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Occupational health psychology (OHP) emerged out of two distinct applied disciplines within
psychology, health psychology and industrial/organizational psychology, and occupational health.[1] OHP is
concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that contribute to the development of health-
related problems in people who work.[2] The field also speaks to ways to effect workplace changes that
benefit worker health without adversely affecting productivity.
OHP researchers and practitioners are concerned with a variety of psychosocial work characteristics that
may be related to physical and mental healthproblems. The physical health problems range from accidental
injury to cardiovascular disease. The mental health problems include psychological distress,burnout,
and depression. OHP researchers and practitioners are also concerned with the relation of psychosocial
working conditions to health behaviors (e.g., smoking and alcohol consumption) and workplace morale
(e.g., job satisfaction). Examples of psychosocial workplace characteristics that OHP researchers have
linked to health outcomes include decision latitude and psychological workload,[3] the balance between a
worker's efforts and the rewards (e.g., pay, recognition, status, prospects for a promotion, etc.) received for
his or her work,[4] and the extent to which supervisors[5] and co-workers[6] are supportive. Another topic of
great concern to occupational health psychology is the problem of carryover of deleterious workplace
experiences to the worker's home life.[7]Given its roots occupational health, OHP is also concerned with
factors that affect workplace safety[8] and accident risk.[9] In addition, occupational health psychologists
document the adverse impact of deteriorating economic conditions, and identify ways to mitigate that
impact.[10]
Professional organizations. Three professional organizations closely linked to OHP are the Society for
Occupational Health Psychology (SOHP), theEuropean Academy of Occupational Health Psychology (EA-
OHP), and the International Commission on Occupational Health's committee on Work Organisation and
Psychosocial Factors (ICOH-WOPS). Two important OHP journals are the Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology (JOHP) and Work & Stress (W & S). The journals are associated with two or the three OHP
organizations (JOHP with SOHP; W & S with EA-0HP).
Serials and the interdisciplinary character of OHP. In addition to JOHP and W & S, OHP researchers
and practitioners consult a variety of other periodicals. These include, but are not limited to, Social Science
& Medicine, the Journal of Applied Psychology, the Journal of Organizational Behavior, theJournal of
Health and Social Behavior, the Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, the Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology(originally published as the Journal of Occupational
Psychology), the American Journal of Public Health, Organizational Research Methods, Occupational
Medicine, the European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Psychosomatic Medicine,
the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine(originally published as the Journal of
Occupational Medicine), Occupational and Environmental Medicine, and Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice. The diversity in journals consulted by OHP professionals underlines the
interdisciplinary nature of OHP.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical overview
2 Avenues of OHP research
o 2.1 Research methods
o 2.2 Job stress and cardiovascular disease
o 2.3 Adverse working conditions and economic insecurity linked to psychological distress and reduced job satisfaction
o 2.4 Work and mental disorder
2.4.1 Schizophrenia
2.4.2 Depression
2.4.3 Alcohol abuse
2.4.4 Personality disorders
o 2.5 Workplace interventions
2.5.1 Industrial organizations
2.5.2 Military and first responders
2.5.3 Modestly scaled interventions
o 2.6 Workplace incivility
o 2.7 Workplace violence
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
o 6.1 Doctoral programs in OHP
[edit]Historical overview
Early forerunners. A number of individuals contributed to the foundation of OHP. The Industrial
Revolution in the nineteenth century prompted thinkers to concern themselves with the nature of work. For
example, Marx's [11] theory of alienation of the industrial worker has been
influential. Taylor's (1911) Principles of Scientific Management [12] and Mayo’s research in the late 1920s
and early 1930s on workers at the Hawthorne Western Electric plant [13] helped to inject work and its impact
on workers into the subject matter psychology addresses. Jahoda, Lazarsfeld, and Ziesel's (1971/1932)
pioneering research on the impact of unemployment on a small Austrian community[14] also contributed to
the development of OHP.
From the years after World War II to the 1970s. The creation in 1948 of the Institute for Social Research
(ISR) at the University of Michigan was an important stimulus to research on work and health because of
the institute's interdisciplinary character. Many psychological and sociological studies of work were initiated
by researchers at the ISR.[15][16][17] Research by Trist and Bamforth (1951) that showed that the reduction in
autonomy that accompanied organizational changes in English mining operations affected worker
morale[18] was very influential in later OHP circles. A study by Gardell (1971) that examined the impact of
work organization on mental health in Swedish pulp and paper mill workers and engineers[19] was also
influential. It was one of the few studies to operationalize the concept of worker alienation.
