Post on 11-Jan-2016
Modules 20 – 22
Learning Theory
Introduction
Learning: relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience
Measured objectively (i.e., behavior must be observable and recordable)
Behaviorist perspective
Introduction—How do we learn? Conditioning: process by which
associations are learned– Two types: Classical conditioning and operant
conditioning– Classical Conditioning: two stimuli are
associated to produce behavior– Operant conditioning: consequence is
associated with the behavior Observational Learning: learn by
watching others’ behaviors
Classical Conditioning:Introduction Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist Studied digestion in dogs Discovered dogs were salivating in
response to experimenter’s footsteps in anticipation of food
Called these “psychic secretions”
Classical Conditioning:
Introduction Classical conditioning: type of learning
in which one stimulus is associated with another
Learning occurs through repeated pairings of neutral stimulus (footsteps) with natural stimulus (food)
Most basic form of learning Also called Pavlovian Conditioning or
Respondent Conditioning
Classical Conditioning:Important Terms Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus
that triggers response Unconditioned response (UCR): unlearned
or natural response to UCS (reflex) Conditioned stimulus (CS): neutral stimulus
that comes to elicit (cause) conditioned response
Conditioned response (CR): learned response to previously neutral stimulus (CS)
Classical Conditioning:Paradigm Before Conditioning
–UCS→ UCR
CS → No response During Conditioning
–CS + UCS → UCR After Conditioning
–CS → CR
Classical Conditioning:Paradigm with example Before Conditioning
–Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
Bell (CS) → No response During Conditioning
– Bell (CS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR) After Conditioning
–Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR) Video Clip: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho
Classical Conditioning:Examples
Fears and phobiasFood aversions (one-trial
learning)Dentist’s drillPolice sirens and lightsOthers???
Find the UCS, UCR, CS, CR in the following:
The door to your house squeaks loudly when you open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when the door squeaks.
The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear “This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear.
You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseated.
Classical Conditioning:Types (in order of best learning)
Delayed conditioning: CS precedes and overlaps presentation of UCS
Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS presented at same time (begin and end simultaneously)
Trace conditioning: CS presented and stops with gap before presentation of UCS
Backward conditioning: UCS presented before CS
Basic Principles of Learning
Acquisition = how is it learned Extinction = how is it “forgotten” Generalization = when is response
also given Discrimination = when is it given
only in specific situations
Classical Conditioning:
Acquisition Acquisition: how is beh learned
–Conditioning occurs because of repeated pairings of CS and UCS
–Learn association btn CS and UCS Learning curve increases rapidly
and then levels off
Classical Conditioning:Factors that affect Acquisition Order and timing of CS and UCS
– Most important—critical for learning– Delayed conditioning is best– CS seems to signal UCS but needs to overlap
to be associated Intensity of CS and UCS (food aversions) How connected are CS and UCS → how
well does CS predict UCS
Classical Conditioning:Extinction Extinction: elimination of learned
response due to removal of UCS Gradual process Does not erase what is learned Spontaneous recovery: re-emergence
of extinguished response after period of time away (CR is not as intense)
Classical Conditioning:Extinction
Classical Conditioning:Generalization Generalization: tendency to respond to
stimuli that are similar to CS In Pavlov’s experiment, dog would
salivate to different tones Other examples:
–Food aversions start with one type of seafood and are associated with others
–Phobias–Others ???
Classical Conditioning:Discrimination Discrimination: tendency not to respond
to similar stimuli, but only to original CS In Pavlov’s experiments, dog was trained
to salivate only to certain tone. Examples
– Food aversions in some cases, may only respond to fish but will eat shellfish
– Others ???
Classical Conditioning:Higher-Order Learning Can CS become UCS? Yes Higher-order conditioning: by
pairing learned CS with new stimulus, the original CS acts as the UCS
Example – dog salivates to bell and then bell is paired with light
Classical Conditioning:Applications Phobias: extreme fear of specific
stimulus John Watson’s research (Little
Albert) Wanted to demonstrate behavioral
explanation for phobias Created phobia in Little Albert Ways to treat phobias have been
developed using the principles of Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning:Systematic Desensitization Systematic Desensitization: decreases
phobic response by substituting an incompatible response
Works by re-conditioning/re-learning Process:
– Client creates hierarchy of fear-producing stimuli
– Learns progressive muscle relaxation– Begins with lowest stimuli on hierarchy
and tries to substitute relaxation– Continue up hierarchy until actually
dealing with stimulus
Classical Conditioning:Flooding Flooding: fear-producing stimuli
presented continuously until fear response decreases until extinguished– Uses principle of extinction to treat
phobia
Classical Conditioning:Other applications Advertisements Social attitudes
Classical Conditioning Video Links http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJ3dLm2j5uk http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=e1g3y0SRbVc Frasier: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2c4_l2oe22U The Office: http://vimeo.com/35754924 Dog training: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=tPAnp6Oxc6E
New Major Topic: Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning involved
learning through association of neutral stimulus with a stimulus that caused a reflexive response.
