IdentifyingSettlementPatternsandTerritories 1

Jens Andresen – Rasmus Birch Iversen – Peter Jensen

OntheWar-Path: TerrestrialMilitaryOrganisationinPrehistoricDenmark

Abstract: Throughtheuseofvector-basedGIS-technology,quantitativemethods,historicalandtraditionalarchaeologicalsources,theauthorspointtoacloserelationbetweenthelocationofIronandVikingAgefinds,sites,andstructuresrelatedtowarfareandtheDanishhighwaynetworkasitisknownfromthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies.Itisargued,thatthisrelationshipreflectsasystemofmilitaryorganisationembeddedinthesettlementstructureandthatitsrootscanbetracedasfarbackastheearlyfirstcenturyBC.

Introduction

Foralongtimetheconceptofwarhasbeenunder-statedinDanisharchaeology.Duringthe1970sand1980s,thefocuswasonsettlementarchaeology,ru-raleconomy,trade,andsocial issues.Mildlyexag-gerated,onecouldsaythatsocietywasdescribedasanessentiallypeacefulcosyShireinhabitedbypipe-smoking,gardentendinghobbits,livinginoblivionofthechaoticworldoutsideandonlyoccasionallyharassedbyexternalthreats.OnlyinrecentyearswehavewitnessedwarfarediscussedasaprimemoverintheformativeprocessoftheprehistoricsocietyofDenmark (Otto / Thrane / Vandkilde 2006). ThistrendisalsovisibleinthestudyofIronAgeandVi-kingsocieties,which increasinglyareperceivedasmartial societies, i.e. societies inwhich preparationforwarandconflictwasimbeddedinthesocialor-ganisation,oreventhatsocialorganisationsimplywas military organisation (Hedenstierna-Jonson2006).Admittedly,someinsightsinthestructureofpre-

historicarmieshavebeenuncovered (Ilkjær1990;Müller-Wille1977;Näsman1991;Pedersen2004).However,attemptstoproduceaquantitivesynthe-sisoftheseresultsandresultsfromthestudyoftheapparently peaceful daily life in the rural settle-mentsareveryscarce(Ringtved1999).Additionally,the study of maritime aspects of military organi-sation inNorthernEuropehas achievedmany in-teresting conclusions onmaritimewarfare (Crum-lin-Pedersen 1991; Graham-Campbell et al. 2001;Jørgensen 2002; Skoglund 2002; Varenius 1998).Atthesametimehowever,themaritimefocushasdefinedalimitedscientifichorizonper se, focusingonships,harboursandcoastalzones.Inthispaper,

wewill focusonnon-maritime(terrestrial)aspects only.Acentralaspectinthestudyofwarandconflict

inlandaregravescontainingweaponsand/orridinggear.Inpreviousstudies,thespatialdistributionhasbeenillustratedbydot-maps.Asthebackgroundin-formationof thedots, natural –not cultural –pa-rameters,suchascoastline,heightabovesea-level,lakes, and water-drainage were chosen. One ofthe benefits ofGIS-technology is the easewith bywhichallsortsofgeographical informationcanbeoverlaid.Comparedwithpaper-basedinformation,GIS-technology offers superior features for spatialexploratorydataanalysis.Theconventionalpaper-basedinformationmanagementmaybetheprimaryreasonwhynobodyseemstohavenoticedthatthedistributionofgravesofhorsemenandwarriorsinthe IronAgeandVikingperiodstronglyassociatewith the network ofmajor roads known from theendof the18thcentury.Theaimof thispaper is toconfirmtheobservedcorrelationstatisticallyandtodiscussinferencesconcerningthemilitaryorganisa-tioninprehistoricDenmark.

