Participatory Development:

the case of land degradation in southern Africa

What is stakeholder participation?

• A process where stakeholders (e.g. individuals, groups and organisations) choose to take an active role in making decisions that affect them

(After Wandersman 1981; Wilcox 2003; Rowe et al. 2004)

What are stakeholders?

• Anyone who can affect or be affected by a decision or action

(after Freeman, 1984)

What is land degradation?

What is desertification?

“Our most significant non-renewable geo resource is fertile land and soil.

Nevertheless each year, an estimated 24 billion tons of fertile soil are lost. Arable

land loss is estimated at 30 to 35 times the historical rate. In the drylands, due to

drought and desertification 12 million ha are transformed in new man-made deserts

each year. The world has continued building towards 'a soil peak' which will have far-worse consequences than the

current 'oil peak’”

Luc Gnacadja, Executive Secretary, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (2011)

Challenges

1. The nature of land degradation: multi-dimensional, contextual and dynamic

2. The methods we have can’t cope with this

N

GLASOD map

Non-degraded

Light

Moderate

Severe

Very Severe

Degradation Severity:

N

New expert map

N

Cattle productivity trends 1980-

1998

N

Remote sensing

Makgadikgadi Pans

Okavango Delta

Gaborone

N

NDVI Grazing Potential

Map

20o45’

47500021o00’

50000021o15’

52500021o30’

550000

20o45’

475000

21o00’

50000021o15’

52500021o30’

550000

27

o00’

70

25

00

02

6o4

5’

70

50

00

02

6o3

0’

70

75

00

02

6o1

5’

70

71

00

00

26

o00’

71

25

00

0

Molopo RiverTinkpitsDrieertjies

Vanwyksis

Strong WaterLambwester

Spaarwater

WetwerdlendVyf Dunes

Rappel’s Pan

InversnaidVaalhoek

Bokspits

Soatputs

Magalie

Geelpits

Kalkpits

Struizendam

Ganna Hoek

Welgewa

Welkom

Oowih

Two Rivers Camp Tshane Tshane

Khotswane

Khawa

Drieboom

Welte VredeWilderbeerstkop

50 10 20 km15

Dunes predominantly unstable, interdunes dominated by R. trichotomumand Schmitia kalahariensis (Suir gras). Acacia erioloba near river course.

Dunes partially stabilised by Stipagrostis amabilis (Duin gras), interdune vegetation dominated by annual and perennial grasses, S. kalahariensis and Centropodia glauca (Gha gras), with occasional R. trichotomum and A. mellifera (Swaartak/Blackthorn)

Dunes stabilised by a range of species, dominated by S. amabilis, interdune vegetation dominated by perennial grasses, C. glaucaand Eragrostis lehmanniana (Knietjies gras), patches of R. trichotomum (restricted to more mineral-rich soils) and A. mellifera, sparse trees dominated by Boscia albitrunca (Motlopi) with occasional A. haemotoxolon (Vaalkame eldoring).

Riverbed and calcrete outcrops, with associated plant communities, including Rhyzogum trichotomum (Makurubane) and Acacia erioloba (Camel Thorn)

As above, but interdunes contain wider diversity of perennial grasses at higher density, including C. glauca, E. lehmannianaEragrostis tricophera and Stipagrostis obtusa (Kleef gras).

Information not collected

HoumoedPavijo

Mara

Kgalagadi Transfrontier

Park

Fly’s Kop

Goodhope

SOUTH AFRICA

Woody zone (natural): A. mellifera, A. haemotox-olon, A. leuderitzii, B. albitrunca. Ground layer dominated by palatble creepers, low grass cover

Transition between woody and grass dominated zones

Pan Track

Borehole Tar Road/ Riverbed/ International Border

Crush

Village Fence

N

Vegetation Map

Citrullus lanatus (wild melon) zone

As above, with Grewia flava (Moretlwa)

20o45’

475000

21o00’

500000

21o15’

52500021o30’

550000

20o45’

475000

21o00’

50000021o15’

52500021o30’

550000

27

o00

’

70

25

00

02

6o4

5’

70

50

00

02

6o3

0’

70

75

00

02

6o1

5’

70

71

00

00

26

o00

’

71

25

00

0

Molopo RiverTinkpitsDrieertjies

Vanwyksis

Strong WaterLambwester

Spaarwater

WetwerdlendVyf Dunes

Rappel’s Pan

InversnaidVaalhoek

Bokspits

Soatputs

Magalie

Geelpits

Kalkpits

Struizendam

Ganna Hoek

Welgewa

Welkom

Oowih

Two Rivers Camp Tshane Tshane

Khotswane

Khawa

Drieboom

Welte VredeWilderbeerstkop

50 10 20 km15

Dunes predominantly unstable, interdunes dominated by R. trichotomumand Schmitia kalahariensis (Suir gras). Acacia erioloba near river course.