Groundbreaking research by Kasl and Cobb (1971), which documented the impact of unemployment on
blood pressure,[20] influenced the emergence of OHP in at least two respects. First, Kasl and Cobb's study
showed that a work-related psychosocial stressor can affect a physical condition. Second, the study
demonstrated that rigorous methods can be applied to research on the impact of psychosocial work factors
on an aspect of health.
From the 1980s to the present. In 1986, the term occupational health psychology first appeared in print
when George Everly, Jr. used the expression in a book chapter[1] devoted to integrating the fields of
occupational health and psychology (in his original paper, Everly advocated for psychologists' role in health
promotion in the workplace; although OHP includes health promotion, the field is much broader). The field
of OHP advanced when the journal Work & Stress was founded in 1987.[21] In 1990, Raymond, Wood, and
Patrick, in a watershed article published in theAmerican Psychologist, articulated the idea that a goal for
psychology should be to create healthy workplaces.[22] In order to help achieve that goal, Raymond et al.
recommended that psychologists organize cross-disciplinary doctoral programs in OHP. OHP advanced
further when in 1990 the American Psychological Association (APA) and the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) jointly organized an international conference in Washington, DC
devoted to work, stress, and health. Ever since the initial conference, APA and NIOSH have organized
work, stress, and health conferences that convened in two- to three-year cycles. Later in the 1990s, APA
and NIOSH expanded their collaboration by providing seed money for the development of OHP graduate
programs (a list of U.S. doctoral programs in OHP, many of which benefited from this seed money, can be
found on the bottom of this page). In 1996 the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology (JOHP) was
founded.[23] It is published by APA. In the late 1990s, the coverage of the journal Work & Stress, in
response to the development of the field of occupational health psychology, expanded beyond its original
concentration to cover OHP more broadly.[24]
In 1998, ICOH-WOPS organized its first international conference in Copenhagen.[25] The second
conference was held in Okayama, Japan in 2005, after which ICOH-WOPS adopted a two- to three-year
cycle for its conference schedule.
In 1999, the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology (EA-OHP) was established.[26] The EA-
OHP initiated its own series of international conferences on the psychological aspects of work and health.
In 2005, the Society for Occupational Health Psychology (SOHP) was founded in the United States.
[27] Work & Stress became associated with the EA-OHP. The JOHPbecame associated with the SOHP
although it is still published by APA. In 2008, SOHP became a full partner with APA and NIOSH in
organizing the, by then, biennial Work, Stress, and Health conferences. Also in 2008, the EA-OHP and the
SOHP began to coordinate activities (e.g., conference schedules).[28][29]
For more details on the historical development of OHP, see Barling and Griffiths's (2010) fine overview of
the history of the discipline.[30]
[edit]Avenues of OHP research
The purpose of this section is not to provide an exhaustive survey of OHP research. A short entry in
Wikipedia cannot do that. Rather, the section serves to show the breadth of OHP research and a number of
important questions OHP research addresses. In the sections below, the reader can observe that OHP
research examines the impact of work on both physical and mental well-being. Knowledge derived from
this research helps researchers and practitioners devise means for improving the lives of people who work.
[edit]Research methods
Before examining some of the main avenues of OHP research, it should be noted that occupational health
psychologists commonly employ a number of different research methods.
Standard research designs. Like researchers in many branches of psychology, OHP investigators
employ cross-sectional designs. Cross-sectional studies are often the first to show that a workplace factor
and a dimension of health covary; such studies, however, cannot establish the presence of a cause-effect
relation. Although less common in OHP research, some OHP investigators employ case-control designs.