The Terrestrial Infrastructure of the Martial Society

From the earliest written sources describing theGermanictribes,thesourcesunanimouslytellusofsocietieswith an unusuallymartial ideology. Thisis clear from the accounts ofCaesar, Tacitus,Am-mianusMarcellinus orVegetius,who for instancestates:

Even today the barbarians think this art [of war] alone deserves their attention; they are sure that everything

2 LayersofPerception–CAA2007

else either depends on this art or can be obtained by them through it. (Vegetius: Epitoma ReiMilitaris III; 10.FromMilner1993,86)The accounts of continuous Viking assaults on

Anglo-Saxon England and the Frankish realm isprobably only a continuation of this ideology ofwar.InthefollowingwewillapproachthequestionofthecomplexityofIronAgemilitaryorganisationinDenmarkinalongtimeperspective.Thisisdonein a statistical, logistic and landscape perspective,whichwill reveal fragmentsofacomplexmilitaryorganisationofsociety.

The Relative Permanence of Road Networks

Armiesofthesizeweseereflectedinthewar-bootycollectionsoftheRomanIronAgeandindeedintheVikingAge, cannot have operatedwithout inlandroads.Althoughwe candemonstrate roads in thearchaeological record – ranging from gravel-filledwheel tracks to stone and plank built roads – theevidenceismostoftenfromrivercrossingsorotherprotectedlocations.Theyaresparseandtheyarenot

helpfulinreconstructingthecommunicativelinesoftheprehistoriclandscape.Ontheotherhand,roadsystems are commonly and rightly regarded asone of themost stable human artefacts. There aregoodreasonsforthisbeingso,culturallyaswellasnaturally.Aculturalreasonisthatroadslinksettledareas: roads and settlements mutually determinetheirpositioninthelandscape.Anaturalreasonisthatroadsystemsrelatetothegeomorphologyofagivenarea,whichinahumanperspectiveisaverystatic property of the landscape. Mountain areasfor instance areoftenpracticallypassable throughvalleysonly,whichessentiallydefinenaturalwaterdrainagesystems.Thisrelationshipbetweenwater-drainagevs. road systems isquite theopposite inflatland areas, where ridges/watersheds definethemostcost-efficient location fornon-local traffic(Møller2005).

Historic Road Systems

Around1800ADtheDanishRoyalAcademyofSci-encesandLettersproducedaseriesofmapswhichareconsideredthefirstreliablegeodeticrepresenta-

Fig.2. Main roads in Denmark and Schleswig around1800withcontemporarycoast-linesasdepictedonmapsproducedbytheDanishRoyalAcademyofSciencesand

Letters.

Fig.1.Exampleofanoriginalmapdating1786fromthearea around Jelling. The land-use and road-systems ofthattimeareclearlymarked.TheN-SrunningmainroadW of the small lake has a special signature. Lines con-nectingprehistoric(probablyBronzeAge)grave-moundsarealsovisible,asthemounds(aswellaschurch-towers)wereusedastriangulationpointsbythesurveyors.

IdentifyingSettlementPatternsandTerritories 3

tionofDenmark(Korsgaard2004).Themapswereproducedinascaleof1 : 20,000(Fig. 1).Subsequent-ly theywere reduced to the scaleof 1 : 80,000and1 : 120,000 printed on copper-plates. The produc-tionprocess tookplace from1762 to1820.Theuseof this source in amodernGIS-systemwasmadepossible by one of the authors of this paper, JensAndresen. In1997hedevelopedamethod togeo-reference these and other historical maps. He re-questedacompletelistofthegeographicpositionsofDanishchurch-towersfromtheDanishOrdnanceSurvey (KMS). Because a substantial part of thechurches were used as geodetic reference pointson theoldmaps too, they easily canbe identifiedandusedasreferencepoints.Thismadeitpossibletodigitize (vectorize) features from themaps andtransfer the features to geo-referencedmap-layersinaGIS-system.ThecoastlineandthehighwaysofDenmarkonthemap(Fig. 2)werecreatedwiththis technique.Theresultingmapofhistoricroadnetworksisa

