C h a p t e r 5 - T h e G r e a t M i g r a t i o n, 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 3 0

RicardoandEnriqueFloresMagon

FranciscoI.Madero

FRANCISCOMADEROOneofthethingsthatmadeMaderotheleastlikelyMexicantobringanendtothelongdictatorshipofPorfirioDiazisthathewasnot,byanydefinition,amacho.Hewasaneggheaded intellectualineverysenseoftheterm,thewell-educatedandshelteredsonofafamilyofnorthernelites,andwhenhepublishedhispoliticalpamphletThePresidentialSuccessionin1910,allhewasdoingwassuggestingthatafterthirty-fiveyears,itwastimefornewbloodinthepoliticalarena(afterall,Diazwasinhisseventies),andthatElPresidente shouldberequiredtoliveuptheoldpromiseofHIS1876PlanofTuxtepec:noreelection.Butevenhere,Maderowasconservativeinhisapproach– hedidn’tevenwantDiaztogo– hethoughtheshouldremaininpowerforsolongashewasabletodothejob,hejustwantedmoredemocracyinthatthepeopleshouldelectthevice-president,andvariousotherkeyfigureswithinupperlevelsofthefederalgovernment,soastoprepareforthedaywhenPorfirioDiazwouldnolongerbetheretoholdthereinsofpower.AllacrossMexicopeoplereadMadero’swordsandsaidtothemselves,hereisaguythatjustsignedhisowndeathsentence,becausethenknewthatDiaz,evenatthatage,wouldbrooknochallengetohis

PorfirioDiaz

power,andthiswasachallenge;butwhenDiazreadit,andhadlookedintoDonFranciso Madero,hedidnotfeelthreatened,merelycurious.AndsoheinvitedMaderodowntoMexicoCityforlunch,tomeettheman,getasenseofhim,takehismeasure,seeforhimselfwhathewasmadeofandifheposedanyrealthreattothePorfiriato.Andwhenthemealwasover,DiazknewthatMaderowaslessthannothing,andratherthanhavehimarrested,ordisappeared,helethimgobacknorthtohisfamily,toCoahuila,andindoingso,hewrotethefinalpageinthehistoryofhislongreign,andsealedhisownfate.WhydidhesoseriouslyunderestimateMadero,hewhohadbeensocannyandsofarsightedforsolong,holdingMexicosotightlyinhisironfist?Because,again,Maderowassounlikelyachampion,andsoNOTtheguythatwasEVERgoingtotakeanythingawayfromPorfirioDiaz,evenasanoldman.Inthefirstplace,Maderowasalittleman,aboutfivefeettall,whoquiveredandshooklikeabird

whenhespoke;hewasavegetarian,andamysticwholikedgoingtochurch,andtotopitalloff,henevertookadrink.THISguywasgoingtoleadthemachosofMexicoagainstPorfirioDiaz?Doesn’teatmeat,nocervesas ortequila,andtomakemattersworse,hehadahigh-pitched,squeakyspeakingvoice…?Decadeslater,whenthefirstMickeyMousecartoonsmadetheirwaytoMexico,peoplethathadlivedandknownFrancisoMaderoleapttotheirfeetinmovietheatersandcriedout,“TheghostofMadero!”sosimilarweretheirvoices.THISGUY?!BeatDIAZ?!ELMACHOGRANDE???MaybeyoubegintoseewhyDiazdidn’ttakehimseriouslyasanykindofathreat–howCOULDhe?Tohim,themanwasanon-issue.Butinthenorth,Maderobegantoattractattentioninlate1909,andby1910hewasaseriouscandidateforthepresidency,makingspeechesthatsetthecrowdsonfire,andtheimportanceofthosespeechesisthatnomatterwhathesaid,orwhatHEmeant,somehowthemassesofpeoplethatlistenedtookawayfromthespeechesthemessagesthattheyneededtohear,andnotnecessarilythemessagesthat

thatMaderowantedthemtohear.AllMaderosaid,inspeechafterspeech,wasthatthecureforMexico’sproblemswas”socialjustice,”butwiththistoo-vaguephrasehemeantsimpledemocraticpoliticalreformofthekindthathehaddiscussedinhispoliticalwritings.Butfortheindustrialworkers,socialjusticemeantunions,betterworkingconditions,betterwages,shorterhours;forthelandlesspeasantssocialjusticemeantlandtoliveonandtofarm;forthemiddleclass,Madero’swordspromisedabetterMexicoforallMexicans,andforDiaz,fortoolong,Maderojustrepresentedanoisomepainintheneck,becauseforallofthecrowdsatMadero’spoliticalrallies,allDiazcouldseewastheinsignificanceoftheman,andnotthesignificanceofthesymbol.

Finally,inJulyof1910,severalmonthsbeforetheelection,DiazhadMaderoarrestedandjailedinSanLuisPotosiforincitingriots(duetothesizeandfervorofthecrowdsathisrallies),andonelectiondayinSeptember,theresultswereannouncedas99%infavorofDiaz– ajoke,andaslapinthefacttoallMexicans,becauseeveryoneinthecountryknewthatfarmoreMexicanshadvotedforMaderothanthat,andthatperhapsMaderohadevenwontheelection.Thinkingthatitwasnowsafe,DiazhadMaderoreleasedfromprisonalthoughhewasplacedunderasortof“housearrest”withinthecityofSanLuisPotosi;withinalmostnotime,MaderofledthecityforTexas,andfromthereissuedthePlanofSanLuisPotosi,declaringtherecentelectionnullified,anddeclaringhimselfpresident.HealsocalledforanationaluprisingonNovember20,1910,tooverthrowthedictatorshipofPorfirioDiaz,andthatisexactlywhathappened.Inthenorth,menlikeAbrahamGonzalez,Pascual Orozco,andFrancisco“Pancho”VillaroseuptosupportMadero,andinthesouthEmilianoZapataledhispeopleoutofMorelos;intruth,thezapatistas wereprimedtorebelanyway,andthecallbyMaderojustgavethemapretexttostartatthatparticularmoment.

AbrahamGonzalezandPascual Orozco MaderointouringcarenteringMexicoCityafterthefallofDiaz

Betterarmedandpreparedandbelievinginsomethingmuchlargerthananyoftheotherarmedinsurrectionists,thezapatista ArmyoftheSouth’saimsweresummedupinitssimpleslogan(“Landandliberty,”Tierrayliberdad),andinitsaction:assoonasthearmyhadseizedahaciendabyeitherdrivingofforkillingthehacendado andhispeople,theybegantodivideupitslandsthenandthereintofarmsforthelandlesspeasantsofMorelostobeginfarming.

Diaz,tooold,totakethefieldandactuallyleadamilitaryforce,andwithoutenoughmilitarystrengthtotakeonwhatwascomingathimfromliterallyeverydirectiononthecompass,wasultimatelyforcedtofleethecountrywithhiswifeanddaughterintow.TakingshipfromVeracruz,withacrowdofreportershavingcaughtthewordatthelastminutethatthepresidentofMexicowasgoingintoexileinFrance, theyaskedhimforanylastwordsashemadehiswayupthegangplankandontotheship.Turningtothem,Diazsaid,“Theyhavereleasedthewildhorsesfromthecorral– now,whoamongTHEMwillbestrongenoughtoputthemback?”Almostasiftosay– Iwasthestrongmanforsomanyyears,andIkeptMexicoundercontrol– cananyofthesenewmendothejobthatIdidforsomany,manyyears?CananyofTHEMkeepthepeace?