Dunes partially stabilised by Stipagrostis amabilis (Duin gras), interdune vegetation dominated by annual and perennial grasses, S. kalahariensis and Centropodia glauca (Gha gras), with occasional R. trichotomum and A. mellifera (Swaartak/Blackthorn)

Dunes stabilised by a range of species, dominated by S. amabilis, interdune vegetation dominated by perennial grasses, C. glaucaand Eragrostis lehmanniana (Knietjies gras), patches of R. trichotomum (restricted to more mineral-rich soils) and A. mellifera, sparse trees dominated by Boscia albitrunca (Motlopi) with occasional A. haemotoxolon (Vaalkame eldoring).

Riverbed and calcrete outcrops, with associated plant communities, including Rhyzogum trichotomum (Makurubane) and Acacia erioloba (Camel Thorn)

As above, but interdunes contain wider diversity of perennial grasses at higher density, including C. glauca, E. lehmannianaEragrostis tricophera and Stipagrostis obtusa (Kleef gras).

Information not collected

HoumoedPavijo

Mara

Kgalagadi Transfrontier

Park

Fly’s Kop

Goodhope

SOUTH AFRICA

Woody zone (natural): A. mellifera, A. haemotox-olon, A. leuderitzii, B. albitrunca. Ground layer dominated by palatble creepers, low grass cover

Transition between woody and grass dominated zones

Pan Track

Borehole Tar Road/ Riverbed/ International Border

Crush

Village Fence

N

Vegetation Map

Citrullus lanatus (wild melon) zone

As above, with Grewia flava (Moretlwa)Community

Map

3. Communities don’t participate

Indicators

Land degradation and sustainability indicators

How can we develop degradation indicators that can empower non-specialists to accurately detect

change, and point them to potential solutions?

Reed et al. (2011) Land Degradation & Development

Yr 1

Thorny bush encroachment

Yr 10

Yr 20

1 10 20 yrs

Kalahari Results

A wealth of local knowledge, thinly spread

Holistic: vegetation, livestock, wild animal and socio-economic indicators + soil indicators

Vegetation

52%

Soil

23%

Livestock

17%

Wild Animal

& Insect5%

Socio-

economic3%

Vegetation38%

Soil19%

Livestock19%

Wild Animal & Insect17%

Socio-Economic

7%

Socio-

Economic9%

Wild Animal &

Insect14%

Livestock

11%

Soil

9%

Vegetation

57%

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3

Qualitative evaluation of indicators

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3

Nu

mb

er

of

ind

ica

tors

Indicators tested

Indicators validated (p < 0.05)

Quantitative evaluation of indicators

Overlap and adaptation of technical indicators

Meaningful participation and scientific rigour

Management

What do we do with the information indicators provide us with?

Literature

Local ideas

Ideas combined and discussed

Global Application: DESIRE

Desertification Mitigation and Remediation of Landa global approach for local solutions

Future Degradation Assessment

Multi-source, multi-scale assessment is possible

Break

Vulnerability to the interactive effects of land degradation & climate change

The challenge

• Predicted 10-15% decrease in summer rainfall• Increased unpredictability, incidence and severity of

droughts• Combined with existing concerns over land degradation

Vulnerable?• Impacts are not inevitable

• The vulnerability of a system to climate change or land degradation depends on lots of things

• Turn to the person next to you and:

1. Choose a terrestrial ecosystem you are familiar with (e.g. heather moorland or tropical rainforest)

2. Think of a driver that is threatening that ecosystem (e.g. climate change or atmospheric pollution)

3. Decide how vulnerable you think your system is to the driver you’ve identified (very, slightly or not at all)

4. What are the characteristics of the ecosystem that made it was vulnerable or not?

VulnerabilityThe vulnerability of a system depends on 3 questions:

1. How exposed is the system? Not exposed – not vulnerable. If it is exposed, then…

2. How sensitive is the system? Not sensitive – not vulnerable. If it is sensitive, then…

3. How adaptable is the system? Can adapt effectively to perturbation – not vulnerable. If it can’t adapt then it is vulnerable

Vulnerability (or fragility): a system’s exposure, sensitivity and capacity to adapt to stress or perturbation

(based on Kasperson et al., 1995 and IPCC, 2001)

The Concepts

Exposure: the magnitude of stress or perturbation a system is exposed to

Sensitivity (or susceptibility): the degree of system (or system component) change associated with a given degree of stress or perturbation

Adaptive capacity: the ability (often measured in the time it takes) for a system to change its structure to support basic system functions in response to perturbation

The Concepts

Drivers of change the system is exposed to:

• UK appetite for Botswana beef

• Borehole-led expansion of cattle industry

• Changes in land tenure

1. 1960-70s: Common property to open access

2. 1970s-present: open access to private

Sensitive?

• Not sensitive to sustainable stocking levels of mixed species

• Sensitive to overgrazing by a single species over long periods

Adaptable?

• Goats can use the results of overgrazing by cattle (bush encroachment) as a valuable browse resource

• The adaptive capacity of the system is limited by cultural values: cattle = status

• Strength of community/kinship structures weakenned by out-migration from rural areas and decreased life expectancy due to HIV/AIDS

• Weakened traditional tribal/village institutions due to power of national land boards

• Widening gap between rich & poor means the poor majority have less access to financial capital to buffer effects of climate change and land degradation

The impacts:

• Reduction in the cover of palatable grasses and replacement by less palatable species

• Bush encroachment cited as a major livelihood constraint by 67% pastoralists

• Livestock mortality during drought unless they move, have to purchase supplementary feeds

• Loss of biodiversity, particularly in bush encroached systems

• Borehole water depths are increasing and in the more arid areas little or no potable water is currently found

• Wind erosion and dune activity in some areas

Future climate change will hit the poor hardest

Dougill et al., 2010

However:

• Some adaptation is occurring in response to the already high rainfall variability and drought frequency

• Can we improve and extend these adaptations to comparable areas to facilitate adaptation to climate change?

• The “mafisa” livestock movement system

• Livestock movement can effectively track available rainfall and forage

• Maintains livestock herds and livelihoods in the existing social and economic system

• But how sustainable is this system?

• Current Government fencing policy

• Can the livestock movement system keep up with increased rainfall variability in a low rainfall, hotter future? Not with large-scale dune remobilisation…

• And if it can, will it lead to even greater environmental degradation?

• By attempting to maintain herds in equilibrium with forage, it is possible to exceed equilibrium (esp. in drought years) and cause land degradation

What can we do?

• Maintain the mafisa system • Enable land managers to monitor the interactive effects

of climate change and land degradation: indicators• Document and refine a wide range of adaptations that

can prevent/remediate different aspects of climate-induced land degradation

• Disseminate indicators and adaptations to land managers to help maintain livelihoods under future climate change

Reading

Reed MS et al. (2011) Cross-scale monitoring and assessment of land degradation and sustainable land management: a methodological framework for knowledge management. Land Degradation & Development

Reed MS, Dougill AJ (2010) Linking Degradation Assessment to Sustainable Land Management: a decision support system for Kalahari pastoralists. Journal of Arid Environments 74: 149–155

Dougill AJ, Fraser EDG, Reed MS (2010) Anticipating vulnerability in food systems to climate variability and change: challenges of using dynamic systems approaches and the case of pastoral systems in Botswana. Ecology & Society 15(2): 17

Stringer LC, Reed MS, Dougill AJ, Twyman C (2009) Local adaptations to climate change, drought and desertification: insights to enhance policy in southern Africa. Environmental Science & Policy

Reed MS, Dougill AJ & Baker T (2008) Participatory indicator development: what can ecologists and local communities learn from each other? Ecological Applications 18: 1253–1269

Staying in an area too long is like wearing the same dress for years; it gets worn out. Female farmer, age 65, Six Mile Cattle Post

It is not possible to be a cattle farmer in a place like this: you have to be a grass farmer. Male Farmer, age 74, Hereford Farm

For more publications and resources Google “Mark Reed”