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Chapter 10
Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry 10e
John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Morris Hein, Scott Pattison, and Susan Arena
Modern Atomic Theory and the Periodic Table
The amazing colors in these fireworks explosions are the result of electrons transferring between energy levels in atoms.
Chapter Outline
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10.1 A Brief History
10.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
10.3 The Bohr Atom
10.4 Energy Levels of Electrons
10.5 Atomic Structures of the First 18 Elements
10.6 Electron Structures and the Periodic Table
Electromagnetic Radiation
Frequency tells how many waves pass a particular point per second.
Speed tells how fast a wave moves through space.
Figure 10.1 The wavelength of this wave is shown by λ. It can be measured from peak to peak or trough to trough.
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible light is only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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Your Turn!
The number of waves that pass a particular point per second is known as
a. Frequency
b. Wavelength
c. Amplitude
d. Speed
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Your Turn!
The color of visible light is determined by its
a. Speed
b. Wavelength
c. Amplitude
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Bohr Model (1912-1913)
Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed that electrons in an atom are organized into discrete energy levels.
He pictured the negative electrons in orbits around the positive nucleus.
His evidence: the line spectra of the elements.
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Line Spectrum
Atoms absorb energy to give off light..
Prisms or diffraction gratings separate the light into a line spectrum for the element.
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Line Spectrum
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*Why so many lines?
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Absorbed energy
Pot
enti
al e
nerg
y of
hyd
roge
n el
ectr
on
1
3
2
54
Released energy
Each line in the spectrum corresponds to electrons moving from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.
Your Turn!
Review Question #5: What is meant when we say the electron structure of an atom is in its ground state?
a. The highest possible energy level for an electron
b. The lowest possible energy level for an electron
c. Excited state
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 10-11
Bohr Model
Was based on electrons having fixed energy levels and therefore quantized amounts of energy.
Accounted for spectral lines.
Worked very well for hydrogen but did not work well for heavier atoms.
Another model is needed that describes the behavior of electrons as waves.
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 10-12
The Wave-Mechanical Model
This mathematical model of the atom describes the energy of the electron with some certainty, but the actual location of the electron is uncertain.
An orbital is …
the region in space where there is a high probability of finding an electron with a given energy.
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 10-13
Review Question 1
Energy Levels of Electrons
Electrons in atoms are organized into discrete principal energy levels (n, where n is an integer).
Lowest energy level is n = 1, then n = 2, etc.
As n increases, the energy of the electron increases, and the electron is on average further from the nucleus.
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Sublevels
Energy levels are subdivided into
sublevels. Each sublevel has
orbitals.
Orbital are designated by
s, p, d and f.
n = 1 has the sublevel 1s.
n = 2 has the sublevels 2s and 2p.
Each sublevel is made up of orbitals of the same type and energy.
10-15
Review Question 7: What letters are used to designate the types of orbitals?
Electron Spin
Each electron in an atom appears to be spinning on its axis.
Pauli exclusion principle states that an atomic orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, which must have opposite spin.
What is the maximum number of electrons in any orbital?
2
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Review Question 2: What conditions allow a 2nd electron to enter an orbital
s Sublevels
Every principal energy level has an s sublevel that contains a single s orbital which is farther away. (1s, 2s, 3s, etc.)
There is a 90% probability of finding the electron within a spherical region surrounding the nucleus.
Each s orbital is the same shape and holds 2 electrons with opposite spin.
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Review Question 6: How do 1s and 2s differ?
Review Question 6: How are 1s and 2s alike?
p Sublevels
Every principal energy level starting at n = 2 has a p sublevel (2p, 3p, etc.) that contains 3 equal energy p orbitals. The orbitals only differ by their orientation in 3-D space.
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Your Turn!
What is the maximum number of electrons in a 2p orbital?
a. 2
b. 4
c. 6
d. 8
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A 2p sublevel holds 6 electrons, 2 electrons per orbital.
The maximum number of electrons in ANY orbital is 2.
d Sublevels
Every principal energy level starting at n = 3 has a d sublevel (3d, 4d, etc.) that contains 5 equal energy d orbitals. These orbitals have more complex shapes and are higher in energy than the s and p orbitals.
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Your Turn!
What is the maximum number of electrons in a 3d sublevel?
a. 2
b. 4
c. 6
d. 10
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A 3d sublevel has 5 orbitals, so it holds 10 electrons, 2 electrons per orbital.
Summary
Each subshell is composed of orbitals
The number of orbitals depends on the subshell
2 electrons per orbital
Sublevel s p d f
Number of Orbitals 1 3 5 7
Electrons 2 6 10 14
Shape sphere fig. 8 lobes hard to visualize
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Review Question 9
Review Question 10: Difference between orbital and Bohr orbit?
Rules for Distributing Electrons
1. No more than two electrons can occupy one orbital.
2. Electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals available. s < p < d < f for a given value of n
3. Each orbital in a sublevel is occupied by a single electron before a second electron enters. (Hunds Rule)
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Your Turn!