MAYBEtheworld’shandsomestman(andyes,totallysecureinmymasculinity):EmilianoZapata

EffectiveSuffrage,NoReelection,JuanO’Gorman,ChapultepecCastle,1969– showingFranciscoMaderowelcominginaneweraofdemocracytoMexicoin1910

THEMEXICANREVOLUTION,1910-1920

Thereisalotofdebateamongsthistoriansaboutwhen,exactly,theMexicanRevolutionbegan.WhenMaderofirstchallengedDiaz?Madero’sarrest?WhenheissuedthePlanofSanLusi Potosi?ThearmeduprisingagainstDiaz?WhenMaderoassumedthepresidencyin1911?Whenhewasassassinated,alongwithhisvice-presidentJoseMariaPino Suarez,byVictoriano Huertainearly1913,whichwastheprecipitatingeventthatledtothehalf-dozenyearsofalmostendlessarmedconflictbetweencompetingwarlordsforcontrolofthegovernment?It’shardtosay,andwedonothavethetime,andIdonothavetheinclination,togointothelong,andendlesslyfascinatingtelenovelathatisthestoryoftheRevolution.Solet’sjustrunthroughafewthingsthatneedtobecoveredforthepurposesofunderstandingsomethingsforfutureissuesrelativetoMexicanAmericanhistory.

MaderowasnotparticularlywellpreparedtobepresidentofMexico,becausehedidnotreallyunderstandwhatthecountryneeded,andwasnottrained,noreducated,tolead,nortogovern– hewasanintellectual,bestsuitedtoquietresearchinanisolated,quietroom.Unfortunately,eventswouldovertakehim,becausenowhewasinchargeofasystemandagovernmentcreatedby,andrunby,menloyalto,andmadeby,PorfirioDiaz,andbeforetooverylongthecorruptionofthatsystemmadeitselfevident,andledtothetragicexecutionsofMaderoandSuarezatthehandsofoneofMexico’sleadingmilitarymen,thisHuertayouseetotheright,whothoughttoseizepowerforhimself.ThatthisentireactionunfoldedwiththefullknowledgeoftheAmericanambassadortoMexico(butwithouttheknowledgeoftheambassador’sboss,PresidentWoodrowWilson,itshouldbenoted),HenryLaneWilson,bywayofwhathascometobeknownasthe“PlotoftheEmbassy”isanunpardonableblotontherecordoftheUnitedStates,butthereyouhaveit– itiswhatitis.MaderoandSuarezwereexecuted,gangster-style,shotinthebacksof

Victoriano Huerta

theirheadsinanalleyafterhavingbeeneffectivelykidnappedbywayoftrumped-upthreatsontheirlives,allafantastictissueof liesconcoctedaswayofgettingamaninthepresidencywhowouldbehavemorelikePorfirioDiaz,whichwasmoretothelikingofHenryLaneWilsonand,hebelieved,wouldbemoretothelikingofPresidentWilson.AfterMadero’sexecution,Huertalastedlessthanayear,fleeingthecapitalaheadofattackingarmiesbentonvengeanceforthekillingofthepresident.Withthecountryeffectivelyleaderlessseveral”strongmen”steppeduptothetaskoftryingtotakeholdofthewheeloftheshipofstatetosteeritintosafewaters,among themPanchoVillaandEmilianoZapata.ThisisthefamousshotofthematChapultepecCastle,withVillasittingonthethrone.Villasatdownuponit,testingitout,wigglinghisassround.“So,Emiliano,howdoIlook– suitsme,eh?!”Zapata’sreplywas:“Weshouldtakethatchairandthrowitinthelake!”“WHAT?!”criedtheoutragedVilla,“Thisthroneismagnificent,itiseverything,blah,blah,blah…!!! Inthisanecdoteyouseetheessentialdifferenceinthetwowarlords:Villa,theblusteringblowhard,theswaggeringmacho,themanwhogavewithonehandandtookawaywiththeother,the“RobinHoodoftheNorth,”largerthanlife,equallyreviledandbelovedbecauseforeverystorythatmakeshimouttobeaherothereisanotherthatshowshimasavillain.Hesawthethroneassomethignforhim,asymbolofpowertobecovetedandsatupon,whereasZapatasawitasasymbolofcorruption,somethingthatwouldonlybringharmtomen.ZapataisthesinglepurefigureoftheRevolution,themanwhosaid,“Iwouldratherdieonmyfeetthanliveonmyknees,”and“Seekjusticefromtyrannicalgovernmentsnotwithyourhatinyourhandsbutwitharifleinyourfist,”hislegenduncomplicatedbecauseheonlyeverseeminglydidtherightthing,thegoodthing– notasaint,notaperfectman,butamanwhocamefromafamilyofwealth,andwhorejecteditalltothrowinhislotwiththelandless,thehopeless,whobecamethereluctantleaderofthecampesinos ofMorelosbecausetheyhadnooneelse.ItisZapatawholivesontoday,foreveraboveandbeyondallofthe‘HeroesoftheRevolution,’asastill-vital,vibrantsymbolof21stcenturymeaningandresistance– heistheonceandfutureking

ofMorelos,whosenameslivesonintheZapatistaArmyofNationalLiberationinsouthernMexicorightnow,evenasIwriteandyoureadthis.VivaZapata!

AsidefromVillaandZapata,thereweretwonewcomerswhoenteredthefrayatthistimetochallengeHuertaandvieforcontrolofthegovernment– oneofthethemwasthegovernorofCoahuila,Venustiano Carranza,whoraisedwhathecalledtheConstitutionalistArmyandmarchedsouth.HecombinedforceswithseveralminorwarchieftainsfromSonora,mostimportantlyAlvaroObregon,whowouldemergeasthecanniest,toughest,andmostdurableofalloftheheroesoftherevolution.

Venustiano Carranza

Obregonwasthemostgiftedmilitarystrategist,andwithhisgiftsandCarranza’sknowledgeofhowtorunthings,thetwomadeaformidableteam.OncethevariousrevolutionaryforceshaddefeatedHuerta’sforces,theConventionofAguas Calientes wascalledtotryandfindsomecommongroundforthemtomoveaheadwithplansforthefutureofMexico.Theyallfelloutquickly,withtheArmyoftheSouthretreatingbacktoMorelostocontinuetheirworkontheseizureofhaciendas,andVilla’sDivisionoftheNorthretainingcontrolofthecapital.OncelowonfoodVilla’sforceswereforcedtotaketothecountrysidetoforageforsuppliesandthatwaswhen

AlvaroObregon,andatright,ObregonandCarranza

theobregonistas wereabletodefeatthem,drivingthembackintothenorth,atwhichpointMexicoCitywassafelyunderthecontrolofCarranzaandObregon.

OncethesituationinthecapitalwasstabilizedCarranza,asprovisionalpresident,announcedthattherewouldbeaconstitutionalconventiontodraftanewconstitutiontomakesurethattheidealsoftheRevolutionwouldbeformalizedinanew,functionalgovernment.

THECONSTITUTIONOF1917

Thenewsystemwouldbeafederalgovernmentwithaseparationofpowersandnoreelection.AbicamerallegislatureandabillofrightswouldbeincludedalongwiththerestrictionplacedupontheChurchinthe19th century.Inaddition,theChurchwouldnotbeallowedtobeinvolvedinprimaryeducation,andprivateelementaryandsecondaryschoolswouldbesecularized.TheChurchwasalsoblockedfromowningoradministeringproperty,andclergywereforbiddentovote,holdpoliticaloffice,andMexicanstatesweregiventhe righttolicense(andthuslimit)thenumberofclergywithintheirborders.

