Faculty of Engineering Technology

& Research. Isroli, Afwa.

Name Enrollment no Roll no

BHANDARKAR RINKESH

130840106055 63

PATEL DHRUV 130840106029 09

PRAJAPATI PIYUSH 130840106050 37

PATEL KISHAN 130840106038 04

MARKANA CHINMAY 130840106010 46

Guided by

- Mr. Shivang Dabhi

-Miss Ankita Upadhyay

Water Resources Development

1.Introduction

2.Hydrologic cycle

3.Sources of water

4.Watershed development

5.Water requirements and its conservation

6.Basic introduction of hydrologic structures of srorage (only dams)

1.Introduction

•Hydrology is the science which deals with occurrence , distribution and movement of water on the earth.

2. Hydrologic Cycle

Except for the deep ground water, the total water supply of earth is in constant circulation from earth to atmosphere, and back to the earth.

The earth’s water circulatory system is known as the hydrologic cyclewater from the surface like lakes, rivers, ocean, etc. converts to vapour by evaporation due to solar heat.The vapour goes o accumulating continuously in the atmosphere.This vapour is again considered due to the sudden fall of temperature and pressure.Thus clouds are formed.These clouds again cause the precipitation (i.e. rainfall)Some of the vapour is converted to ice at the peak of the mountains.The ice again melts insummer and flows as rivers to meet the sea or ocean.

These processes of evaporation, precipitation and melting of ice go on continuously like an endless chain and thus a balance is maintained in the atmosphere.This phenomenon is known as hydrologic cycle.Thus, the hydrologic cycle may be expressed by the following simplified equation

Precipitation = Run off + Evaporation (P) (R) (E)

=

Application of Hydrology

The knowledge of hydrology is very essential for the following application

1. Determination of the capacity of a reservoir from the rainfall records and the yearly discharge observation of a river.

2. Determination of peak flow of a river. (peak flood)3. Determination of suitable site for hydroelectric power generation.4. Sources of water suppy in town or city.5. Method to be adopted for the flood forecasting and flood control.6. Availability Of water for navigation.

SOURCES OF WATER

Introduction Water is a vital natural resources which forms the

basis of all life. It is the most important requirement of

plants ,animals and mankind Water also plays key role in the development of

earth’s surface,moderating climate and diluting pollution.

Atmospheric water is the key factor in combination with temperature in influencing the global ecology and as a function of hydrological cycle covering 70% of land surface,it influences weather and global climate and flora and fauna.

71% of earth surface is covered with water. The pattern of distribution of Earth’s water

resources is presented in table.

Water Resources % Total water

OceanIce and snowGround water down to 1 kmLakes and reservoirsSaline lakesSoil moistureBiological moisture in plants and animalsAtmosphereSwamps and marshesRivers and streams

97062.070280.0090.0070.0050.0050.0010.00010.0001

Approx. Total 100%

India’s water resources The basic source of water for india is the

rainfall over the most part of the country and snowfall in the northern region.

The rainfall varies from place to place and from year to year.

Normal annual rainfall varies from 100mm in Western Rajasthan to over 11000mm at Cherrapunji in Meghalaya.

The average annual rainfall for the country is about 119.4 cm depth which is nearly 4000km3.

Water resources in Gujarat

Water resources in Gujarat state are concentrated primary in the southern and central part of the mainland.

Saurashtra and kutch in the northern mainland with exceptionally high irrigation needs, have limited surface and ground water resources.

Gujarat mainland region receives an average annual of 800 to 2000 mm while saurashtra has an average annual rainfall of 400 to 800 mm.

The annual rainfall in kutch is less than 400 mm.

Types Of water sources

The available fresh water is continuously collected, purified and distributed through the hydrologic cycle.

Thus water which is available as fresh water comes from inland surface water sources (such as rivers, streams lakes and reservoirs) and ground water sources.`

A. Surface water resources

Most surface water originates directly from precipitation in the form rainfall or snow.

The various surface water sources are described as under:

1.Sea water

As per earth’s water resources distribution, the ocean contain about 97% of the total water in the world.

But as ocean water contain high concentration of salts in solution, it becomes uneconomical to make the water potable.

2.Ponds and Lakes

A natural large sized depression formed on the surface on the earth, when gets filled up with water is known as pond or a lake.

The quality of water in a lake is generally good and does not required much purification.

The quantity of water available from lakes is however, generally small.

3.Streams and Rivers

Rainfall there does not evaporate or infiltrate, runs off the surface towards the sea, in the form of streams and rivers.

River and streams are important sources of water.

The dam is constructed on a perennial river when water is used for multiple uses such as irrigation, hydropower , water supply etc.

4.Impounding reservoirs

A barrier in the form of a dam is constructed across the river, so as to form a pool of water on the upstream side of the barrier.

This pool or artificial lake formed on the upstream side of the dam is known as impounding reservoirs.

