic brain injury n Motor vehicle crashes n Submersion injury n Homicide n Suicide n Fires
Epidemiology o Data from 2002 shows > 700 000 injury-related deaths
world-wide occur in the <15 year old age group o Teens are at increased risk due to:
n Increased exposure to hazards n Risk-taking behaviors
o Infants: n Are at higher risk of inflicted trauma
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SURVEYS
Primary & Secondary Survey o Primary survey:
n Quick, initial patient assessment to identify life-threatening injuries
n Occurs with active resuscitation
o Secondary survey: n More detailed assessment of injuries
Primary Survey
o A,B,C,D,E o C-spine immobilized
n Collar for school-age/adolescents n Rolls and tape for infants/toddlers
o Immediate vitals signs
A,B,C,D,Es
o A = Airway & C-Spine Precausions o B = Breathing o C = Circulation o D = Disability o E = Exposure
A: Airway & C-Spine Protection
o Check for airway patency and clear secretions such as: n Blood, foreign bodies, loose teeth
o Assess need for intubation n If there are facial burns or signs of inhalation
injury – INTUBATE EARLY!
o Ensure adequate C-spine protection
C-Spine Injuries o Overall rare
n Associated with 1.2% of pediatric trauma
o After 8y, spine anatomically similar to adult o Children <14y = injury C1-C4 more common
B: Breathing o Check for adequacy of breathing
n Effort, breath sounds, oxygenation o Apply oxygen by facemask o Consider need for intubation o If already intubated confirm ETT position with:
n Chest x-ray if available n End tidal CO2 n Oxygen saturation if available n Auscultate the lungs for equal air entry
C: Circulation o Most common cause of shock in pediatrics =
hypovolemia o TBV of child = 80ml/kg o 2 large bore IV’s started
o 20 ml/kg IV crystalloid bolus (x 3 then PRBC’s)
o Look for obvious and non-obvious sources of bleeding
D: Disability
o Pupils reactive? Equal? o GCS (modified) or Verbal Score o Spontaneously moving? o Obvious deformities?
Pediatric Verbal Score
Verbal Response V-Score
Appropriate words/coos Smiles, fixes/follows
5
Cries but consoles 4
Persistently irritable 3
Restless, agitated 2
None 1
From American College of Surgeons’ Committee on Trauma. Advanced Trauma Life Support for Doctors (ATLS) Student Manual . 7th ed. Chicago: American College of Surgeons; 2004.
Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) Eye Opening Spontaneous 4 To voice 3 To pain 2 None 1 Verbal Response (Peds) Appropriate 5 Cries, consoles 4 Persistently irritable 3 Restless, agitated 2 None 1
Motor Response Obeys Commands 6 Localizes pain 5 Withdraws to pain 4 Flexion with pain 3 Extension to pain 2 None 1
Question o What is GCS for an Injured child who has
no verbal response, open his eye only to pain, flex his arm to pain ?
o Why we use GCS?
E: Exposure o Assess all surface areas o Log-roll with using spinal precautions
n Examine the spine: note step deformities or pain
n Assess rectal tone and sensation n Check for vaginal/urethral bleeding
o Prevent hypothermia n Keep trauma room warm, use blankets and
overhead warmer for infants
log-roll , using spinal precuation
History
o Ask about the Mechanism of injury: n Speed, distance thrown, fall from
height, landing surface, accident? o What protective devices used?