Alllandandresourceswereconsideredtobeownedbythegovernment,andsocouldbedistributedorredistributedbysame.The newlogicwentlikethis:atonetimeitwasanecessitythatthedominanteconomicmodelbegreatencomiendas,andthenhaciendas;nowanewerrequirementwasforfieldsforthecampesinos.Thiswasgoingtobeatrickyproposition,becausetojusttakepropertyawayfromonetogivetoanotherwastothreattheentirelegalconceptofprivatepropertynationwide,andbesides,tosimplygivepoorpeoplelandwasto– what?Givethemlandtheycouldnotaffordtodoanythingwith?Andhowmuchland?Andthatwoulddependonthestate,andtheclimate,andwhatcouldbegrown,orgrazed,withthatlandinthatregion,andwouldn’tthegovernmenthavetocreatelendinginstitutionstomakecapitalavailabletothesenewsmallholderstogetthemstartedfinancially…?

Workersgainedtherighttounionize,bargaincollectively,andstrike.Therewasaguaranteedminimumwage,aneight-hourworkday,andasocialsecuritysystem,amongotherworkerbenefits.Debtpeonagewasbroughttoanend.Childlaborwasabolished.

Astheysay,“Romewasn’tbuiltinaday,”andittooksometime,throughthe1920s,andwellintothe1930s,beforeallofthesereformscouldbeimplemented.ButitwasthepromiseofwhattheconstitutioncoulddothatmeantsomuchtotheMexicanpeople,anditactuallywoulddoalot,far,farmorethanthestillbornConstitutionof1857haddoneeverdreamedofdoing.Andtopofthat,theConstitutionof1917wasthefirstgenuinelyrevolutionaryconstitutionofthe20th century,andMexico’sRevolutiontheharbingerofmanymoretocome:Russian,Cuban,ChineseCultural.AndwhenMexicanAmericans,andespeciallyChicanoactivistsinthelaterpartofthecenturywould talkaboutsocialjusticeandstandingupandfightingforwhatwasright,theywouldn’tbetalkingorthinkingsomuchabouttheAmerican‘Spiritof‘76’,butmoreaboutwhathadhappenedwhen“thewindthatsweptMexico”blewacrossthelandandmademythsofsomanyofthedeedsoftheirforefathers...

Venustiano CarranzaandtheConstitutionof1917,JorgeGonzalezCamarena,1967.Thistitleissortofironic,becauseCarranza,whowasnotoneoftheconvention’sdelegates,actuallyheardthroughaninformantthattheconstitutionwasturningouttobemoreliberalthanwewouldhaveliked,andsohesentObregontheretoturnthingsinamoreconservativedirection,littlesuspectingthatObregonwassecretlymoreliberalthanhe’deverleton– andObregonwentandthrewalltheweightofhismilitaryreputationbehindwhatthedelegatesweredoingandsodecisivelyforcedtheconstitutionintotheleftwarddirectionchanneltowardswhichithadbeentrending.

ToocoolNOTtoinclude– paintingsofCarranzaasatrainbyOctavioOcampo;theyhavenotitlesasfarasIknow.

Historica 1,JorgeGonzalezCamarena,1968(?)

Zapata,assassinatedbythegovernmentofCarranzain1919becausehewastoobelovedbythepeopleofMorelos,andCarranzaandObregonweretooafraidofleavinghimdowntherewithhisbaseofsupport–theysimplycouldn’tbelievehe’dremainanythingbutathreattothestabilityandlegitimacyofthenewgovernment,ifthepaceoflandreformdidnotmeetastandardthatexistedinthemindsofhimandhisfollowers.Andtheymayhavebeenright.Atanyrate,theysummonedhimthrougharusebywayofamanhetrustedtoameeting,andhewasmetbyafusilladeofbullets.Atfarleftisthefamousimageofhiscorpse,andatcloseright,apaintingbyCamarena,seemingtosuggestZapataasthenear-apotheosisoftheRevolutioninhumanform.

AmericanCivilization– LatinAmerica,JoseClementeOrozco,1932-34.Zapataasthewearyavatarofeveryfailedpeasantmovementinthehistoryoftheregion,besetonallsidesbytheforcesofgreed,governmentalcorruption,andmilitarismo – ai-yi-yi!

The1952filmVivaZapataisworthseeingforallsortsofreasons,especiallyifyou’reafilmorlitgeek– directedbyEliaKazan,writtenbyJohnSteinbeck,itmanagestomarrythepreeminentthematicconcernsofbothofthosetoweringmid-20th centuryAmericanartistsintoonenot-entirelysuccessful,buttotallycompelling,cinematicpackage,andwiththemostimportantAmericanactorofalltime,MarlonBrandoatthehelm,skinalldarkenedupsohecanplayaMexican,andwithfiltersinhisnostrilssothey’llflaremoreconvincinglyMexican-- ?Howcanyoubeatit?Definitelyworthyourtimeandrentalcash,ifyou’reinterestedinfilm,andmostimportantlyhistoryasportrayedinfilm.Certainlynot100%historicallyaccurate,notbyanymeans,butnonethelessworthseeing.Checkitout,thendosomegooglingaround,andyoucangetthelowdownonallthatwasrightandwrongwithit.

PunkrockZapata,21st centuryicon

Pancho Villagotboughtoff– ofcoursehedid.HewasanotherpainintheassforCarranzaandObregonandlong-termstability,andsolongashewasrunningaroundthenorth,thrillingthepeople,andperiodicallycrossingtheborderandshootingupsmallAmericantownsandcreatingproblemswiththeU.S.government…yeah,somethinghadtobedoneabouthim.HereheiswithJohnJ.“BlackJack”Pershing,whowassentafterhim,andhuntedhiminMexicowith5,000menfrom1916-17– ultimately,whenthehuntwascalledoff,theytookthisphototogether.Truthisstrangerthanfiction,right?Butanyway,finallyin1920afterthe

assassinationofCarranza(byanagentofOberegon’s!),Villasentwordtotheinterimpresidentthathewasreadytolaydownhisarmsandswearallegiancetothegovernment.Andso,inreturnfora25,000acrehaciendainChihuahua,andamnestygrantedtohislastloyal250guerillafighters,hewasallowedtoshuffleoffofthestageofhistoryandintoretirementasagentlemanlandowner.

Butnotquite.

In1923Villawasassassinatedwhenhewasrunningerrandsintown,havinggonethatdaywithouthisbodyguards.Althoughtitisunknownwhowasbeyondhismurder,thebestguessisthegovernment,becauseVilla,perhapsboredinretirementandyearningoncemoreforglory,hadbeenmakingsomenoiseaboutrunningforthepresidency.

AlvaroObregonwouldbeassassinatedonlyfiveyearslaterin1928byadisturbedCatholicpriestwhosnuckintotherestaurantwherehewasbeinghonoredatabanquetdisguisedasanartist,andwasabletogettoObregon’stablebywayofacaricaturehehaddone oftheformerpresident(onlyinMexico!),whereheshothimfiveorsixtimesintheback.WithObregon’spassing,sopassedthelast ofthegreat‘HeroesoftheRevolution.’

Pancho Villahasbeenportrayedinmanybadmovies,buttheoneREALLYgoodoneisthis,thetruestoryofhowanAmericanfilmcrewfollowedVilla’sarmyaround,literallymakingamovieofhisactualbattlesduringtheRevolutiontobeshowntoAmericanmovie-goingaudiencesbackhomeintheU.S.Itreallygivesyouasenseofthemany-facetedcharacterofVilla,andAntonioBanderasdoesabang-upjobplayingPancho allthewaytothehiltandthensome– Mexicanswere,predictably,outragedthataSpaniardshouldbecastasoneoftheirbelovednationalheroes,butholycow,you’vegottoberealisticabouttheeconomiclogisticsofgettingmoviesmade– youneedanameabovethetitlethatwillinterestpeople,andBanderaswasanamethatcoulddoit.Wouldn’ttheyratherhavethemovieWITHBanderasratherthanNOmovieatall?

