Organizational Behavior

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORS T E P H E N P. R O B B I N S

W W W . P R E N H A L L . C O M / R O B B I N S

T E N T H E D I T I O N

AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER,YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. Define organizational behavior (OB).2. Describe what managers do.3. Explain the value of the systematic study of

OB.4. List the major challenges and opportunities

for managers to use OB concepts.5. Identify the contributions made by major

behavioral science disciplines to OB.L E

6. Describe why managers require a knowledge of OB.

7. Explain the need for a contingency approach to the study of OB.

8. Identify the three levels of analysis in this book’s model.

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What Managers Do

Managerial Activities• Make decisions• Allocate resources• Direct activities of others

to attain goals

Where Managers Work

Management Functions

ManagementManagementFunctionsFunctions

PlanningPlanning OrganizingOrganizing

LeadingLeadingControllingControlling

Management Functions (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 1-1a

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

E X H I B I T 1-1b

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 1-1c

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)

Management Skills

Effective Versus Successful Managerial Activities (Luthans)

1. Traditional management• Decision making, planning, and controlling

2. Communications• Exchanging routine information and processing

paperwork

3. Human resource management• Motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing,

and training

4. Networking• Socializing, politicking, and interacting with others

E X H I B I T 1-2

Allocation of Activities by Time

Enter Organizational Behavior

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field

E X H I B I T 1-3a

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 1-3b

E X H I B I T 1-3c

E X H I B I T 1-3d

E X H I B I T 1-3f

There Are Few Absolutes in OB

ContingencyContingencyVariablesVariablesx y

Challenges and Opportunity for OB

Responding to Globalization Managing Workforce Diversity Improving Quality and Productivity Responding to the Labor Shortage Improving Customer Service

Challenges and Opportunity for OB (cont’d)

Improving People Skills Empowering People Coping with “Temporariness” Stimulation Innovation and Change Helping Employees Balance Work/Life Conflicts Improving Ethical Behavior

E X H I B I T 1-6

Basic OB Model, Stage I

The Dependent Variables

The Dependent Variables (cont’d)

The Independent Variables

IndependentIndependentVariablesVariables

Individual-Level Individual-Level VariablesVariables

OrganizationOrganizationSystem-LevelSystem-Level

VariablesVariables

Group-LevelGroup-LevelVariablesVariables

1. Define the key biographical characteristics.2. Identify two types of ability.3. Shape the behavior of others.4. Distinguish between the four schedules of

reinforcement.5. Clarify the role of punishment in learning.6. Practice self-management7. Exhibit effective discipline skills.

Biographical Characteristics

Ability

• Number aptitude• Verbal comprehension• Perceptual speed• Inductive reasoning• Deductive reasoning• Spatial visualization• Memory

Dimensions ofIntellectual Ability

E X H I B I T 2-1

Physical Ability

Other Factors• Body coordination• Balance• Stamina

Nine Physical Abilities

Strength Factors• Dynamic strength• Trunk strength• Static strength• Explosive strength Flexibility Factors

• Extent flexibility• Dynamic flexibility

E X H I B I T 2-2

Ability-JobFit

The Ability-Job Fit

Employee’sEmployee’sAbilitiesAbilities

Job’s AbilityJob’s AbilityRequirementsRequirements

Learning

Learning• Involves change• Is relatively permanent• Is acquired through experience

Theories of Learning

Key Concepts• Unconditioned stimulus• Unconditioned response• Conditioned response

Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior• Conditioned (learned) behavior• Reinforcement

Key Concepts• Attention processes• Retention processes• Motor reproduction processes• Reinforcement processes

Key Concepts• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.• Some rewards are more effective than others.• The timing of reinforcement affects learning

speed and permanence.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 2-4

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed-ratio

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

E X H I B I T 2-5a

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 2-5b

Behavior Modification

Problem-solving Model• Identify critical behaviors• Develop baseline data• Identify behavioral consequences• Apply intervention• Evaluate performance improvement

OB MOD Organizational Applications

Well Pay versus Sick Pay– Reduce absenteeism by rewarding attendance,

not absence. Employee Discipline

– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.

Developing Training Programs– OB MOD methods improve training

effectiveness. Self-management

– Reduces the need for external management control.