n Seatbelts, carseats, helmets o What were the initial findings ,vitals
Primary Survey Goals
IDENTIFY INTERVENE Airway
Inadequate airway Secure and protect
Breathing Apnea Positive pressure ventilation Hypoxia Supplemental oxygen Tension pneumothorax Needle decompression, chest tube Massive hemothorax Chest tube Open pneumothorax Occlusive dressing, chest tube
Primary Survey Goals IDENTIFY INTERVENE
Circulation Hypovolemic shock Fluid bolus, blood products Pericardial tamponade Fluid bolus, pericardiocentesis,
thoracotomy Cardiac Arrest Chest compressions, thoracotomy
if penetrating trauma
Disability Spinal cord injury Immobilization Cerebral herniation Hyperventilation, mannitol
Exposure Hypothermia Warmed fluid, external warming Exsanguinating hemorrhage Direct pressure
Adjuncts to Primary Survey o Access: Intravenous or Intraosseous needles o Monitor: Cardiorespiratory/Pulse oximetry; size
appropriate blood pressure cuff o Imaging (x-rays) o Trauma bloodwork
n CBC, electrolytes, blood gas, creatinine, BUN, PT/PTT, Xmatch, liver function studies, lipase or amylase
Imaging Prior to Secondary Survey o Xrays:
n CXR (AP only) n Pelvis (AP only) n C-spine: lateral, AP and odontoid if cooperative
Secondary Survey o Head to toe examination o Tetanus status o IV antibiotics if necessary o AMPLE history: allergies, medications, past
medical history, last meal, events surrounding injury
Vascular Access - The IO Needle o If No access within 90 seconds = IO o fluids, drugs, blood products o up to 72h
Head Trauma
Head Trauma
o Head trauma is the leading cause of death & disability in childhood n Mortality rate 20-‐30%
n 1-‐2% of all comers to ED n Only 3-‐5% of those with intracranial injury n <1% of above require neurosurgery
Head Trauma o Epidemiological/Environmental factors:
n Infancy: falls n Childhood: MVA, pedestrian, bicycle n Adolescence: MVA, pedestrian, bikes/boards,
violence
q Cerebral blood flow depends on both autoregulation and the Central Perfusion Pressure
CPP = MAP – ICP
q cerebral perfusion will slow down
Head Trauma: Pathophysiology
Signs & Symptoms of Increased ICP in Children o Full fontanel o Splitting sutures o Altered state of cosciousness o Paradoxical irritability o Persistent vomiting o Cranial nerve paralysis o Papilledema o Cushing’s Triad:
n Hypertension, bradycardia and hyperventilation
o Decorticate or decerebrate posturing
Signs & Symptoms of Increased ICP in Children
Etiology of brain injury o Diffuse axonal injury more common in children than
adults n Require less neurosurgical intervention
Etiology of brain injury o Epidural hematomas are a neurosurgical emergency –
most often follow trauma to temporal region n Consider if period of LUCIDITY followed by
deterioration
Etiology of brain injury
o Subdural hematomas – be suspicious for non-accidental Trauma (NAT) if no history of trauma
Acute Medical Management of Raised ICP o Position head of bed at 300
o Mannitol IV 20% = 1g/kg per dose o Prevent hypoxia and hypotension
n Focus on maintaining MAP’s with IV fluids o Control external hemorrhage o Maintain C-spine precautions o Early intubation using RSI to prevent complications
o Rapid Sequence Intubation of the Head Injured Child
Head Injury o Early involvement of neurosurgery recommended o Admission and close monitoring for deterioration
Chest Trauma
Chest/Thoracic Trauma
o 2nd most common cause of mortality in pediatric trauma
o More compliant chest wall o Tension pneumothorax develops quicker
Chest/Thoracic Trauma o Consider:
n Hemothorax n Pneumothorax (+/- Tension Pneumothorax) n Flail chest n Diaphragmatic ruptures n Bronchial/Tracheal tears n Esophageal ruptures n Pulmonary contusions n Cardiac tamponade
Tension Pneumothorax o Hypotension, distended jugular veins, shifted
heart sounds, hyper-resonance, trachea not midline
o Treatment: n Emergent needle n Chest tube
Abdominal Trauma