AllianceofthePeasantandtheIndustrialWorker,DiegoRivera – Inthe1920stheSecretaryofPublicEducation,JoseVasconcelos,taskedavarietyofMexicanartistswiththechallengeofmemorializingtheidealsoftheRevolutioninvariousmediumsofart,primarily publicmuralsofheroicsize,sothatthepeopleofMexicoshouldneverforgetwhathadbeenfoughtforduringthosedifficultyearsof1910-1920.Manymuralists,butprimaryamongstthem“LosTres Grandes,”theThreeGreatOnes,DiegoRivera,DavidAlfaroSiqueiros,andJoseClementeOrozco,receivedgenerouscommissionsfromthegovernment,andtheyrespondedbycreating,notjustthen,butthroughouttheircareers,

JoseVasconcelos

worksofartthatattemptedtotellthestorynotjustoftherevolutionarytimesofMexico,butofallofMexicanhistoryandindeed,oftheAmericasandoftheworld.

ThePartitioningoftheLand,DiegoRivera,1920s

TheBreakingoftheBread,TheNightoftheRich,WallStreetBanquet,DiegoRivera,1930s

TheRevolutionaries,detailfromTheRevolutionAgainstthePorfirian AgainstthePorfirian Dictatorship,DavidAlfaroSiqueiros,1957

…andjusttogiveyouasenseofthescopeofthemural.

Lastly,somequickimagesofthenamelesssoldiersofMexicowhofoughtfortheircountry.

Soldaderas,or“adelitas”astheyweresometimescalled,afterPancho Villa’sfightinggirlfriendAdelita whorodebehindhimwithaguninherhand.

TheTrench,JoseClementeOrozco,1926

Cancióndeesperanza(Songofhope),JorgeGonzalezCamarena,1975

The United States Enters

the 20th Century:Progressivism and

Imperialism

Progressivepropagandaposter,1910sYou’vealldrivenbyconstructionsiteslikethebelow,wherethetemporarywoodenwallshavebeen“bombed”byendlessnumbersofposters,promotingsomething,usuallyrecords,movies,concerts…orpoliticalissues.TheProgressiveswerenotjustskilledatthis,theyessentiallyinventedthetactictoraisepublicawarenessaboutproblemsconfrontingsociety,problemssuchaschildlabor,politicizedintheposteratrightandfollowing,andalsocapturedintheaccompanyingimagesaswell.

GeorgeBellowswasanaffluentmemberoftheupperclasswhobecameinterestedinpaintingthe“reallife”ofNewYorkCity– itsstreets,itspeople,itsdailylife;butthiswassomethingwhichhadneverbeendone.Hewentintotheslumsandreallylookedatthepeoplethereandtheirlivingconditions,andthefirstpaintingheexecutedonthisnewsubjectmatterwasCliffDwellers.

ThetitlewasinspiredbyatriphehadtakentotheSouthwestwherehesawtheruinsofthePueblopeoplesatCanyondeChelly andothersites;tohim,thecrowdedstreets;thetenementbuildingswiththeirlaundrylines;andfolksshoutingdowntothestreetanduptothewindowandthefireescapes;thehustlebustleofeverydaylifewerereminiscentofwhatitmusthavebeenliketoliveamongsttheIndiansofthepastamongstthosecanyonsandmesas.

BellowswasnoProgressive,butProgressivereformers,seeinghisworkingalleryshows,wereinspiredtodointotheslumsthemselvestoinvestigatethelivingconditionsthere.Inadvertently,Bellows’workbecameoneofmanysourcesofinformationthathelpedpavethewaytosocialreform.

CliffDwellers,GeorgeBellows,1913

Femalegarmentworkerinsweatshop,1903

WorkingconditionsliketheseweretobefoundineveryworkshopandsmallerfactoryintheUnitedStatesand,indeed,theindustrializedworld.TheseprovedtoberallyingpointsforProgressivereformers,resultinginthecreationofsuchorganizationsastheWomen’sTradeUnionLeagueandtheNewYorkStateFactoryCommission.SimilarorganizationswereestablishedinotherAmericanindustrialcities,andcity- andstate-levelcommissionspassedlegislationthatcreatedstrictcodestoprotectthelivesofworkers,aswellasprovidingforinspectionsofworkshopsandfactoriesbymunicipaland/orstateagentswhosetaskwastoensurethatthenewlawswerebeingfollowed.

TheLandlordsGame,ElizabethMagie,1904

Severaldifferentversionsofthegamehadbeenmanufacturedandsoldgoingbacktwentyyears,eachwiththesamebasictheme:“Getrichandshownomercy.”ThisisthefirstcopyrightedversionofthegamethatwouldlaterbecomeMonopoly (seenextimage),whichyou’veallplayed,andifyouhaven’t,whatareyoudoinghere?GooutandbuyyourselfaMonopolygame!

MONOPOLY,1935HaveyouevertakenaminutetoreallythinkabouttheMonopolyboard?TheRailroadsandUtilities,theCommunityChestandChance?Stopforamomentandtrytorelatethegametotheeconomicprinciplesthathavebeendiscussedinthebook,lectures,andSlideshares.

“TheModernColossusofRailroads,”JosephKepler,1879

Withaclevertipofthehattotheancientworld’sColossusofRhodes,Kepler’scartoonshowsCorneliusVanderbiltasacolossalcontrollernotjustoftherailroadsbutoftheirtracksandstationsthroughhiscontroloffellowrailroadtycoonsJayGouldandCyrusW.Fields.Totheleft,justbelowCV’shand,abannerfliesabovethedepotproclaimingFields’unofficialmotto:“Manynickelsstolenaremillionsgained.”Monopoly, anybody?

“Next,”JosephKepler,1904ThiscriticismofthepowerofStandardOilshowsthelargestcompanyintheworldasamalignoctopus,itstentacleswrappedaroundthepowersoftherailroads,theshippingindustry,thestatelegislatures,assortedpoliticiansandbusinessmen,Congress,andit’sreachingfortheWhiteHouse,thelastgreatpoweritneedsfortotaleconomicdominationofallitsurveys.

“Whatafunnylittlegovernment...”HoraceTaylor,1899

AndhereishowStandardOilgotthatpowerful:JohnD.Rockefeller’sbribesofcorruptgovernmentofficialswhich,accordingtoTaylor,aretakencareofinthesamemeticulousfashionwithwhichajewelerinspectsararegem(noticethejeweler’sloupeinJDR’seyewithwhichhecarefullyinspectshispayoffs).This,accordingtoTaylor,willresultinanAmericanlandscapecoveredinbarrelsofoil,andtheCongressreducedtonothingmorethanaStandardOilRefinery.

“JacktheGiantKiller,”1904,PuckMagazineTheodoreRooseveltasJack,thegiant-killeroffaerietaleandfable,standsproudlyatcenter,wieldingamightyswordwiththewords“PublicService”onitsblade.Fromeachsideofthecanyon-likecitystreetscomethegiants,butwritinmodernterms:Rockefeller,Gould,Hill,Oxnard,andMorgan,captainsofindustryorrobberbarons?Intheirowneyes,certainly,theformer;intheeyesofthemajorityofAmericans,thelatter.Thequestionthen,mustbe–howcansuchatinyherodefeatthesemightygiants,thesearchitectsofthetrust,thesemonopolists?Sincethepowerofmoney(theNewYorkStockExchange)isofftooneside(directlytotheleftofRoosevelt),andthepowerofrighteousnessisalignedwiththePresidentrightdownthemiddleofthestreet(thechurchinthedistance),theimplicationwouldseemtobethatthelittleguyisgoingtowin,asindeedRooseveltdid– forty-fourmonopolieswere“busted”duringhispresidency.

Rooseveltasthemightytamerofwildbeasts,aswellasmen– hereyouseevisualsymbolsof,fromlefttoright,thetrusts,theG.O.P.(RepublicanParty),andvariousforeigncountries,amongthem,SanDomingo,Panama,andthePhilippines.Intheimageatright,it’sallabout

thetrusts.