In the fourth principal energy level, which sublevel contains electrons with the greatest energy?
a. 4s
b. 4p
c. 4d
d. 4f
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Your Turn!
How many orbitals are found in a 5p sublevel?
a. 1
b. 3
c. 5
d. 7
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The number of orbitals found in ANY energy level is 3.
Your Turn!
What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the third principal energy level?
a. 2
b. 6
c. 8
d. 18
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3s = 23p = 63d = 102+6+10 = 18
Atomic Structure
One way to indicate atomic structure shows the structure of the nucleus and the number of electrons in each energy level.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p
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Review Question 8: List in order of increasing energy?
2s 2p 4s 1s 3d 4p 3s
Electron Configuration
Another useful atomic structure shows the distribution of electrons in the atom.
4 is the energy level, f is the orbital in the sublevel and 3 is the number of electrons
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Review Question 13: An element has the designation 4f 3. What is the significance of the 4, f & 3?
Orbital Diagram
Electron configurations can also be shown with orbital diagrams. Each box represents an orbital.
Up and down arrows represent electrons of opposite spin.
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Atomic Structure
3Li 1s22s1 4Be 1s22s2
5B 1s22s22p1
6C 1s22s22p2
7N 1s22s22p2
8O 1s22s22p2
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2s 1s
2p 2s 1s
2s 1s
2p 2s 1s
2p 2s 1s
2p 2s 1s
orbital
sublevel
Energy level
Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
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Remember to sum the superscripts in the electron configuration. They should add up to the atomic number for the element.
Valence Electrons
The valence electrons …
include all of the electrons in the highest principal quantum number (the outermost energy level).
These electrons are the electrons that are involved in bonding.
Phosphorus: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
Phosphorus has 5 valence electrons.
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Review Question 4
Your Turn!
Atoms of which element have the following electron configuration?
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p6
a. Cl
b. Ca
c. Ar
d. S
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The Periodic Table
Each horizontal row in the periodic table is called a period.
The number of each period corresponds to the outermost energy level of the element.
For example, Ar is in period 3 and its outermost energy level is 3.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p6
Argon has 8 electrons in energy level 3. Eight is the most of any period.
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 10-35Review Question 18: What is the greatest number of electrons in a period?
The Periodic Table
Groups or Families (a column) contain elements whose properties are similar.
Representative Elements – A Groups
• Alkali Metals –1A
• Alkaline Earth Metals – 2A
• Halogens – 7A
• Noble Gases – 8A
O, S &Se
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 10-36Review Question 17: Write the symbols of the first 3 elements with 6 electrons in their outermost energy level?
Other Groups to Know
Transition Metals – B Groups
Inner Transition Metals– Lanthanides (Rare Earth) – Atomic Nos. 58 -71– Actinides – Atomic Nos. 90 – 103
Last electron in Group A goes into p sublevel.
Last electron in Group B goes into d sublevel.
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Review Question 19: How does the placement of the last electron in Group A differ from Group B elements?
Your Turn!
Which element is a transition element?
a. sodium
b. fluorine
c. copper
d. lead
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Your Turn!
Chlorine is a member of what family of elements?
a. Noble gases
b. Alkali metals
c. Halogens
d. Chalcogens
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Valence Electrons and Groups
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In the following groups, the group number is the number of valence electrons.Elements within a group have the same valence electron configuration.
Your Turn!
In which category of the periodic table does each element contain valence electrons in the second principal energy level?
a. The alkaline earth elements
b. The alkali metals
c. Group 2A
d. Period 2
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Your Turn!
On the periodic table, elements in the same group contain the same number of
a. Protons
b. Electrons
c. Principal energy levels in their ground state
d. Valence electrons in their ground state
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Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
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Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
1. The number of the period corresponds with the highest occupied energy level.
2. The group numbers for the representative elements are equal to the total number of valence electrons.
3. The elements within a group have the same number of valence electrons.
4. The elements within each of the s, p, d, f blocks are filling s, p, d, f orbitals.
5. There are discrepancies within the transition elements.
Copyright 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 10-44Review Question 20: Where on the periodic table are elements not in the proper sequence according to atomic mass.
Abbreviated Electron Configurations
Use the symbol of the nearest preceding noble gas to represent the electron configuration of the core electrons.
Phosphorus: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
[Ne] 3s2 3p3
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Core Electrons
Valence Electrons
Your Turn!
The electron configuration, [Ar] 4s1, is the ground state electron configuration of
a. Potassium
b. Phosphorous
c. Fluorine
d. Sodium
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Your Turn!
The electron configuration, [Ne] 3s2 3p1, is the ground state electron configuration of
a. Sodium
b. Aluminum
c. Argon
d. Sulfur
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Questions
Review Questions – Did in class
Paired Questions (pg 210)– Do 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, 33, 37, 41, 45, 49– Practice later every other even (2, 6, etc)
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