quiteheterogeneoushistoricalsource.Itisveryno-ticeablethatthelatestmappedareaoftheduchyofSchleswigdisplaysamuchdenserhighway-networkthantherestoftheJutlandpeninsula.Thiscausesthesuspicionthatthesurveyormappedsomebywaysashighways.Also,somelocalroadsmighthavebeen“upgraded” in thisperioddue to royalprovisionsdating1784 (DuchyofSchleswig)and1793 (King-dom of Denmark) (Krünitz 1773–1858; Møller2005).Thisprovision resulted in the improvementofthehighway-systemwhichalsostraightenedoutformer roads. Either version of the highwayswasdepicted on partly revised copper-plates, clearlyvisibleontheislandofZealandonFig. 2(Dam2005, 41).Byconsultingtheoriginalsin1 : 20,000someofthese“newartefacts”couldbeeliminated.Whatisleftis theclosestwecanget tothemedievalhigh-way-system, which generally speaking connectedmarket towns,harboursandother important loca-tions but by-passed rural settlements,whichwerefencedatnight.

Dykes and the Hærvejen

An important, but less investigated type of struc-ture inDanish IronAge researchare the so-calleddykes.Thefewdatedfallintheperiodofthefirsttotheearlyfourthcenturies.Thedykesarecharacter-isedbyV-shapedditches,anearthenrampartandapalisadeoftenstretchingseveralkilometresclosing

passagesthroughwetlandareas.Thedykeshaveaninterestingdistribution, since they form a straightlineupthroughthemiddlepartofJutlandconsist-entwith the so-calledHærvej, themajormedievalroadusedforoxenexportfromDenmarktoGerma-nyandtheNetherlands(Jørgensen1988;Ringtved1999; Jørgensen 2003, seeFig. 3). The name of theroad,aswellitsassociationtothedykes,isnotthatpeaceful.Theroadwas locatedat themainwater-shedof the Jutlandpeninsula, and itwas also themainchannelforthetransportofland-basedtroopsin timesofwar. Itranthroughsparselypopulatedareasendingatthemostsouthernpartofourstudyarea – theDannevirke near present-day Schleswig.Theearliestdatedphaseisfromtheearlypartoftheeighthcentury,butthereisanearlierundatedphase.Thiswas the focal point controlling essentially allkindsofnorth-southtraffictoandfromtheJutlandpeninsulaattheKarle-gat–thegateofthewarriors.Interestingly,nameandfunctionseemparalleledintheanglo-saxonhere-path,therouteprimarilyusedby campaigning (Viking) armies (Halsall 2005, 148).

Fig.3. Dykes,barragesandotherdefensivefeatures(afterRingtved1999).Approximatepositionofthestructures.

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Iron Age War Booty Offerings and Historic Highways

Already in theearly IronAgewefind thefirstof-feringsofwarbooty thatbecomecommon inpre-dominantly the lateRomanandMigrationperiod.Approximately 20 locations containing war bootyofferingsareknownandtypicallyeachhasnumer-ous,uptofivedepositions,coveringthewholeperi-odinquestion.Thefindsarecharacterisedbyalargeamount ofweapons, personal equipment forwar-riors, tools,oftenwagonsorboats,andotherarte-factsneededforanarmyinthefield;commonly,theobjectsarerituallydestroyedandarealwaysfoundinlakesorbogsites.ByreferencetothewritingsofCaesar, Tacitus and Orosius, they are interpretedasgiftsofgratitudetothegodsaftersuccessfulvic-toriesover invadingarmies, and theequipment isthus seen as the equipmentbelonging to a beatenarmy, at some locations of at least 200–400 men (Ilkjær / Lønstrup1982).Comparedtothedistribu-tionofthemedievalhighwaynetworkonFig. 4,wefindastrikingassociationbetweenwarbootyoffer-ingsandthehighways.Onlyveryfewsitesarenotlocatednearbytheroads.

Fig.5. BurialswithweaponsfromtheIronAgeandhis-toric highways (Burial informationmainly from Ilkjær

1990suppliedbyRasmusBirchIversen).