YetanothercommentaryonRoosevelt’strust-busting,thisoneriffsoffofthefamoushuntingtriptoMississippihetookduringthefirsttermofhispresidency.AbearhadbeenattackedbythedogsandchainedtoatreebythetimeTRarrivedonthescene,Hewasaskedifhewantedtoshootthebear,andhedeclined,sayingthatitwouldbeunsportsmanlike,butthatsomeoneshouldputthebearoutofitsmisery.Thisstorygotwidecoverageinthepress(asdideverythingTRdidorsaid),andseveraldifferentbrightfellowshadtheideaatthesametimetomanufacturestuffedbearsforchildren,callingthem“TeddyBears.”Withinamatterofyears,everychildinAmericahadateddybearwithintheirfirstfewyears,andeventuallytheteddybearwasaworldwidephenomenon.

TeddyandHisBear

TheodoreRooseveltandJohnMuir,YosemiteValley,1903. Duringhispresidency,TheodoreRooseveltsignedintoexistencefivenationalparks,18nationalmonuments,55nationalbirdsanctuariesandwildliferefuges,and150nationalforests. Therehasneverbeenapresidentwhowassodeeplycommittedtoconservationism(conserving,orwiselyusingthecountry'snationalresources). Asaboy,theyoungRooseveltwasoftenfoundsmellingofformaldehyde,asoneofhisfavoritepastimeswasamateurtaxidermy;anotherwassittinginthewoodsnearhishomeforhoursonend,watchingthemovementsofbirdsandmakingcarefulnotationsontheminhisjournal. Asaman,hewouldfollowhispresidencywithasix-monthsafariinAfrica,duringwhichtimehewouldshootandkilloversixhundredanimals,includinganumberofelephants. Hewas,always,abundleofcontradictions.

RooseveltandConservationism

TheodoreRooseveltandJohnMuir,YosemiteValley,1903

Atthetime,noonebattedaneyeatthis,andindeedcheeredonourgloriouspresident– butwith21st centuryeyes,wecannothelpbutlookbackatitwithhorror– that’scalledpresentismfolks,andinstudyinghistory,it’syourgreatestenemy– bewareofit,andwatchforitateverystep.Beverycarefulofjudgingthepastwithmodernsensibilities.

Thepresent-daysystemofnationalparksandforests,inlargepartalegacyofTheodoreRoosevelt'sinterestinenvironmentalismandconservationism- thankyou,Teddy!

Oneofthehottesttopicsofconversationtoday(earlyApril,2016)hastodowithwhatroletheUnitedStatesshouldplayintheworld,intermsofeconomics(Outsourcingjobs?Globaltradetreaties?),politics(Immigration–buildaTrump-Wallontheborder?AllowMuslimrefugeesfromtheMiddleEastintoourcountry?),andinternationalpeaceandstability(HowfardowegotoreducethepowerofISIS?Drones,footsoldiers– nukes?).AttherootofallofthisliesadebatethathasinflamedAmericanpassionstosomedegreeoranothereversincethe1840s,andthatis– arewebetteroffasanisolationistnationwhomainlykeepstoitsownaffairs,orareourinterestsbetterservedbyengagingwiththerestofthenationsoftheworldsoastobecomeoneof,ifnotTHE,shapersofglobalpoliciesandopinions?IsolationismorInternationalism?

OneofthebestwaystounderstandtheissuesinvolvedinthisdebateistoexaminethefactorsbehindtheUnitedStatestransitionaround1900fromanisolationistnation(whichiswhatwehadbeenduringthe19th century,forthemostpart)toaninternationalist,andevenanimperialist,nation.

Yourtextdiscussesseveralthingsthatwentintoestablishingthe“foundationsofempire”:WilliamSeward’semphasisontheimportanceofaccesstoglobalmarketssoastokeepahealthyeconomyandthus,ahappyAmericanpeople;JosiahStrong’sargumentsinfavorofanextensionofAmericanpowergloballytospreadliberty,Christianityandcivilizationtootherpeoplesupposedlylackingintheseareas;andformernavalofficerAlfredMahan’ssuggestionsforanexpansionofAmericanseapowersoastoprotectourinterestsabroad.

ButthereareseveralotherfactorsIwouldliketoidentifysoastoreallyroundoutyourunderstandingofthistopic,andI’dliketostartwiththehistorianFrederickJacksonTurner.In1893TurnerreadapaperbeforetheAmericanHistoricalAssociationattheirmeetinginChicago,entitled“TheSignificanceoftheFrontierinAmericanHistory.”Inthisessay,TurnerarguedthatthedistinctiveAmericanpersonalityhadbeenformedonthewesternfrontierwherecivilizedmanmetandtamedthesavagewilderness.Aseachfrontierwasapproachedandconquered,Europeanwaysofthinking,behaving,problem-solvingwerecastaside,andanew

THEBIRT

HOFAM

ERICAN

IMPE

RIAL

ISM

American identity was created, with easily recognizable personality traits that people the world over thought of as“American” – a belief in democracy; a propensity for sudden action and violence; an insistence on fair play andequality; a casual attitude toward social proprieties. At the same that this new personality was developing overseveral generations of westward expansion, each new frontier line became a challenge that Americans took up –crossing mountain ranges, bridging rivers, conquering and expanding into regions that were controlled by hostileNative American peoples – these were all tests of the strength, fortitude, and intelligence of the Americans thatchallenged these frontiers. Turner argued that from the early 1600s into the late 1800s, there had always beensome western frontier that fired the imagination and drive of Americans, that stood before them and said, “Goahead – I DARE you!” Thesechallenges, according to Turner,were part of what had made usgreat up to that point. But, the1890 census report revealedsomething that was one of themajor points in Turner’s “frontierthesis”: according to the census,there was no frontier left in theUnited States. No mighty riveror mountain to conquer, noregion to expand into – fromeast coast to west, and fromnorthern border to southern,Americans had, if not filled upthe entire country, populated itto such a degree that there wasno part of the United States thatcould anymore be termedunknown and unconquered – nofrontier, all gone bye-bye.

(Idon’tknowwheretheblue-ish tintonthismapcamefrom,sorry!)

ThisknowledgepromptedTurnertoask:Ifhavingafrontieriswhatmadeuswhoweare,andhelpedtomakeusgreat– whatwillbecomeofAmericanowthatthefrontierisgone?Willwebecomecomplacent,lazy,degenerate?WillwelosethespecialAmerican“mojothatmadeusgo-go”-- ?(toquoteanoldbluessong)Turnerdidnotcommithimselfonewayoranother– hehadnoanswers,justquestionsthatestablishedanargument.

Noonehadanswers,notreally– buttheydidhaveopinions,andmanyofthepeoplewhoreadtheJournalofAmericanHistory,wherethepaperwassoonpublished,sharedtheopinionthatthecountrywasgoingtobeindeeptroubleifsomesubstitutefortheAmericanfrontierwasnotdiscovered,somenewchallenge,somenewgoal.Manyofthosepeoplewerepowerfulbusinessmen,congressmen,militaryleaders,peoplewithnameslikeAlfredMahan,HenryCabotLodge,WilliamMcKinley,and…TheodoreRoosevelt.Thesemenknewoneanother,talked,hadlunch,exchangedletters,andagreedthatTurner’sargumentwassound,andinbelievingthis,theyallfirmeduptheircollectivebeliefintheaforementionedSeward/Strong/Mahanaxisoflogic,whichistosay,thattheUnitedStateshadtoseekoverseaspossessions...territories...colonies.