1. Contrast terminal and instrumental values.2. List the dominant values in today’s workforce.3. Identify the five value dimensions of national

culture.4. Contrast the three components of an attitude.5. Summarize the relationship between attitudes

and behavior.6. Identify the role consistency plays in attitudes.

7. State the relationship between job satisfaction and behavior.

8. Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction.

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Values

Types of Values –- Rokeach Value Survey

Values in the

Rokeach Survey

E X H I B I T 3-1a

Values in the

Rokeach Survey(cont’d)

E X H I B I T 3-1b

Mean Value Rankings of Executives, Union

Members, and Activists

E X H I B I T 3-2

Dominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce

E X H I B I T 3-3

Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior

Ethical Climate inEthical Climate inthe Organizationthe Organization

Ethical Values Ethical Values and Behaviors of and Behaviors of

LeadersLeaders

Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures

Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

The GLOBE Framework

for Assessing

Cultures

• Assertiveness• Future Orientation• Gender differentiation• Uncertainty avoidance• Power distance• Individual/collectivism• In-group collectivism• Power orientation• Humane orientation

E X H I B I T 3-4

Attitudes

Types of Attitudes

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Desire to reduce dissonance• Importance of elements creating dissonance• Degree of individual influence over elements• Rewards involved in dissonance

Measuring the A-B Relationship

Recent research indicates that the attitudes (A) significantly predict behaviors (B) when moderating variables are taken into account.

Moderating Variables• Importance of the attitude• Specificity of the attitude• Accessibility of the attitude• Social pressures on the individual• Direct experience with the attitude

Self-Perception Theory

An Application: Attitude Surveys

Sample Attitude Survey

E X H I B I T 3-5

Job Satisfaction

Measuring Job Satisfaction– Single global rating– Summation score

How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?– Job satisfaction declined to 50.7% in 2000– Decline attributed to:

• Pressures to increase productivity• Less control over work

The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

Satisfaction and Productivity– Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more

productive.– Worker productivity is higher in organizations with

more satisfied workers. Satisfaction and Absenteeism

– Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences. Satisfaction and Turnover

– Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.– Organizations take actions to cultivate high

performers and to weed out lower performers.

Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

E X H I B I T 3-6

How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction

Job Satisfaction and OCB

Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)– Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by

and are trusting of the organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of their job.

1. Explain the factors that determine an individual’s personality.

2. Describe the MBTI personality framework.3. Identify the key traits in the Big Five

personality model.4. Explain the impact of job typology on the

personality/job performance relationship.5. Differentiate emotions from moods.6. Contrast felt versus displayed emotions.

7. Read emotions.8. Explain gender-differences in emotions.9. Describe external constraints on emotions.10. Apply concepts on emotions to OB issues.

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What is Personality?

E X H I B I T 4-1

Personality Traits

Personality Determinants• Heredity• Environment• Situation

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Personality Types• Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)• Perceiving or Judging (P or J)

Sixteen Primary Traits

E X H I B I T 4-2

The Big Five Model

Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB

Locus of control Machiavellianism Self-esteem Self-monitoring Propensity for risk taking Type A personality

Locus of Control

Machiavellianism

Conditions Favoring High Machs• Direct interaction• Minimal rules and regulations• Distracting emotions

Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring

Risk-Taking

High Risk-taking Managers– Make quicker decisions.– Use less information to make decisions.– Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial

organizations. Low Risk-taking Managers

– Are slower to make decisions.– Require more information before making decisions.– Exist in larger organizations with stable

environments. Risk Propensity

– Aligning managers’ risk-taking propensity to job requirements should be beneficial to organizations.

Personality Types

Achieving Personality-Job Fit

Personality Types• Realistic• Investigative• Social• Conventional• Enterprising• Artistic

Holland’s Typology of Personality

andCongruent

Occupations

E X H I B I T 4-3

Relationships among

Occupational Personality

E X H I B I T 4-4

Emotions- Why Emotions Were Ignored in OB

The “myth of rationality”– Organizations are not emotion-free.

Emotions of any kind are disruptive to organizations.– Original OB focus was solely on the effects of

strong negative emotions that interfered with individual and organizational efficiency.

What Are Emotions?