Fig.4. WarbootyofferingsfromtheIronAge.Exactposi-tions.Highwaynetworksimplified.

Fig.6. Burialswithweaponsand/orridinggearfromtheVikingperiodandhistorichighways(Burialinformationfrom Kleiminger 1993; Eisenschmidt 2004). Uncertain

gravesareexcluded.

IdentifyingSettlementPatternsandTerritories 5

touseavector-basedsolution.Theadvantageisthatvectoroperationsaremuchmoreaccurateandscal-ablewithoutlossofaccuracy.Ashortdescriptionoftheoperativepartfollows

here: The position of the graves from publishedsources was collected from www.dkconline.dk.An unedited version of digitized highways fromJutlandwasusedforthecomputationoftheback-ground information (theareacoveredby thebuff-ersaroundthehighways).Thebuffersin200 min-crementswerecreatedandtheirareacomputedinMapInfo (Fig. 7). Openwater and largerwetlandswere subtracted, as no grave can be placed there.OnlygravesfromJutlandwereconsidered,inorderto minimize the influence of coastal defence sys-tems.Thedistancefromthegravestonearesthigh-wayswascomputedasdescribedbyReilly (1988)andwasperformedwithafreelyavailableprogramdevelopedbyPeter Jensen indotNet.Thebin-sizeofthecumulativepercentageofdistanceswassetto200 mlikethebackgroundinformation(Fig. 8).TheKolomogorov-Smirnov one sample testwasmadeinMicrosoftExcel.This resulted inaconfirmationthattheassociationbetweengravesandhighwaysisstatisticallysignificantatthe1%level.

Highways and Weapon-graves – Where is the Link?

Due to space limitations, data bias issues cannotbethoroughlydiscussed,althoughtheyhavebeeninvestigatedvery carefully. Sincemanygraves arefoundingravelandgravelisusedforconstructinghighways, this may influence the observed asso-

Fig.7. Buffer-analysis of the highway-network. The dis-tancebetweenbuffersis200 meters.Sea,lakesandlarger

wetlandsaresubtracted.

Fig.8. Cumulated percentage of distances from burialsto nearest highway.Cumulatedpercentage of buffer-ar-easaroundhistorichighways. Jutlandonly.Dmaxof Iron Age=0.154withN =163.DmaxofVikingperiod=0.212

withN=65.

Prehistoric Weapon Graves and Historic Highways

InspiteoftheclearsignsofearlierwarfaretheIronAgeweapongravesonlyappearaspartofanony-mous burial customs towards the end of the Pre-RomanIronAge,duringthelast100yearsorsoBC.Inthisinitialphasetheyareverycommon,whichisalsotrueforthefirsthalfofthesecondcenturyandtoadegreeagaininthesecondpartofthethirdcen-tury.Inthefifthcenturyweonlyknowofonegravefieldwithweapons, and after 500 ADand for thenext250yearsonlyfourweapongravesareknownfromallofDenmark(Fig. 5).Thisisduetothefactthatgravefieldsfromthisperiodaremissingalmostcompletely.WeapongravesreappearasacommontraitintheVikingAgeinthelateninthandthefirsthalfofthetenthcenturyclearlydiscernableintotwocategories:weapongraveswith ridingequipment,commonlyrichchambergraves,andmoreordinaryweapon graves without association to horse gear(Fig. 6).Theweapongravecustomalsoshowsadistinct

regional distribution. From the outset, weapongraves are almost totally absent on the island ofZealanduntiltheVikingAge,whereastheweaponsdisappear fromgraves on the islandof Funenbe-forethemiddleofthethirdcentury.Asinthepre-viouscases,wefindanoverallvisuallydiscernableassociationofthearchaeologicalfind-spotsandthehistoric highways.Amore rigorous test is neededin this case, sowe adopted themethoddescribedbyHodder / Orton(1976)forthestatisticalanalysisofdistancesbetweenlinearfeaturesandpointphe-nomena. In contrast to Kvamme (1990; 1992), whoadvocatedaraster-basedGISsolution,wedecided