Inadditiontowhathasalreadybeendiscussed,theissueofdomesticproductivitywasalsoofconcernforthesewould-beempirebuilders.TheCivilWarhadkickedAmericanindustryintooverdrive,andwitheachyearthatwentbyproductiononlyincreased,anddramatically.Twoexamplesshouldsufficeasproof:in1860,13tonsofsteelweresmeltedandby1900,theannualtotalwas11,000tons;withpetroleum,1859hadseen2,000barrelsextracted,andby1900thenumberhadrisento63,000.Cotton,tobacco,rice;hogs,cattle,chickens;timber,coal,tin– ineverypossiblewaytheharvestingofresourceswasgrowing,leadinginevitablytoaterrificaccelerationinAmericanproduction,butalongwiththisgrowthcameproblems,primaryamongthem:whowasgoingtobuyall

ofthisstuff?Wewereproducingfarmorethanourdomesticmarketcouldconsume,andevenmorethanwhatwecouldselltoourtraditionaltradingpartners.Wewerenowamongthetop4-5industrialpowersintheworld,andyettheydidnotpossessthesesameproblems,sowhatwasitthattheyhadthatwedidnothave,thatallowedthemtogrowandgrowwithoutthesamesortofgrowingpainsthattheU.S.wasexperiencing?Inshort,whattheyhadwerecolonies,whichwereusefulnotonlybecausetheycouldprovidethemothercountrywithrawmaterialsatlowcost(andoftentheseresourcesweretotallyunavailabletothecolonialpowersinthefirstplace,likerubber,forexample),theycouldalsoprovidenew,controlledmarketsforthegoodsproducedfromtherawmaterials,effectivelypreventingtheproblemthatwasplaguingtheUnitedStatesatthistime.

Thereisone,finalblockwemustaddtoourunder-standingofthefoundationsofempireinthelate19th century,andthatisthedesireforwhatLouisXIV,one-timeKingofFrance,referredtoasgloire,whichinEnglishtranslatesintoglory.Toputthisinstreetterms,fromLouis’pointofview,havingcoloniesmadeFrance…cool...bitchen...bad-ass...bling-bling...GLORIOUS.Havingcoloniesmeantthatyouwereanimperialpower,rulerofanempire– likeancientRome.Buthangon--let’sstopandmakeentirelysurethatyouallunderstandwhatanempireactuallyis.

Imperialism – the extension of control by a nation over the territories, inhabitants, and resources of

areas outside of the nation’s boundaries.Aseriousfontforaserioustopic.

Soanempireiswhatyoubecomeonceyouplacedotherpeople’slandsunderyourowngovernment,therebyalsocontrollingthemandtheirnaturalresources.

TheUnitedStateshaddonealotofgrowingduringthe1800s.In1800,wehadonlybeenanindependentnationfor17years,notlongawayfromthenestofimperialEngland.

Butsincethenwehadgonefrom13statestonearly50;spread2500mileswestacrossNorthAmerica;foughtasecondwaragainsttheBritish;defeateddozensofIndiannationsinwar,nottomentionbeatenMexicoinanun-justwarandthenstolenhalfofherterritory;foughttheCivilWaramongstourselves,tothatpointthemostdestructivewarinhumanhistory;andrecoveredfromthatwartobecomebigger,stronger,andmoreproductivethanever,ina

successstoryunlikeanyotherinthehistoryoftheworld.

ButformanyAmericanpowerbrokers(thosebusiness/government/militarymenmentionedearlier),noneofthiswasevergoingtoREALLYmatterunlesswecouldalsoshowthatwecouldgetourhandsonthesamethingsthatgavesomuchGLOIRE totheotherguysintheMostPowerfulNationsInTheWorldclub,andthosethingswere– youguessedit– colonies.

togetintotheMostPowerfulNationsInTheWorldClubalongsideGermany,France,andEngland.Sowhenallissaidanddone,thefactorsthatledtotheU.S.becominganimperialpowerbyacquiringoverseasterritories/colonieswere:§ theWilliamSewardvisionoftheimportanceofaccesstoglobalmarkets§ JosiahStrong’schampioningoftheneedforAnglo-Saxon/Americandominanceof

the“lesser”peoplesoftheworldinordertocivilizeandChristianizethem§ AlfredMahan’sargumentsinfavorofanexpandednavalcapabilitytodefendour

interests§ FrederickJacksonTurner’s“frontierthesis,”whichledtoaconcernoveralossofthat

specialAmericanvitality,andtheneedfornew“frontiers”toconquer§ AsteadilyincreasingAmericanindustrialproductivity§ Andlastly,adesireforgloire,soastobereckonedasoneofthepowerplayersinthe

worldalongsideGermany,France,andEngland

WreckoftheUSSMaine,precipitatoroftheU.S.'sentryintotheSpanishAmericanWar

WhygotowaragainstSpainonbehalfofCuba?YourbooknotesthattherewasconcernovertheultimatefateofAmerican-ownedsugarplantationsontheisland,butitwasmuchmorethanthat.Between1858-1893,$103millionhadbeenchanneledintoCubanenterprisesbyAmericaninvestors,andmorethan$50millionofthathadbeeninvestedinjustthelastdecade.Spainhadbeenafinancially-crippledcountrysincetheearly1700s,andhadnoinvestmentcapitaltosinkintoanything,letaloneamodernizationofCubaninfrastructure.Butatthatsametime,Cubansugar,andotherexports,werebecomingevenmoredesirable,soitwasimperativethatCubahave

railroads,tomovetherawsugarcanefromfieldstorefineries(priortothistimealltransportationwasdonebyox-carts);modernizedsugarmills;andupgradedportfacilitiestobetterallowlarger,modernshipseasieraccessfortheimport-exporttrade.Spainmayhavehadnomoneyforanyofthis– butAmericaninvestorsdid,andsodealswerestruckwiththeSpanishgovernmenttoallowthemodernizationofCubaninfrastructurebywayofAmericancapital,andalongthewaymanyoftheseAmericantycoonsboughtthemselvesexpansiveengenos deazucar(sugar-producingestates)ontheislandwheresugarwascultivatedandtheyenjoyedthenicestmonthsoftheyearintheCubanclimate,insteadoffreezingbackhomeinNewYork,Boston,Philadelphia,orChicago.

Solet’sconsiderthatsumagain:morethan$100million,whichtranslates,morethanacenturylater,intowellover$1billionmoderndollars.DoyouthinkthecurrentU.S.governmentwouldbeconcernedifabillionAmer-ican dollarswereatstakeinsomecountrywhereacivilwarwasraging?Doyouthinkthearmedforcesmightgetinvolved?Nothardtoimagine,right?That’stheessentialreasonforourdecisiontogotowaragainstSpain,butthatwasnotthewaythethingwassoldtothepublic– yourtextdiscussestheletterleakedtothenewspaperswhereinPresidentMcKinleywasinsultedbytheSpanishambassador,butthenewspapersalsopublishedmanystoriesaboutthe”bravelittleCuba,takinguparmsagainstitsmonstrousimperialmotherSpain,andallinthecauseoffreedom.”Ifyousubstitute“UnitedStates”forCubaand“England”forSpain,youcouldbetalkingabouttheAmericanRevolution.Thisanglewasusedandre-useduntilAmericanswereinlovewiththenotionofCubanindepenence,throwing“CubaLibre!” partiesandraisingmoneytohelpsendgunstotheCubanrebels.BythetimetheUSSMaine wassunk,mostAmericanswereprimedandreadytogotowaronbehalfofourbraveCubanobrothersandsisters.ItwasawarthatwasboughtandsoldtotheAmericanpublicwithverylittleeffort.