MoodsMoodsFeelings that tend to be Feelings that tend to be less intense than less intense than emotions and that lack a emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.contextual stimulus.

EmotionsEmotionsIntense feelings that are Intense feelings that are directed at someone or directed at someone or something.something.

AffectAffectA broad range of emotions A broad range of emotions

that people experience.that people experience.

What Are Emotions? (cont’d)

Felt versus Displayed Emotions

Emotion Dimensions

Variety of emotions– Positive– Negative

Intensity of emotions– Personality– Job Requirements

Frequency and duration of emotions– How often emotions are exhibited.– How long emotions are displayed.

Facial Expressions Convey Emotions

E X H I B I T 4-5

Emotion Continuum

The closer any two emotions are to each other on the continuum, the more likely people are to confuse them.

E X H I B I T 4-6

Gender and Emotions

Women– Can show greater emotional expression.– Experience emotions more intensely.– Display emotions more frequently.– Are more comfortable in expressing emotions.– Are better at reading others’ emotions.

Men– Believe that displaying emotions is inconsistent

with the male image.– Are innately less able to read and to identify with

others’ emotions.– Have less need to seek social approval by

showing positive emotions.

External Constraints on Emotions

OrganizationalOrganizationalInfluencesInfluences

CulturalCulturalInfluencesInfluences

IndividualIndividualEmotionsEmotions

OB Applications of Understanding Emotions

Ability and Selection– Emotions affect employee effectiveness.

Decision Making– Emotions are an important part of the decision-

making process in organizations. Motivation

– Emotional commitment to work and high motivation are strongly linked.

Leadership– Emotions are important to acceptance of

messages from organizational leaders.

OB Applications of Understanding Emotions

Interpersonal Conflict– Conflict in the workplace and individual

emotions are strongly intertwined. Deviant Workplace Behaviors

– Negative emotions can lead to employee deviance in the form of actions that violate established norms and threaten the organization and its members.

• Productivity failures• Property theft and destruction• Political actions• Personal aggression

Ability and Selection

Emotional Intelligence (EI)– Self-awareness– Self-management– Self-motivation– Empathy– Social skills

Research Findings– High EI scores, not high

IQ scores, characterize high performers.

1. Explain how two people can see the same thing and interpret it differently.

2. List three determinants of attribution.3. Describe how shortcuts can assist in or

distort our judgment of others.4. Explain how perception affects the decision-

making process.5. Outline the six steps in the rational decision-

making model.

6. Describe the action of a boundedly rational decision maker.

7. Identify the conditions in which individuals are most likely to use intuition in decision making.

8. Describe four styles of decision making.9. Define heuristics and explain how they bias

decisions.10. Contrast the three ethical decision criteria.

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What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?

• People’s behavior is People’s behavior is based on their based on their perception of what perception of what reality is, not on reality is, not on reality itself.reality itself.

• The world as it is The world as it is perceived is the world perceived is the world that is behaviorally that is behaviorally important.important.

Factors ThatInfluence

Perception

E X H I B I T 5-1

Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.

Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Attribution TheoryE X H I B I T 5-2

Errors and Biases in Attributions

Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Specific Applications in Organizations

Employment Interview– Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of

interviewers’ judgments of applicants. Performance Expectations

– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.

Performance Evaluations– Appraisals are subjective perceptions of

performance. Employee Effort

– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective judgment subject to perceptual distortion and bias.

The Link Between Perceptions and Individual Decision Making

Perceptions of the

decision maker

Outcomes

Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making Model

1. Problem clarity2. Known options3. Clear preferences4. Constant

preferences5. No time or cost

constraints6. Maximum payoff

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model

E X H I B I T 5-3

The Three Components of Creativity

E X H I B I T 5-4

How Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations

How Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations (cont’d)

How/Why problems are identified– Visibility over importance of problem

• Attention-catching, high profile problems• Desire to “solve problems”

– Self-interest (if problem concerns decision maker) Alternative Development

– Satisficing: seeking the first alternative that solves problem.

– Engaging in incremental rather than unique problem solving through successive limited comparison of alternatives to the current alternative in effect.

Making Choices

Decision-Style Model

E X H I B I T 5-5

Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers

Performance Evaluation– Evaluation criteria influence the choice of actions.