Abdominal Trauma3,22 o 3rd leading cause of traumatic death o Often unrecognized in children o Consider abdominal injury in the following:
Sign Possible Injuries Seatbelt Injury Small bowel injury
Chance fracture Handlebar injury Duodenal hematoma
Pancreatic injury Sport related injury Spleen, kidney, bowel
Abdominal Trauma o What are the odds of having intra-
abdominal injury? n Based on the Abdominal Exam:
o Tenderness on exam = o Ecchymosis = o Abrasions = o Low blood pressure = Repeat abdominal exams cornerstone of diagnosis
Burns/Thermal Injury
Burns/Thermal Injury o 70% to hot liquid o Up to 20% in younger children secondary to abuse or
neglect o inhalational injury = EARLY Intubation
n Hoarseness n Black sputum n Facial burn n Accident in closed area
Burns 13,30 o Burn Assessment
n Depth o 1st degree: superficial (epidermis) o 2nd degree: superficial or deep partial thickness
(dermis) o 3rd degree: full thickness (beyond dermis)
http://www.unboundedmedicine.com/pics/burn.jpg
Burns o 4th degree: involves underlying
subcutaneous tissue, tendon, bone
Burn/Thermal Injury 13,22 o Burn Assessment
Appearance Surface Sensation Time to healing
1st degree Pink or red Dry Painful Days
Superficial 2nd degree
Pink, clear blisters Moist Painful 14–21 days
Deep 2nd degree Pink, hemorrhagic blisters, red
Moist Painful Weeks, or may progress to 3rd degree and require graft
3rd degree White, brown Dry, leathery Insensate Requires excision
4th degree Brown, charred Dry Insensate Requires excision
Burn/Thermal Injury 3,13 o Estimating Burn Size
Palm of patient’s hand = ~ 1% BSA
Burn/Thermal Injury: Management3 o ABCDE’s
n Consider early intubation if airway involvement o Tetanus prophylaxis and ANALGESIA o Fluid resuscitation mainstay of treatment
n Parkland Resuscitation Formula: looks for it ?
Burn/Thermal Injury o Consider referral to a burn centre if:
n Inhalational injury n Burn size >10% TBSA in child <10yo n Burn size >20% in any patient n Full-thickness burns >5% TBSA n Burn involving hands/feet/face/perineum n Mutiple comorbidities n NAT n Chemical/Electrical injury
Submersion Injuries
Submersion Injuries o Most common cause of cardiac arrest in
children
Submersion Injury o Most common sites of drowning:
n <1yo : Bathtubs (55%) n 1 – 4yo : Pools (56%) n >4yo : Freshwater (63%)
: n Drowning = death within 24h of suffocation
from submersion in liquid n Near Drowning/Submersion injury = survival
>24h past event
Submersion Injury o ABCDE’s o Consider early intubation o Always consider C-spine immobilization
n 0.5% submersion victims have c-spine injury o Remove wet clothing o Treat hypothermia
Poor Prognosis in Submersion Injury o Prolonged submersion >25 minutes o Delay in CPR initiation o Resuscitation >25 minutes o pH <7.1 o Pulseless, cardiac arrest on arrival to emergency
department o Elevated blood glucose on arrival o Dilated and fixed pupils on arrival o Abnormal initial CT of brain o Initial GCS of <5
Injury Prevention
Injury Prevention
o 90% injuries can be prevented
o Supervision and understanding child development critical in keeping them safe
Injury Prevention o Bike Helmets:
o Window Stops/Guards:
o Smoke alarms:
o Medication: n Must be LOCKED and inaccessible
Injury Prevention o Street Safety
n Children <9yo do not judge traffic safely n Should NOT cross the road WITHOUT an ADULT
o Choking/Strangulation n <4yo should not eat raw carrots, candies,
popcorn, hotdogs, or have access to small toys n Children should sleep in own crib, on their
back, with well-fitted bedding to decrease risk of SIDS
Conclusion o Pediatric trauma and injury are preventable
conditions o Principles of management should always
include a well orchestrated primary and secondary survey
o Never hesitate to admit for observation, ask for help or consult specialty services -the earlier the better.
Quiz Question 5 o What percentage of injuries in children are
preventable? 1. None of them, children are unpredictable. 2. Around 10% 3. Between 15-130% 4. >90%
Thank you