[31] OHP researchers underline the value of longitudinal designs (and a type of longitudinal design known as
a prospective study), research designs that can be helpful in examining the temporal relation between a
workplace stressor and health or well-being.[32] OHP investigators have also become interested in a
relatively new kind of longitudinal design, the diary study, with its comparatively short duration. In a diary
study workers contribute data on work events every day over consecutive days or, as in some studies,
multiple times in a day as the events occur over successive days.[33] Experimental [34] and quasi-
experimental designs [35] are found in OHP-related intervention research although quasi-experimental
designs are more common.[36]
Statistical methods. Statistical methods applied to the above research designs
include correlation, multiple linear regression (MLR), and the analysis of variance. OHP researchers
use logistic regression when the outcome variables they study are binary in nature (e.g., disease
endpoints, the presence of severe musculoskeletal pain). Other methods that are commonly employed by
OHP researchers include structural equation modeling [37] and hierarchical linear modeling [38] (HLM; also
known as multilevel modeling). Compared to traditional statistical methods such as MLR and the analysis
of variance, HLM is particularly helpful in research on the impact of psychosocial workplace factors on
health outcomes because HLM can better accommodate similarities among employees found within the
same economic units.[38] In comparison to MLR and repeated measures analyses of variance, HLM is
especially well suited to longitudinal research in which investigators, employing three or more waves of
data collection, evaluate the lagged impact of work stressors on health outcomes; in this research context
HLM can help minimize censoring (e.g., the loss of workers from analyses because they participated in
some but not all of a study's data-collection periods).[39] Given its applications in longitudinal research, HLM
is an important analytic tool in OHP diary studies because such studies require multiple data collection
points, albeit over a relatively short time span. Finally, OHP researchers will employ meta-analyses to
aggregate data from well-designed studies in order to estimate the average size of effects of factors such
as job insecurity on outcomes such as depression or distress in workers.[32]
Qualitative research methods. Although rarer than the methods described above, OHP investigators
have also employed qualitative research methods. These include interviews that allow the worker to
describe one or more stressful work experiences, the ways the worker and his/her coworkers managed or
coped with a job stressor, and the psychological aftermath of a stressful event at work;[40][41] workers'
unconstrained self-reported, written descriptions of stressful incidents at work;[42] focus groups [43] in which
small groups of workers are interviewed about their work lives; first-hand observation of workers on the job
without the investigator obtaining the job targeted for study;[44] and participant observation,[45] research in
which an investigator obtains the job targeted for study, and describes the work "from the inside."
[edit]Job stress and cardiovascular disease
A number of well-known factors are related to increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). These risk
factors include smoking, obesity, low density lipoprotein (the "bad" cholesterol), lack of exercise, and blood
pressure, among others. Using two large U.S. data sets, Murphy (1991) found that hazardous work
situations, jobs that required vigilance and responsibility for others, and work that required attention to
devices were related to increased risk for cardiovascular disability.[46] These included jobs in transportation
(e.g., air traffic controllers, airline pilots, bus drivers, locomotive engineers, truck drivers), preschool
teachers, and craftsmen. Among 30 studies involving men[47] and women,[48] most have found an
association between workplace stressors and CVD.
Job strain and CVD. Job strain refers to the combination of low work-related decision latitude and high
workload.[3] Fredikson, Sundin, and Frankenhaeuser (1985) found that job strain was related to increased
activity in the sympathoadrenomedullary and adrenocortical axes.[49] Belkić et al. (2000)[50] found that many
of the 30 studies mentioned above indicated that decision latitude and psychological workload exerted
independent effects on CVD; two studies found synergistic effects, consistent with the strictest version of
the strain model.[51][52] A review of 17 longitudinal studies having reasonably high internal validity found that
8 showed a significant relation between job strain and CVD and 3 more showed a nonsignificant relation.
[53] The findings, however, were clearer for men than for women, on whom data were more sparse.