Reward Systems– Decision makers make action choices that are

favored by the organization. Formal Regulations

– Organizational rules and policies limit the alternative choices of decision makers.

System-imposed Time Constraints– Organizations require decisions by specific

deadlines. Historical Precedents

– Past decisions influence current decisions.

Cultural Differences in Decision Making

Problems selected Time orientation Importance of logic and rationality Belief in the ability of people to solve problems Preference for collect decision making

Ethics in Decision Making

Ethical Decision Criteria– Utilitarianism

• Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number.– Rights

• Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals.

– Justice• Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially.

Ethics in Decision Making

Ethics and National Culture– There are no global ethical standards.– The ethical principles of global organizations

that reflect and respect local cultural norms are necessary for high standards and consistent practices.

1. Outline the motivation process.2. Describe Maslow’s need hierarchy.3. Contrast Theory X and Theory Y.4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors.5. List the characteristics that high achievers

prefer in a job.6. Summarize the types of goals that increase

performance.

7. State the impact of underrewarding employees.

8. Clarify key relationships in expectancy theory.9. Explain how the contemporary theories of

motivation complement each other.

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Defining Motivation

Key Elements1. Intensity: how hard a person tries2. Direction: toward beneficial goal3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

E X H I B I T 6-1

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Holland’s Typology of Personalityand Congruent Occupations

E X H I B I T 6-2

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

E X H I B I T 6-3

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job satisfaction

Contrasting Views of Satisfactionand Dissatisfaction

E X H I B I T 6-4

Presence Absence

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Core NeedsExistence: provision of basic material requirements. Relatedness: desire for relationships.Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts:More than one need can be operative at the same time.If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Matching Achievers and Jobs

E X H I B I T 6-5

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Reinforcement Theory

Concepts:Behavior is environmentally caused.Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Flow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory

Ken Thomas’s Model of Intrinsic Motivation

Employees are intrinsically motivated when rewards an employee gets from work result from:– Choice– the ability to freely self-select and

perform task activities.– Competence– the sense of accomplishment

from skillfully performing chosen tasks or activities.

– Meaningfulness– pursuing a task that matters in the larger scheme of things.

– Progress– the feeling of significant advancement in achieving the task’s purpose.

Equity Theory

Referent Comparisons:Self-insideSelf-outsideOther-insideOther-outside

Equity Theory (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 6-7

Choices for dealing with inequity:1. Change inputs (slack off)2. Change outcomes (increase output)3. Distort/change perceptions of self4. Distort/change perceptions of others5. Choose a different referent person6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:1. Overrewarded employees produce more

than equitably rewarded employees.2. Overrewarded employees produce less, but

do higher quality piece work.3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce

lower quality work.4. Underrewarded employees produce larger

quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees

Expectancy Theory

E X H I B I T 6-8

Performance Dimensions

E X H I B I T 6-9

Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation

E X H I B I T 6-10

1. Identify the four ingredients common to MBO programs.

2. Explain why managers might want to use employee involvement programs.

3. Contrast participative management with employee involvement.

4. Define quality circles.5. Explain how ESOPs can increase employee

motivation.

6. Contrast gain-sharing and profit-sharing.7. Describe the link between skill-based pay

plans and motivation theories.8. Explain how flexible benefits turn benefits into

motivators.9. Contrast the challenges of motivating

professional employees versus low-skilled employees.

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What is MBO?

Key Elements1. Goal specificity2. Participative decision making3. An explicit time period4. Performance feedback

Why MBO’s Fail

Unrealistic expectations about MBO results Lack of commitment by top management Failure to allocate reward properly Cultural incompatibilities

Cascading of Objectives

E X H I B I T 7-1

Employee Recognition Programs

Types of programs– Personal attention– Expressing interest– Approval– Appreciation for a job well done

Benefits of programs– Fulfills employees’ desire for recognition.– Encourages repetition of desired behaviors.– Enhances group/team cohesiveness and

motivation.– Encourages employee suggestions for improving

processes and cutting costs.

What is Employee Involvement?

Examples of Employee Involvement Programs

Examples of Employee Involvement Programs (cont’d)

How a Typical Quality Circle Operates

E X H I B I T 7-4

Variable Pay Programs

Variable Pay Programs (cont’d)

Skill-Based Pay Plans

Benefits of Skill-based Pay Plans:1. Provides staffing flexibility.