Operant Conditioning involves learning through the connection of a consequence with a behavior.
Operant Conditioning:EL Thorndike and Trial-and-Error Learning
Research– Placed cat in “puzzle box”– Cat needed to hit lever to open door to get
food– With successive trials, cat would hit lever
sooner
Law of effect: beh followed by satisfying outcome is stamped in or repeated, while behaviors followed by negative or no outcome are extinguished
Video clip
Operant Conditioning: Introduction—BF Skinner B.F. Skinner
– Behaviorist– Major books: Beyond Freedom and
Dignity and Walden Two– Skinner box: structured environment
that allowed for control of response and outcome
Operant Conditioning: Introduction—Definition Operant conditioning: process by
which organism learns to behave in ways that produce desirable outcomes
Other ways to say this:– Learning to behave because of
effects/results of beh– Beh influenced by consequences
Operant Conditioning: Paradigm
S + R → R+ S = stimulus
– Something that signals that reinforcement is likely if you respond,
R = response– Specific behavior
R+ = reinforcement– Consequence of beh that increases
likelihood that beh is repeated
Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement
Reinforcement: anything that increases likelihood that beh will be repeated–Primary and secondary
reinforcement (more later)–Positive and negative
reinforcement (more later)
Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement (cont’d) Primary versus secondary
reinforcement– Primary reinforcement: anything
that is naturally reinforcing or automatically reduces drive or need (e.g., food, warmth, attention)
– Secondary reinforcement: anything that has acquired ability to be reinforcing (e.g., money, stickers, etc.)
Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement (cont’d) Positive and negative
reinforcement– Positive reinforcement: addition of
stimulus that increases likelihood beh is repeated
– Negative reinforcement: removal of stimulus that increases likelihood beh is repeated
Operant Conditioning:Punishment Punishment: any stimulus that
decreases likelihood that beh is repeated– Positive punishment: addition of
stimulus to decrease behavior
– Negative punishment: removal of stimulus to decrease behavior
Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement and Punishment Reviewed
Increases behavior
Decreases behavior
Add stimulus to situation
Remove stimulus
from situation
Operant Conditioning:Avoidance and Escape Learning Escape learning: When our
response to aversive stimulus (something we don’t like) removes that stimulus– Example → parents yelling at you b/c
you came home late– You apologize and say it will not
happen again– So, they STOP yelling at you
Operant Conditioning:Avoidance and Escape Learning (cont’d)
Avoidance learning: when our response prevents aversive stimulus (consequence) from occurring– Example → You come home late.– You apologize to your parents
BEFORE they begin to yell at you.– They do not yell at you
Operant Conditioning:Schedules of reinforcement Introduction
– How often beh is reinforced has influence– Discovered by accident out of necessity– Financial concerns required Skinner not to reinforce
every behavior– Led to hypothesis concerning the impact of altering
how often behavior is reinforced– Continuous reinforcement: reward given for beh
every single time– Partial (or intermittent) reinforcemetn: reward
given part of the time Two ways to vary how often
– According to number of responses (ratio)– According to when response occurs (interval)
Operant Conditioning:Schedules of reinforcement (cont’d) Fixed ratio: reinforcement given after
set # of responses– Response-to-reinf ratio remains constant– Tend to see burst of responses until
reinforced, then see pause in response rate
– Examples → CD clubs, frequent flyer miles Variable ratio: reinforcement given
after varying/changing # of responses– Constant high rate of response (WHY?)– Examples → slot machine
Operant Conditioning:Schedules of reinforcement (cont’d) Fixed interval: reinf. given for first response
given after set time period– “Wait for it.”– Produces slow, scalloped response pattern– Learn that certain period of time must pass– Examples → Tests on every Friday– Fixed interval: reinf. given for first response given
after set time period Variable interval: reinf. given for first
response after varying period of time– Slow but steady response patterns– Examples → pop quizzes
Video clip
Operant Conditioning:Schedules of Reinforcement
Set Changing
Number of responses
Time
Identify the schedule of reinforcement–
Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval,
or Variable Interval
1. Rat gets food every third time it presses the lever
2. Getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done
3. Getting paid for every ten boxes you make
4. Hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine
5. Winning sometimes on the lottery you play once a day
6. Checking cell phone all day; sometimes getting a text
7. Buy eight pizzas, get the next one free
8. Fundraiser averages one donation for every eight houses visited
9. Kid has tantrum, parents sometimes give in
10. Repeatedly checking mail until paycheck arrives
FRFIFRVRVI/VRVIFRVRVRFI
Operant Conditioning:Principles of Learning
Acquisition–Shaping: reinforce successive approximations of desired behReinforce initially for getting closeVideo clips
– Teaching pigeon to play ping pong– Dog agility training– Fred
Operant Conditioning:Principles of Learning Acquisition (cont’d)