Effort-reward imbalance and CVD. An alternative model of job stress is the effort-reward imbalance
model.[54] That model holds that high work-related effort coupled with low control over job-related intrinsic
(e.g., recognition) and extrinsic (e.g., pay) rewards triggers high levels of activation in neurohormonal
pathways that, cumulatively, are thought to exert adverse effects on cardiovascular health. At least five
studies of men have linked effort-reward imbalance with CVD.[55]
Job loss. OHP-related research has also shown that job loss adversely affects cardiovascular health[56]
[20] as well as health in general.[57][58]
[edit]Adverse working conditions and economic insecurity linked to psychological distress and reduced job satisfaction
What is meant by psychological distress. A number of well-designed longitudinal studies have adduced
evidence for the view that adverse working conditions contribute to the development of psychological
distress. Before turning to those studies, the reader should note that psychological distress refers to
feelings of demoralization that are aversive to people, and often drive them to seek professional help,
without the individuals necessarily meeting criteria for a psychiatric disorder.[59][60] Psychological distress is
often expressed in affective (depressive) symptoms, psychophysical or psychosomatic symptoms (e.g.,
headaches, stomachaches, etc.), and anxiety symptoms. The relation of adverse working conditions to
psychological distress is thus an important avenue of research. Job satisfaction is included in this section
because it is a key variable in a great deal of research on organizations and is related to a host of health
outcomes.[61][62]
Working conditions and psychological distress. Parkes (1982)[63] conducted one of the
methodologically soundest studies of the relation of working conditions to psychological distress in British
student nurses. She found that in this "natural experiment," student nurses experienced higher levels of
distress and lower levels of job satisfaction in medical wards than in surgical wards; compared to surgical
wards, medical wards make greater affective demands on the nurses. In another methodologically sound
study, Frese (1985)[64] showed that objective working conditions give rise to subjective stress and
psychosomatic symptoms in blue collar German workers. In addition to the above studies, a number of
other well-controlled longitudinal studies have implicated work stressors in the development of
psychological distress and reduced job satisfaction.[65][66][67][68]
Economic insecurity and psychological distress. There is increasing interest in the OHP community in
(a) understanding the impact of the latest economic crisis on individuals' physical and mental health and
well-being and (b) calling attention to personal and organizational means for ameliorating the impact of the
crisis.[10] Mounting evidence indicates that persistent job insecurity, even in the absence of job loss, is
related to higher levels of depressive symptoms, i.e., psychological distress, as well as worse overall
health.[69]
[edit]Work and mental disorder
[edit]Schizophrenia
Main article: Schizophrenia
In a case-control study, Link, Dohrenwend, and Skodol found that, compared to depressed and well control
subjects, schizophrenic patients were more likely to have had jobs, prior to their first episode of the
disorder, that exposed them to “noisesome” work characteristics (e.g., noise, humidity, heat, cold, etc.).
[70] The jobs tended to be of higher status than other blue collar jobs, suggesting that downward drift in
already-affected individuals does not account for the finding. One explanation involving a diathesis-stress
model suggests that the job-related stressors helped precipitate the first episode in already-vulnerable
individuals. There is some support for the finding from data collected in the Epidemiologic Catchment
Area (ECA) study.[71]
[edit]Depression
Main article: Major depressive disorder
Using data from the ECA study, Eaton, Anthony, Mandel, and Garrison (1990) found that members of three
occupational groups, lawyers, secretaries, and special education teachers (but not other types of teachers),
showed elevated rates of DSM-III major depression, adjusting for social demographic factors.[72] The ECA
study involved representative samples of American adults from five U.S. geographical areas, providing
relatively unbiased estimates of the risk of mental disorder by occupation; however, because the data
were cross-sectional, no conclusions bearing on cause-and-effect relations are warranted. Evidence from a
Canadian prospective study indicated that individuals in the highest quartile of occupational stress are at
increased risk for an episode of major depression.[73] A meta-analysis that pooled the results of 11 well-
designed longitudinal studies indicated that a number of facets of the psychosocial work environment (e.g.,
low decision latitude, high psychological workload, lack of social support at work, effort-reward imbalance,
and job insecurity) increase the risk of common mental disorders such as depression.[32]
[edit]Alcohol abuse
Main article: Alcohol abuse
Another study based on cross-sectional ECA data found high rates of alcohol abuse and dependence in
the construction and transportation industries as well as among waiters and waitresses, controlling for
sociodemographic factors.[74] Within the transportation sector, heavy truck drivers and material movers were
at especially high risk. A prospective study of ECA subjects who were followed one year after the initial
interviews provided data on newly incident cases of alcohol abuse and dependence.[75] This study found
that workers in jobs that combined low control with high physical demands were at increased risk of
developing alcohol problems although the findings were confined to men.