2. Facilitates communication across the organization.

3. Lessens “protection of territory” behaviors.

4. Meets the needs of employees for advancement (without promotion).

5. Leads to performance improvements.

Skill-Based Pay Plans (cont’d)

Drawbacks of Skill-based Pay Plans:1. Lack of additional learning opportunities that will

increase employee pay.

2. Continuing to pay employees for skills that have become obsolete.

3. Paying for skills which are of no immediate use to the organization.

4. Paying for a skill, not for the level of employee performance for the particular skill.

Flexible Benefits

Flexible Spending Plans: allow employees to use their tax-free benefit dollars to purchase benefits and pay service premiums.

Modular Plans: predesigned benefits packages for specific groups of employees.

Core-plus Plans:a core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection of other benefit options.

Special Issues in Motivation

Motivating Professionals– Provide challenging projects.– Allow them the autonomy to be productive.– Reward with educational opportunities.– Reward with recognition.– Express interest in what they are doing.– Create alternative career paths.

Motivating Contingent Workers– Provide opportunity for permanent status.– Provide opportunities for training.– Provide equitable pay.

Special Issues in Motivation (cont’d)

Motivating the Diversified Workforce– Provide flexible work, leave, and pay schedules.– Provide child and elder care benefits.– Structure working relationships to account for

cultural differences and similarities. Motivating Low-Skilled Service Workers

– Recruit widely.– Increase pay and benefits.– Make jobs more appealing.

Special Issues in Motivation (cont’d)

Motivating People Doing Highly Repetitive Tasks– Recruit and select employees that fit the job.– Create a pleasant work environment.– Mechanize the most distasteful aspects of the

1. Differentiate between formal and informal groups.

2. Compare two models of group development.3. Explain how group interaction can be

analyzed.4. Identify the key factors in explaining group

behavior.5. Explain how role requirements change in

different situations.

6. Describe how norms exert influence on an individual’s behavior.

7. Define social loafing and its effect on group performance.

8. Identify the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups.

9. List the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making.

10. Contrast the effectiveness of interacting, brainstorming, nominal and electronic meeting groups.

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Defining and Classifying Groups

Defining and Classifying Groups (cont’d)

Why People Join Groups

• Security• Status• Self-esteem• Affiliation• Power• Goal Achievement

E X H I B I T 8-1

Stages of Group Development

Stages of Group Development (cont’d)

Stages of Group Development

E X H I B I T 8-2

An Alternative Model: For Temporary Groups with Deadlines

Sequence of actions:1. Setting group direction2. First phase of inertia3. Half-way point transition4. Major changes5. Second phase of inertia6. Accelerated activity

The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

E X H I B I T 8-3

Group Behavior Model

E X H I B I T 8-4

External Conditions Imposed on the Group

Imposed Conditions:• Organization’s overall strategy• Authority structures• Formal regulations• Resource constraints• Selection process• Performance and evaluation system• Organization’s culture• Physical work setting

Group Member Resources

Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities– Interpersonal skills

• Conflict management and resolution• Collaborative problem solving• Communication

– Personality Characteristics• Sociability• Initiative• Openness• Flexibility

Group Structure - Roles

Formal Leadership– Leadership that is imposed on the group by the

organization.– Leaders who derive their power from the

positions they occupy in the organizational structure.

– Formal leaders may or may not also be the informal leaders of the groups in which they function.

Group Structure - Roles (cont’d)

Group Structure - Norms

Classes of Norms:• Performance norms• Appearance norms• Social arrangement norms• Allocation of resources

Group Structure - Norms (cont’d)

Examples of Cards Used in Asch’s Study

E X H I B I T 8-5

Typology of Deviant Workplace Behavior

E X H I B I T 8-6

Group Structure - Status

Group NormsGroup Norms

Status Equity Status Equity

CultureCulture

Group MemberGroup MemberStatusStatus

Group Structure - Size

Group Size

PerformanceExp

Actual (due to

loafing)

Other conclusions:• Odd number groups do

better than even.• Groups of 7 or 9 perform

better overall than larger or smaller groups.