Butthebestpartwasatthelast.Afterwehadchargedinattheeleventhhourand“helped”theCubansdefeattheSpanish(theycouldhavefinisheditupalonegivenabitmoretime,butwerehappytoseetheirbigYankeebrotherslendingahand),wemadeitprettyclearthat“independence”wasnotgoingtobeeverythingtheCubansthoughtitwouldbe.TheUnitedStateswasthefirstindependentAmericannation,andassuchhadsetagreatexampleforotheryoungAmericannationstofollow,whichiswhysomanyoftheLatinAmerican“declarationsofindependence”fromSpainandPortugalhavelanguagethatpaystributetoThomasJeffersonandourDeclaration;it’swhytheyallwrote“constitutions”afterbecomingindependent,inwhichyoualwaysseetheindeliblestampoftheinfluenceofEstados Unidos,ypor que no?Que bueno!Soafterthefightingwasconcludedandworkhadstartedoncleaningupthemanywar-tornareasofCuba,theCubanpatriotsconvenedaconstitutionalconvention

inordertocreateanewgovernmentforthemselves,thefirstintheirfourcenturyhistory.Butwhiletheywereworkingonthat,theUnitedStatesCongresswasworkingonsomethingcalledthePlattAmendment,andoncetheygotitdone,theysentitofftothecommanderoftheAmericanforcesinCuba,aGeneralWilliamShafter,tohaveitpresentedtotheCubanConstitutionalConvention.YourbookmakesitveryclearwhattheAmendmentsaid,butletmereiterateonekeypartinbrief:“ThatthegovernmentofCubaconsentsthattheUnitedStatesmayexercisetherighttointerveneforthepreservationofCubanindependence,themaintenanceofagovernmentadequatefortheprotectionoflife,property,andindividualliberty,andfordischargingtheobligationswithrespecttoCubaimposedbythetreatyofParisontheUnitedStates,nowtobeassumedandundertakenbythegovernmentofCuba.”WhatthisreallymeantwasthattheU.S.woulddeterminewhowouldrunCuba(whichtheydidforthethenextfifty-plusyearsuptotheCubanRevolution),andifthingsweren’tbeingrunthewaythe

theU.S.wanted,thenlife,property,andliberty(primarilyAmericaninallthreecases)wouldbepreservedthroughtheuseofAmericanmilitarypower.Inthecartoonnextdoorhere,youseeCubanindependencebeingassertedevenasallofwhatmadeSpanishrulesowretchedistoppling:thethroneisproppedupon‘antagonismtocivilization,’16th centurymethods,’‘cruelty,’‘corruptaristocracy,’andthethronesupports‘mortgages,’‘debt,’a‘depletedtreasury,’and‘immenseloans.’

Noneofthiscanbeproppedupmuchlongerbythe‘depletedarmy,’‘Spanishpride,’‘ora‘fourthclassnavy’…buttheCubanshadlittletonoideathatoncetheAmericansgotinvolved,wewouldhijacktheirnewly-wonindependence.Whatwe’ddonetoMexicointheMexicanAmericanWar(1846-48)mighthavemadethemabitnervous,butithadbeenahalfcenturysincethen,andtheyprobablythoughtweweresatisfiedbywhatwas,perhaps,thegretaestterritorialrip-offinhistory.Butapparentlynot,astheysoonfoundout.

InthePhilippinestheU.S.NavygotintothefightwithSpainmonthsaheadofourinvolvementintheCaribbean,becauseanAmericanfleetwasalreadythere,havingbeenconvenientlylocatedoffoftheshoreofChinawhenwordwasreceivedtoproceedtothemainislandofLuzon.TheSpanishweredefeatedquickly,andthentheFilipinoslearnedthesamelessonsoontobelearnedbytheCubans– thattheU.S.intendedtostay,andtheyhadgottenridofonecolonialmasteronlytoacquireanother.ThePhilippineswereaperfectbaseofoperationsfromwhichtolaunchaninten-sivetradeinvasionofAsia,butChinainparticular.ThecartoontotherightpaintsaperfectpictureofthepointofviewofAmericanbusinessandgovernmentleadersoftheday.

BelowisapagetakenfromHowardZinn’s legendaryAPeople’sHistoryoftheUnitedStates (whichsomeofyoumayhaveread).

TherewasheatedargumentintheUnitedStatesaboutwhetherornottotakethePhilippines.Asonestoryhasit,PresidentMcKinleytoldagroupofministersvisitingtheWhiteHousehowhecametohisdecision:

BeforeyougoIwouldliketosayjustawordaboutthePhilippinebusiness....ThetruthisIdidn'twantthePhilippines,andwhentheycametousasagiftfromthegods,Ididnotknowwhattodowiththem....Isoughtcounselfromallsides-- DemocratsaswellasRepublicans-- butgotlittlehelp.

IthoughtfirstwewouldonlytakeManila;thenLuzon,thenotherislands,perhaps,also.

IwalkedtheflooroftheWhiteHousenightafternightuntilmidnight;andIamnotashamedtotellyou,gentlemen,thatIwentdownonmykneesandprayedAlmightyGodforlightandguidancemorethanonenight.Andonenightlateitcametomethisway-- Idon'tknowhowitwas,butitcame:

1)ThatwecouldnotgivethembacktoSpain-- thatwouldbecowardlyanddishonorable.2)ThatwecouldnotturnthemovertoFranceorGermany,ourcommercialrivalsintheOrient-- thatwouldbebadbusinessanddiscreditable.3)Thatwecouldnotleavethemtothemselves-- theywereunfitforself-government-- andtheywouldsoonhaveanarchyandmisruleoverthereworsethanSpain'swas;and4)ThattherewasnothingleftforustodobuttotakethemallandtoeducatetheFilipinos,andupliftandcivilizeandChristianizethem,andbyGod'sgracedotheverybestwecouldbythem,asourfellowmenforwhomChristalsodied.

AndthenIwenttobedandwenttosleepandsleptsoundly.

TheFilipinosdidnotgetthesamemessagefromGod.IftheyknewGodwasonthesideoftheU.S.,maybetheywouldhavegivenupratherlose200,000oftheirpeopleinthefighting– forwhowouldbesofoolishastoresistthewillofGod?(Thatlastlineinitalicsismine– Ihopethesarcasmiscleartoyou.)

TheterritoriesingreenwereacquiredbytheUnitedStates between1867(beginningwiththepurchaseof AlaskafromRussia(Go,SarahPalin!)and1917(whenaprotectoratewasestablishedovertheVirginIslands).Asyoucansee,thesePacificIslandacquisitions,startingwithHawaii,hadcreatedaperfect“hopscotchgame”ofmaritimetradeandre-fuelingstationsbetweentheU.S.andAsia.

“HurrahforImperialism!”F.G.Atwood,LIFEMagazine,1898AblindfoldedUncleSam,armedtotheteeth,goesrushingheadlong overtheedgeofacliff. Clearly LIFEMagazine wasnotentirelyconfidentinthecountry'snew,imperialisticstance.

THEPANAMACANAL,1903

AtthistimetheUnitedStatesconstructedthePanamaCanal,andthisissomethingthatshouldtakeupatleastafewminutes of ourtime. ThenotionofacanalthroughsomepartofCentralAmericatoprovidequickeraccessfromtheAtlantictothePacifichad occupiedthethinkingoftheSpanishEmpiresincethe1540s,butalloftheirideasweresoill-conceivedandthusenormouslycostlythat theynevergotofftheground. Inthe1880s,theFrench,havingfailedtocompletetheSuezCanalandsoldouttotheBritish,receivedpermissionfromtheColombiangovernmenttoconstructacanalacrosstheIsthmusofPanama,andtheyworkedonitforaboutadozenyears,slowlybutsurelyfailing(again)(theFrench…)andalongcametheBritishwithasmile,readytobuythemout(again),justashappyas theycouldbetosinktheirteethintoyetanotherunbelievablylucrativecanalproject,but— holdeverything! TheUnitedStatesexpressedseriousinterest

intakingovertheproject,andsinceitwasinourpartoftheworld,theBritishwerenotterriblykeenovertheideaofirritatingus;also,knowingthatwithGermanpowerontheriseonthecontinent(WorldWarIwascoming,andtheycouldkindofsenseit),theythoughtitmightbebetterinthenextdecadeortwotohavetheU.S.feelinggoodtowardthem,so...theybowedoutofthearrangement,andleftituptoustoarrangematterswiththeColombiansaswesawfit.