[edit]Personality disorders
Main article: Personality disorders#Occupational functioning
Depending on the diagnosis, severity and individual, and the job itself, personality disorders can be
associated with difficulty coping with work or the workplace- potentially leading to problems with others by
interfering with interpersonal relationships. Indirect effects also play a role; for example, impaired
educational progress or complications outside of work, such as substance abuse and co-morbid mental
diseases, can plague sufferers. However, personality disorders can also bring about above-average work
abilities by increasing competitive drive or causing the sufferer to exploit his or her co-workers.[76][77]
[edit]Workplace interventions
[edit]Industrial organizations
OHP interventions often concern both the health of the individual and the health of the organization. Adkins
(1999) described the development of one such intervention, an organizational health center (OHC) at a
California industrial complex.[78] The OHC helped to improve both organizational and individual health as
well as help workers manage job stress. Innovations included labor-management partnerships, suicide risk
reduction (there had previously been elevated suicide risk at the complex), conflict mediation, and
occupational mental health support. OHC practitioners also coordinated their services with previously
underutilized local community services in the same city, thus reducing redundancy in service delivery.
Hugentobler, Israel, and Schurman (1992) detailed a different, multi-layered intervention in a mid-sized
Michigan manufacturing plant.[79] The hub of the intervention was the Stress and Wellness Committee
(SWC) which solicited ideas from workers on ways to improve both their well-being and productivity.
Innovations the SWC developed included improvements that ensured two-way communication between
workers and management and reduction in stress resulting from diminished conflict over issues of quantity
versus quality. Both the interventions described by Adkins and Hugentobler et al. had a positive impact on
productivity.
NIOSH-related interventions. Currently there are efforts under way at NIOSH to help reduce the
incidence of preventable disorders (e.g., sleep apnea) among heavy-truck and tractor-trailer drivers and,
concomitantly, the life-threatening accidents to which the disorders lead,[80] improve the health and safety of
workers who are assigned to shift work or who work long hours,[81] and reduce the incidence of falls among
iron workers.[82]
[edit]Military and first responders
OHP has played a role in interventions employed in very difficult work-related circumstances. The Mental
Health Advisory Teams of the United States Army employ OHP-related interventions with combat troops.[83]
[84] OHP also has a role to play in interventions aimed at helping first responders.[85][86]
[edit]Modestly scaled interventions
Schmitt (2007) described three different highly focused and modestly scaled, successful OHP interventions
that helped workers abstain from smoking, exercise more frequently, and shed weight.[87] Other, even less
expensive, yet successful OHP interventions include a campaign to improve the rates of hand washing, an
effort to get workers to walk more often, and a drive to get employees to be more compliant with regard to
taking prescribed medicines.[88] The interventions tended reduce organization health-care costs.
[edit]Workplace incivility
Main article: Workplace incivility
Workplace incivility has been defined as "low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the
target....Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for
others" (p. 457)[89] Incivility is distinct from violence. Examples of workplace incivility include insulting
comments, denigration of the target's work, spreading false rumors, social isolation, etc. A summary of
research conducted in Europe suggests that workplace incivility is common there.[90] In research on more
than 1000 U. S. civil service workers, Cortina, Magley, Williams, and Langhout (2001) found that more than
70% of the sample experienced workplace incivility in the past five years.[90] Compared to men, women
were more exposed to incivility; incivility was associated with psychological distress and reduced job
satisfaction. The reduction of workplace incivility is a fertile area for further OHP research.
[edit]Workplace violence
Main article: Workplace violence
Homicide. OHP is also concerned with work-related violence. According to figures from the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 1996 there were 927 work-associated homicides,[91] in a labor force that
numbered approximately 132,616,000.[92] The rate works out to be about 7 homicides per million workers
for the one year. Although one work-related homicide is too many, work-related homicide is relatively rare.
Assault. Workplace assault is much more prevalent. Assaultive behavior in the workplace often produces
injury, psychological distress, and economic loss. One study of California workers found a rate of 72.9 non-
fatal, officially documented assaults per 100,000 workers per year, with workers in the education, retail, and
health care sectors subject to excess risk.[93] A Minnesota workers' compensation study found that women
workers had a twofold higher risk than men, and health and social service workers, transit workers, and
members of the education sector were at high risk compared to workers in other economic sectors.[94] A
West Virginia workers' compensation study found that workers in the health care sector and, to a lesser
extent, the education sector were at elevated risk for assault-related injury.[95] Another workers'
compensation study found that excessively high rates of assault-related injury in schools, healthcare, and,
to a lesser extent, banking.[96] In addition to the physical injury that results from being a victim of workplace
violence, individuals who witness such violence without being directly victimized are at increased risk for
experiencing adverse effects, as found in a study of Los Angeles teachers.[97]
Curbing or preventing workplace violence. Although the dimensions of the problem of workplace
violence vary by economic sector, one sector, education, has had some limited success in introducing
programmatic, psychologically-based efforts to reduce the level of violence.[98] OHP research suggests that
there continue to be difficulties in successfully "screening out applicants [for jobs] who may be prone to
engaging in aggressive behavior,"[99] suggesting that anti-aggression training of existing employees may be
an alternative to screening. There have not, however, been enough rigorously evaluated studies of the
effectiveness of training programs aimed at reducing workplace violence.[100] The curtailing of job-related
violence is an important area needing further OHP research.