The quality of this reservoir water is not much different from that of a natural lake.

B. Sub-Surface water sources(Ground water)

The main source of ground water is precipitation.

Water bearing formations of the earth’s crusts act as conduits for transmission and as reservoirs of storage of ground water.

Types of aquifer

Aquifer are mainly of two types: a). Unconfined aquifer B). Confined aquifer

a). Unconfined aquifer

An unconfined aquifer is one in which a free water surface i.e. a water table exists.

In such an aquifer, the water table varies in undulating form and in slope.

A well drilled in this type of aquifer is known as a water table well.

Confined and Unconfined aquifer

b). Confined aquifer

A confined aquifer is an aquifer which is sandwiched between two Impervious strata.

The water in a confine aquifer is under pressure.

On the other hand, if the water level is below the ground surface, the well water does not flow freely and well is called a non-flowing artesian well.

Types of water wells

A water wells may be classified as : 1). Open wells or dug wells 2). Tube wells

1). Open wells

Open wells are the wells which have comparatively large diameters but law yields and are not very deep.

The diameter of the open wells usually vary from 1 m to 10 m and yield is about 20 m/hour or less.

2). Tube well

A tube well is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more water bearing strata.

Its diameter ranges from 80 mm to 600 mm.

The tube wells may also be further classified as:

A). Shallow tube wells B). Deep tube wells

WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT

Introduction Watershed is the area of land from which

drains in to a body of water such as river,lake,stream or bay.

Watershed The area enclosed within the watershed line

is known as watershed area.

Characteristics of a watershedSeveral characteristics namely Size Shape Slope Drainage Vegetation Geology Soil Climate land use

Size Sub - watershed 100-500 sq.Km. milli- watershed 10-100 sq.Km. Micro - watershed 1-10 sq.Km. Mini- watershed <1 sq.Km. The size helps in computing many parameters like rainfall received, retained

and drained off.

ShapeThe general shape are Fan shaped Leaf shaped Triangular shaped Circular shaped

Land Type of land, its altitude and physical

disposition immediately says about a watershed as to the climate and planning the activities.

Slope It controls the rainfall distribution and movement,

land utilization and watershed behavior.

Climate Climate is a determining factor for the management

of all aspects of watershed.

Drainage The order ,pattern and density of drainage have a

importance influence on watershed.

Land use Land use pattern is vital for watershed development. It helps for planning, programming and implementing

a management project on a watershed.

Vegetation Detailed information on vegetation cover helps in

choosing type, mode and manner of greening the watershed.

Geology & soils Rocks and soils, together influence water

storage, movement and infiltration.

Hydrogeology It provides the information about ground water

availability in the context of conjunctive use of surface as well as ground water.

Hydrology Availability, quality and distribution of surface water is

basic to the final goal of developing a watershed.

Socioeconomics Statistics on people and their social status,helth,cattel

and faiming paractices and share of participation

are equally imp in developing a watershed.

Watershed development and its objectiveObjective:

a) To mitigate the adverse effects of drought on crops and livestock.

b) To control desertification.

c) To encourage restoration of ecological balance.

d) To promote economic development of village community.

e) To increase the crop yield, to reduce the soil loss, to harvest water resources and to increase the income of farmers.

Methods, techniques or steps involved in watershed development

1) Human resource development

2) Soil and land management

3) Water management

4) Crop management

5) Afforestation

6) Rural energy management

7) Livestock management

1) Human resource development The NGO staff, village watershed committees and

watershed communities have been provided trainings through on field “hands on", structured and farmer to farmer extension.

2) Soil and land management Two type in it:

I. Soil conservation The soil conservation methods should be adopted in

the catchment area.

II. Land management If the agricultural land is undulating the water is lost

by trapping. So the agricultural land should be properly levelled to

obtain uniform growth of plants with optimum quantity of water.

The steps or land slides in the catchment area should be detected and effective to stabilize them.

Water management

Reservoir manageme

nt

Conveyance system

management

App.of right amount of

water

Small dams

4) Crop management Few crop rotation possible areI. Rice –gram

II. Wheat-millet-gram

III. Rice-gram-wheat

2. Method of irrigation Border- for puddy,wheat,vegetables Furrow- for cotton,sugurance,potato Basin - for orchards Sprinkler- for groundnut, vegetables Drip - for all type of crops,except paddy

5) Afforetation Planned growth of plantation and tree plantation in

wasted,restricted area is a valued aspect of greening.

It prevent soil erosion.

6) Rural energy management- This reduces drudgery of rural women.- It mitigates the indoor air pollution.

7) Livestock management The livestock population in the watershed

comprises cows,bullocks,buffaloes,sheep,goats and camels.

Necessary steps must be taken for their food and health.

Water Requirement and conservation : Planning for the development of water resources

is very complex in view of the competing demand for utilization.

water is the most importance resources of a country and of the entire society as a whole since no life is possible without water.