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ciation.Furthermoreareasnearhighwaysaremorelikelytohaveahigherrateofrecoveryofarchaeo-logicalmaterialdue toconstructionactivities. Inapreviousstudyithasbeendocumented,thatthereis no spatial correlation between IronAge gravesand large-scale gravelmining (Hedeager 1985).AtestongravescontainingRomanimportsproducednoassociationintheirspatialpositiontohighways(Dmax = 0.085. Critical value at the 5% level withN=80is0.152).Inmedieval times the highways were used for

non-local transportation and communication. TheeldestDanish legislative sources from1241explic-itly differentiate between local roads and kongens hærstrate–theking’sarmiesstreet,translatedtomod-ern Danish as highway – landevej (Kroman / Iuul1967;Schovsbo2002).This isexactlyparalleled forinstanceinEngland“cynigesheiweg”andGerma-ny“Königs-Straße”(OED2007;Krünitz1773–1858).The maintenance of these roads was in medievalDenmark delegated to local peasants, since therewasnopublicadministrationto takecareof thosematters.Fromthe16thand17thcenturyitisknown,thatpeasantswerenotallowed touse these roadsingeneral–unlessthekingorsomeoneunderhisauthorityclaimedtheirrightfortransportationandinwhichcasethepeasantswereregardedastools,notindependentagents.From our analysis it seems as if the medieval

highwayshavetheirrootsinprehistory.Theyseemto have served as a place of assembly in times ofpeace and in times ofwar. The traffic along theseroadswaswatchedoverbyarmedmenlivinginset-tlementsatornearbytheroadsystem.Thesesettle-mentsseemtohavebeenfortifiedintheolderIronAge,whilethesettlementsfromabout150ADandonwardsseemtohavebeenunfortified, indicatingthat internal conflictswere taken care of by somesortoflegislationorbysuperiorpowers.Recent investigations inancientmilitaryhistory

addtothesubject(Speidel2004).Acertaintypeofroadsamongst theRomanVia PublicaewasnamedVia Militares.Thesewerehighwaysfrequentlyusedby the Romanmilitary, primarily for communica-tionpurposes.Ifnopublichouses–Taberna–wereerectedalongthestreets,peoplelivingatornearbyhad the obligation to grant military persons freemeals and lodging – the so-called hospitium. Ex-cluded from these obligations were senators andpresentandformerarmedmen.Asinpreviouscas-es,wefindexactparallelsinmedievalScandinaviansources.Thehospitiumiscalledgæstning(asinEng-

lishguest)inmedievalScandinaviaandnobilityandotherarmedmenareexcludedfromtheobligationtograntit(Danstrup1956–1978).Combining sources from separated disciplines

and subsequent analysis withmeans of GIS-tech-niquesandquantitativemethodsthusseemtoqual-ifyaspectsofmilitaryorganisationinpastsocieties.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank two anonymous reviewers fortheirusefulcomments.

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Illustration Credits

Fig.1. CopyrightoftheDanishOrdnanceSurvey(KMS)andisreproducedwiththeallowanceKMSA404/85.Fig.2. The coastline is digitized by the project “Settle-mentandLandscape”attheUniversityofAarhusFigs. 2–7. The digitized highways inside the nationalboundaries of Denmark are downloaded from http://www.hiskis.dkandarecreatedby:Dam,Peder;Nielsen,Peter Steen;Dam,Claus andBill, Jan. The highways ofthesouthernpartofSchleswigaredigitizedbyoneoftheauthors(JensAndresen).Fig.3. ReproducedwiththepermissionofJytteRingtved,UniversityofAarhus.

Jens AndresenRasmus Birch Iversen

Peter Jensen

University of AarhusInstitute of Anthropology, Archaeology and Linguistics

Department of Prehistoric ArchaeologyMoesgård

8270 HøjbjergDenmark

jens.andresen@hum.au.dk