– Effect of schedule of reinforcement on acquisition
Quickest learning → continuous reinforcement (every beh)
Strongest overall response → variable (partial reinforcement) schedules
– Reinforcement versus punishment Reinforcement works best Reinf demonstrates correct response
Operant Conditioning:Principles of Learning (cont’d) Extinction: elimination of learned
response b/c it is not longer reinforced– Extinction happens most quickly in fixed
ratio schedule of reinf– Extinction < likely with variable schedules
—WHY?– Partial reinforcement is best to avoid
extinction– Spontaneous recovery: return of
extinguished response after rest period (you never forget how to ride a bike)
Operant Conditioning:Principles of Learning (cont’d) Generalization: learning to respond to
similar stimuli– Example → studying in Psych leads to good
grades, so now you study in other classes
Discrimination: learning to respond differently to similar stimuli– Example → how you act in one class
versus another
Operant Conditioning:Applications Behavior Modification/Behavior change
– Behavior modification: use of operant conditioning principles to change or modify beh
– Token economy– Examples → Villa Maria’s behavior mod program– Video clip: Big Bang Theory– Video Clip: Cheers Shock Therapy
Depression– Martin Seligman’s research– Learned helplessness: ind learns that response is
not connected to outcome– So, they stop responding
Superstitions Others
– Video
Operant Conditioning Videos Intro: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8vIbuoktew Shaping: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCUWHP4YDgU Schedules of Reinforcement: http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=i0ad2NSwGb0
Contrasting Types of Conditioning
Organism associates events.
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Basic Idea Associating events/stimuli with each other
Associating chosen behaviors with resulting events
Response Involuntary, automatic reactions such as salivating
Voluntary actions “operating” on our environment
AcquisitionNS linked to US by repeatedly presenting NS before US
Behavior is associated with punishment or reinforcement
Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone
Target behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
Spontaneous Recovery
Extinguished CR starts again after a rest period (no CS)
Extinguished response starts again after a rest (no reward)
Generalization When CR is triggered by stimuli similar to the CS
Response behavior similar to the reinforced behavior.
Discrimination Distinguishing between a CS and NS not linked to U.S.
Distinguishing what will get reinforced and what will not
New Major Topic:
Cognitive Factors in Learning Classical Conditioning and
Operant Conditioning => ind must experience conditioning directly
Social Learning Theory (subtopic)
Cognitive Maps (subtopic)
Social Learning Theory:Introduction Albert Bandura Bobo Doll studies Children observed live model hitting
bobo clown doll After observing this, they were given
opportunity to play in the room with bobo doll
Children engaged in similar behavior Even when they had witnessed
aggression against a live clown
Social Learning Theory
Observational Learning: occurs when individual’s beh changes after viewing another ind engage in specific beh
Social Learning Theory:Four Important Processes Attention (first)
– Must pay attention to beh when it is modeled
– Characteristics of model are important Similar in age, gender, race, etc. Also if considered prestigious, competent, etc.
Retention (second)– Must remember behavior– Involves use of imagery and language
Social Learning Theory:Four Important Processes Reproduction (third)
– Must be capable (intellectually and physically) of reproducing beh
– Our ability to imitate improves with practice → even when just imagining ourselves engaging in beh
Social Learning Theory:Four Important Processes Motivation (fourth)
– Observer performs beh when motivated to perform it
– Motivation comes from presence or absence of reinforcement or punishment
– Motivation Past reinforcement → they have been rewarded Promised reinforcement → they believe they will
be rewarded Vicarious reinforcement → they observed
another being rewarded
Social Learning Theory
Distinction between acquiring behavior and performing behavior– Attention and Retention → acquire beh– Reproduction and Motivation → perform
Reinforcement causes us to demonstrate what we have learned– Operant conditioning => we must experience
reinforcement directly to learn– Observation Learning => can learn without direct
reinforcement
Bobo Doll Video
Cognitive Factors in Learning:New topic—Cognitive Maps Edward Tolman Cognitive map: mental picture of
location in space Research
– Placed rat in maze and allowed it to explore (no reinforcement)
– When reintroduced to maze and food placed at end, rats learned correct route more quickly
– When shortest route blocked, would take next shorted route
Cognitive Maps (cont’d) Latent learning: learning that
occurs but is only exhibited when there is opportunity for reinforcement– Beh only given when motivated by
possibility of reinforcement– Example → when preparing for test
Learning videos– Classical conditioning (marines)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUa_F2OJT0k&playnext=1&list=PL5323550EAE54D712&feature=results_video
– Operant conditioning (marines) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tMMNkxxXVK
I– Observational learning
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE&list=PL5323550EAE54D712&index=32