Group Structure - Composition

Group Structure - Cohesiveness

Increasing group cohesiveness:1. Make the group smaller.2. Encourage agreement with group goals.3. Increase time members spend together.4. Increase group status and admission difficultly.5. Stimulate competition with other groups.6. Give rewards to the group, not individuals.7. Physically isolate the group.

Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness, Performance Norms, and Productivity

E X H I B I T 8-7

Group Processes

Effects of Group Processes

E X H I B I T 8-8

Group Tasks

Decision-making– Large groups facilitate the pooling of

information about complex tasks.– Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating

and facilitating the implementation of complex tasks.

– Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the requirement that group processes be effective in order for the group to perform well.

Group Decision Making

Strengths– More complete

information– Increased

diversity of views– Higher quality of

decisions– Increased

acceptance of solutions

Weaknesses– More time

consuming– Increased

pressure to conform

– Domination by one or a few members

– Ambiguous responsibility

Group Decision Making (cont’d)

Group Decision-Making Techniques

Evaluating Group Effectiveness

E X H I B I T 8-10

1. Explain the popularity of teams in organizations.

2. Contrast teams with groups.3. Identify four types of teams.4. Describe conditions when teams are preferred

over individuals.5. Specify the characteristics of effective teams.6. Explain how organizations can create team

players.

7. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of diversity for work teams.

8. Explain how management can keep teams from becoming stagnant and rigid.

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Why Have Teams Become So Popular

Teams typically outperform individuals. Teams use employee talents better. Teams are more flexible and responsive to

changes in the environment. Teams facilitate employee involvement. Teams are an effective way to democratize an

organization and increase motivation.

Team Versus Groups: What’s the Difference

Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams

E X H I B I T 9-1

Types of Teams

Types of Teams (cont’d)

•Task forces•Committees

Types of Teams (cont’d)

Team Characteristics1. The absence of paraverbal and nonverbal cues2. A limited social context3. The ability to overcome time and space constraints

Beware: Teams Aren’t Always the Answer

Three tests to see if a team fits the situation:– Is the work complex and is there a need for

different perspectives?– Does the work create a common purpose or set

of goals for the group that is larger than the aggregate of the goals for individuals?

– Are members of the group involved in interdependent tasks?

Creating Effective Teams

Creating Effective Teams (cont’d)

A Team-Effectiveness

E X H I B I T 9-3

Key Rolesof Teams

E X H I B I T 9-4

Turning Individuals Into Team Players

The Challenges– Overcoming individual resistance to team

membership.– Countering the influence of individualistic cultures.– Introducing teams in an organization that has

historically valued individual achievement. Shaping Team Players

– Selecting employees who can fulfill their team roles.

– Training employees to become team players.– Reworking the reward system to encourage

cooperative efforts while continuing to recognize individual contributions.

Contemporary Issues in Managing Teams

Team Effectiveness and Quality Management Requires That Teams:1. Are small enough to be efficient and effective.2. Are properly trained in required skills.3. Allocated enough time to work on problems.4. Are given authority to resolve problems and

take corrective action.5. Have a designated “champion” to call on when

needed.

Team and Workforce Diversity:Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity

E X H I B I T 9-5

Reinvigorating Mature Teams

Problems of Mature Teams– Becoming stagnant and complacent as

cohesiveness increases.– Developing groupthink.– Confronting more difficult issues.

Reinvigorating Teams1. Prepare members to deal with problems of

maturity.2. Offer refresher training.3. Offer advanced training.4. Encourage teams to treat their development as

a constant learning experience.

1. Describe the communication process.2. Contrast the advantages and disadvantages of

oral versus written communication.3. Compare the effectiveness of the chain,

wheel, and all-channel networks.4. Identify the factors affecting the use of the

grapevine.5. Discuss how computer-aided technology is

changing organizational communication.

6. Explain the importance of channel richness to improving communication effectiveness.

7. Identify common barriers to effective communication.

8. List behaviors related to effective active listening.

9. Contrast the meaning of talk for men versus women.

10. Describe the potential problems in cross-cultural communication.

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Functions of Communication

Communication Functions1. Control member behavior.2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.3. Provide a release for emotional expression.4. Provide information needed to make

decisions.

The Communication Process Model

E X H I B I T 10-1

Direction of Communication

Upward

Downward

Lateral

Interpersonal Communication

Oral Communication– Advantages: Speed and feedback.– Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.