[edit]See also
Applied psychology
Employee assistance programs
Ergonomics
European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology
Health psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology
International Commission on Occupational Health
Industrial hygiene
Mobbing
Occupational health nursing
Occupational safety and health
Social undermining
Society for Occupational Health Psychology
Stress (biology)
Stress management
Work-life balance
Workplace aggression
Workplace bullying
Workplace safety
Workplace stress
[edit]References
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[edit]Further reading
Cohen, A., & Margolis, B. (1973). Initial psychological research related
to the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. American
Psychologist, 28, 600-606.
de Lange, A. H., Taris, T.W., Kompier, M. A. J., Houtman, I. L. D., &
Bongers, P. M. (2003). “The very best of the millennium”: Longitudinal
research and the Demand-Control-(Support) Model.Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 8, 282–305.
Everly, G. S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occupational health
psychology. In P. A. Keller & L. G. Ritt (Eds.), Innovations in clinical
practice: A source book, Vol. 5 (pp. 331–338). Sarasota, FL:
Professional Resource Exchange.
Frese, M. (1985). Stress at work and psychosomatic complaints: A
causal interpretation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 314-328.
Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental
strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly,
24, 285-307.
Kasl, S. V. (1978). Epidemiological contributions to the study of work
stress. In C. L. Cooper & R. L. Payne (Eds.), Stress at work (pp. 3–38).
Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Kasl, S. V., & Cobb, S. (1970). Blood pressure changes in men
undergoing job loss: A preliminary report. Psychosomatic Medicine, 32,
19-38.
Kelloway, E.K., Barling, J., & Hurrell, J.J., Jr. (Eds.) (2006). Handbook
of workplace violence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Leka, S., & Houdmont, J. (Eds.)(2010). Occupational health
psychology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Parkes, K. R. (1982). Occupational stress among student nurses: A
natural experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 784-796.
Quick, J.C., Murphy,L.R., & Hurrell, J.J., Jr. (Eds.) (1992). Work and
well-being: Assessments and instruments for occupational mental
health. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Quick, J. C., & Tetrick, L. E. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of occupational
health psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Raymond, J., Wood, D., & Patrick, W. (1990). Psychology training in
work and health. American Psychologist, 45, 1159-1161.
Sauter, S.L., & Murphy, L.R. (Eds.) (1995). Organizational risk factors
for job stress. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse health effects of high effort-low reward
conditions at work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 27-
43.
Zapf, D., Dormann, C., & Frese, M. (1996). Longitudinal studies in
organizational stress research: A review of the literature with reference
to methodological issues. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,
1, 145-169.
[edit]External links
American Psychological Association's Public Interest Directorate
European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology
Finnish Institute of Occupational Health
Health 4 Work Advice Line - UK
Journal of Occupational Health Psychology
National Institute of Occupational Health - Norway
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - USA
National Research Centre for the Working Environment - Denmark
NIOSH Occupational Health Psychology Site
Society for Occupational Health Psychology
Work & Stress
Work, Stress, and Health 2009: Global Concerns and Approaches
(Conference program)
[edit]Doctoral programs in OHP
Universities in the U. S.
Bowling Green State University
Clemson University ; also see pages 5–6 of volume 8 of the Newsletter
of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology
Colorado State University ; also see pages 5–6 of volume 4 of
the Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology
Kansas State University ; also see pages 5–6 of volume 9 of
the Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology
Portland State University ; also see pages 8–10 of volume 5 of
the Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology
University of California, Los Angeles
University of Connecticut ; also see pages 8–10 of volume 6 of
the Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology
University of Houston ; also see pages 10–11 of volume 7 of
the Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology
University of Minnesota
University of South Florida ; also see page 5 of volume 3 of
the Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology
University of Texas at Austin
Universities in Europe
University of Nottingham
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