Water requirement for different uses

Water Supply

•Municipal•Industrial

Irrigation

•Water Required For Different Crops

Hydropower

•Required for power Generation

Navigation

•Recreation

Water requirement for municipal supplies

Required by the public for various, domestic, industrial, Commercial uses and public utility purposes fire demand water losses etc.

Besides the average consumptions the peek demands are also worked out while designing public water supplies.

Water requirement for Irrigation

For proper growth and maturity of the crops, water is of vital importance throughout the crop period.

If the natural rain is sufficient and timely so as to satisfy crops requirements, no irrigation water is required for raising these crops.

Generally the seasonal rainfall can’t meet the total water requirement.

Water requirement for hydropower Generation Production of electric power by using the energy

of the flowing water is an excellent use of water as no water is consumed in it.

The construction of dam is therefore needed for the generation of this power.

It depend upon the type of area served.

Water requirement for navigation :

There should be adequate flow in the river maintain water depth.

Water is released from a storage reservoir to suction downstream flow for navigation.

The reservoir should remain nearly full during the recreation season to permit boating fishing swimming and other water sport.

Methods of conservation of water:

Domestics Conservation

Industrial Conservation

Agricultural Conservation

Domestic Conservation :

Repair all leaks quickly this way wasted water can be saved.

Turn off water when not absolutely required. Use conserving appliances which use low volume

water. Water is munch more expensive beyond some

minimum reading of water meter.

Industrial conservation :

Use such cooling system which uses less water. Reuse the cooling water for irrigation or other

purposes. Install in plant treatment measures for treating the

waste water or effluent. Develop new equipments and processes which

require less water some new techniques should be developed to

reduce the water consumption.

Agricultural Conservation:

Use improved irrigation methods such as sprinklers or drip irrigation.

Evaporation losses from small reservoirs can be reduced by providing roofs over them.

Use lined canals which reduce seepage and evaporation. Price agricultural water to encourage conservation. Infiltration losses can be reduced by sealing the soil

surface with chemicals or asphalt. Conservation of wet lands preserves natural water

storage capacity and aquifer recharge zones.

55

BASIC INTRODUCTION OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES OF ONLY DAMS

DAMS

Classifications based on type and materials of construction

Criteria for selection of best dam type:1. Feasibility

-topography, geology, and climate (& its effect on materials)

2. Cost-availability of construction materials near the site;

accessibility of transportation facilities

Types Materials of Construction

A. Gravity Concrete, rubble masonry

B. Arch Concrete

C. Buttress Concrete, also timber & steel

D. Embankment Earth or rock

GRAVITY DAMS

Gravity dams are dams which resist the horizontal thrust of the water entirely by their own weight.

They use their weight to hold back the water in the reservoir.

Can be made of earth or rock fill or concrete.

DAMS

GRAVITY DAMS

Causes of Failure:

1. Sliding along horizontal plane (shear failure)

net force > shear resistance at that level

2. Rotation about the toe

3. Failure of material

DAMS

DAMSGravity Dams

Friat Dam

Tygart Dam, West Virginia

DAMS

Gravity Dams

DAMS

ARCH DAMS

Curved dam which is dependent upon arch action for its strength.

Transmits most of horizontal water thrust behind them to the abutments by the arch action.

Thinner and requires less material than any other type of dam.

Used only in narrow canyons.

Arch dams includes:

*series of horizontal arches

*series of vertical cantilevers

Load distribution Most of load carried by

Near bottom of dam cantilevers (Known as Trial Load

Near top of dam arches Method)

I. Constant-center (Constant radius) best for U shaped canyons

II. Variable-center (Variable radius, constant-angle) best for V shaped canyons

DAMS

ARCH DAMS

Boundary Dam, Seattle

DAMS

ARCH DAMS

Salmon Creek Dam, Alaska

DAMS

ARCH DAMS

DAMS

BUTTRESS DAMS

Buttress dams are dams in which the face is held up by a series of supports.

Buttress dams can take many forms -- the face may be flat or curved.

Usually, buttress dams are made of concrete and may be reinforced with steel bars.

DAMS

BUTTRESS DAMS

sloping membrane that transmits the water load to a series of buttresses @ right angles to axis of dam

-Increased formwork & reinforced steel compared w/gravity dam

-Less massive than gravity dam (requires 1/3 to 1/2 as much concrete)

-Use on weaker foundation

-Same forces as gravity and arch dams, however, ice pressures not as prevalent; gaps b/t buttresses relieve majority of uplift forces

Types Water Supporting Membrane

1. Flat-slab flat, concrete-reinforced slabs

2. Multiple-arch series of arches

DAMS

BUTTRESS DAMS

Daniel-Johnson Dam, Quebec

DAMS

BUTTRESS DAMS

Bartlett Dam, Colorado

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