Written Communication– Advantages: Tangible and verifiable.– Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks

feedback. Nonverbal Communication

– Advantages: Supports other communications and provides observable expression of emotions and feelings.

– Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of message.

Intonations: It’s the Way You Say It!

E X H I B I T 10-2

Three Common Formal Small-Group Networks

E X H I B I T 10-3

Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria

E X H I B I T 10-4

Grapevine

Grapevine Characteristics– Not controlled by management.– Perceived by most employees as being more

believable and reliable than formal communications.

– Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it.

– Results from:• Desire for information about important situations• Ambiguous conditions• Conditions that cause anxiety

Suggestions for Reducing the Negative Consequences of Rumors

E X H I B I T 10-5

Computer-Aided Communication

E-mail– Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low

cost for distribution.– Disadvantages: information overload, lack of

emotional content, cold and impersonal. Intranet

– A private organization-wide information network. Extranet

– An information network connecting employees with external suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.

Videoconferencing– An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits

face-to-face virtual meetings via video links.

Emoticons: Showing Emotion in E-Mail

E X H I B I T 10-6

Choice of Communication Channel

Characteristics of Rich Channels1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously.2. Facilitate rapid feedback.3. Are very personal in context.

Information Richness of Communication Channels

E X H I B I T 10-7

Low channel richness High channel richness

Routine Nonroutine

Barriers to Effective Communication

Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)

emotionsemotionsHow a receiver feels at the How a receiver feels at the time a message is received time a message is received will influence how the will influence how the message is interpreted.message is interpreted.

languagelanguageWords have different Words have different meanings to different meanings to different people.people.

Communication Barriers Between Men and Women

Men talk to:– Emphasize status,

power, and independence.

– Complain that women talk on and on.

– Offer solutions.– To boast about

their accomplishments.

Women talk to:– Establish

connection and intimacy.

– Criticize men for not listening.

– Speak of problems to promote closeness.

– Express regret and restore balance to a conversation.

Cross-Cultural Communication

Cultural Barriers– Barriers caused by semantics– Barriers caused by word connotations– Barriers caused by tone differences– Barriers caused by differences among

perceptions

Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in Different Countries

E X H I B I T 10-10a

Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in Different Countries (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 10-10b

Communication Barriers and Cultural Context

High-vs.

Low-Context Cultures

E X H I B I T 10-11

A Cultural Guide

Cultural Context Communication Rules:1. Assume differences until similarity is proven.2. Emphasize description rather than

interpretation or evaluation.3. Practice empathy.4. Treat your interpretations as a working

hypothesis.

1. Contrast leadership and management.2. Summarize the conclusions of trait theories.3. Identify the limitations of behavioral theories.4. Describe Fiedler’s contingency model.5. Explain Hersey and Blanchard’s situational

theory.6. Summarize leader-member exchange theory.L

7. Describe the path-goal theory.8. Identify the situational variables in the leader-

participation model.

nt’d

What Is Leadership?

managementUse of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members

Trait Theories

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy• The desire to leadThe desire to lead• Honesty and Honesty and

integrityintegrity• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence• IntelligenceIntelligence• Job-relevant Job-relevant

knowledgeknowledge

Trait Theories

LimitationsLimitations::

• No universal traits that predict leadership No universal traits that predict leadership in all situations.in all situations.

• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.than “strong” situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.

Behavioral Theories

• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.

Ohio State Studies

University of Michigan Studies

The Managerial

E X H I B I T 11-1

Scandinavian Studies

Contingency Theories: Fiedler’s Model

Fiedler’s Model: Defining the Situation

E X H I B I T 11-2

Findings from Fiedler Model

Cognitive Resource Theory

Research Support:• Less intelligent individuals

perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Follower readiness: ability

and willingness

Follower readiness: ability

and willingness

Leader: decreasing need for support and supervisionLeader: decreasing need for support and supervision

Leader–Member Exchange Theory

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

E X H I B I T 11-3

Path-Goal Theory

The Path-Goal Theory

E X H I B I T 11-4

Leader-Participation Model

Contingency Variables in the Revised Leader-Participation Model

E X H I B I T 11-5

Organizational Behavior

Business

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