SoatreatywashammeredoutwherebyColombiawouldbepaid$10millionupfront,witha$250,000annualleaseforastripoflandsixmileswide— thiswouldbethecanalzoneacrossPanama,andColombiaagreedtothedeal,theU.S.Senateratifiedit,butthentheColombianSenatebackedoutatthelastminutewhentheydecidedtheycouldholdtheUnitedStateshostageformoremoney.

Thisiswhereitgetsinteresting. Rooseveltwasoutragedatwhathesawaslowdowndouble-dealingandanungentlemanlywayofdoingbusinessonthepartofColombia. IttranspiredthatwithintheprovinceofPanamathattherewereseparatistgroupswhohadlongharboredadesiretorebelfromColombiaanddeclareindependence— PanamahadalwaysbeenthepartofColombiathatwasignored,forgotten,the“panhandle”thatstuckofftoonesideofthecountryproper,neverreallyinvestedin,orcaredabout,andinPanamatherewereseveralgenerationsofresentmentthathadbuiltupoverthis—RooseveltsentinAmericanagentswhotoldtheprospectiverebels,“Ifyourebel,wewillsupportyou!”andsoinNovember,1903,thesePanamanian“rebels"declaredindependence,U.S.warshipsblockedColombianshipsfrommovingintodoanythingaboutit,andanewnationwasbornnamed— youguessedit!— PANAMA,andthefirstorderofbusinesswasfortheU.S.torecognizePanama’sexistenceasasovereignnation;thenforthatnewnationtogranttheUnitedStates,hernewbenefactor,a99-yearleaseonthecanalzone,inreturnforwhichtheU.S.wouldbuildthecanal,andprotectit(andnotcoincidentallyprotectPanamafromanyaggressionbyColombia. TheoriginalfinancialarrangementwithColombiawasagreedtobyPanama,andtheU.S.boughtall

oftheFrenchequipmentthatwasthereatthedig,aswellastheFrenchrailwayinfrastructurethathadbeenlaidtoaccommodatethebuildingproject.

ThePanamaCanalwasseenbyTheodoreRooseveltandthoseofalikemindasessentialtothelong-termgeopoliticalstrategicinterestsoftheUnitedStates. ForgetabouttheinterestsoffastandefficienttradeconnectionsfromAtlantictoPacific— whataboutintimeofwar ifwewerefightingatwo-oceanwar? Thismayhaveseemedlikecrazytalkin1903…butitsuremadesenseseveraldecadeslaterduringWorldWarII— atthattimetheCanalwasabsolutelyinvaluable. So— howdoyousee? Imperialistaggression? Astrongernationsimplydoingwhathadtobedoneto takecareofitslongterminterestsandsecurity? Combinationofthetwo?

A colossal Theodore Roosevelt, in his Rough Riders outfit, digs his way through the Isthmus ofPanama as a representative of the Colombian government waves a flag to the left, anxious for a newtreaty with the United States This is after the Colombian government had broken off negotiations,hoping for a better deal with the U.S., in terms of both cash and length of lease, which angeredRoosevelt, who referred to the Colombians as “double-dealers.” It's no coincidence that the earthbeing flung aside is burying Bogota, the capital of Colombia. Clustered at Roosevelt's heels are theships of many nations, eager to take advantage of the convenience of the canal.

INTERNALCOLONIALISM

Somethingtothinkaboutvis-à-visthedesireforAmericancoloniesinthe1890sandearly1900s.TherearemanywhowouldarguethattheUnitedStatesalreadypossessedcolonies,withintheUnitedStates.In1957LeoMarquard publishedaworkonSouthAfricainwhichhearguedthatthe“homelands”thattheindigenousAfricanshadbeenforcedontofunctionedascolonieswithinthegreaternationofSouthAfrica.Aformaldefinitionofinternalcolonialismmightbereadas:“politicalandeconomicinequalitiesbetweenregionswithinanationstate.”Inotherwords,unevendevelopmentwithinacountry,betweenthevariousareasofthecountry.ThisconceptwasadoptedbythepioneeringChicanoscholarRodolfoAcunainhisgroundbreakingworkOccupiedAmerica (1972),inwhichhearguedthat“ChicanosareacolonizedpeoplewithintheUnitedStates.”Whatishistheevidencesupportinghisargumentfortheexistenceofinternalcolonialisminthelate19th century?

Tobeginwith,in1900NewMexico,Arizona,andOklahomawerestillterritories– reasonbeing,theyhadsuchlargepopulationsofIndians,Mexicanos,andmixedbloodsthattheywereconsideredtobe“undesirable”candidatesasnewstatetobeadmittedintotheUnion– bettertokeepthemsimplyasterritories,or“internalcolonies”toservetheeconomicneedsoftherestofthecountry.

• Atthistime,inthelate19th andearly20th centurytheautomobile,truck,tractor,refrigeratedrailroadcar,andradiowerebindingtheregionsofthecountrytogetherpoliticallyandeconomicallylikeneverbefore.

• TherailroadmadetherapiddeliveryofWesternresourcestoEasternurbancenterspossible–beefandtimber,andnewindustriesinoil,cotton,produce,fish,andcopperwerebooming.

• Thefederalgovernmentwasbuildinghugedamstobringwater(throughmassiveirrigationprojects)andpowertoareasthathadpreviouslygonewithouttheseamenities,orhadbeenlimitedinthem.

Butinspiteofthesepositivedevelopments,Acunaseesthemasnothingmorethanthenecessarystepstobringingcoloniesin stepwiththemetropolesoastomaximizeefficiencyandprofitability,becauseregardless,theSouthwestisstillaneconomiccolonyoftheEast,dueto:• Theabsenteeownershipofland– toomuchacreageisownedandcontrolledbylargelandownersandcorporationsfromtheEast• Verylittlemanufacturing– essentiallyallrealindustrialpoweranddecision-makingislocatedintheEast• ThecorporateandfederalpowersoftheEastcontrolledtaxes,interestrates,freightprices,andthepricesoffarmproducts• Further,thislackofdevelopmentlimitedtheabilityoftheregiontoemployagriculturalworkersintheoff-season

Sotherearetwoquestionstobeconsidered– WEREtheterritoriesoftheSouthwestinternalcoloniesoftheeasternUnitedStates,orwasitnothingmorethanbadluckthattheywererelativelyresource-poorregionsandgeographicallyundesirableforsettlement,andthusthelastareasofthecountrytobesettled?Afterall,TexasandCaliforniawerealsoterritoriestakenfromMexico,chockfullofMexicanos andIndians,buttheydidnotsufferthesamefate– movementsforstatehoodgeminatefromwithinterritories,andthesemovementsdidnotalwayshavetremendousmomentumwithintheseterritories.Let’squicklylookatNewMexico.Yes,therewasresistancewithinCongressinthelate19thcenturyduetotheadultpopulationofNewMexicobeinglargelyilliterate,Hispano,andCatholic(thecountrywaspredominantly Protestant,nottomentionCongress);butontheotherhand,NewMexico’scitizenscouldnotagreeuponaconstitution(ononeoccasiontheconstitutionfailedpassagebyonevote).TherewasalsoafailedattemptbetweenNewMexicoandArizonatouniteintoonestatetobecalled“Montezuma”whichwastedsomeyearsoftimeandeffort.Similarly,sincetheearly1800s,similarcriticisms,withoutthephrase“internalcolonialism”havingbeencoinedyet,wereleveledattheNorthrelativetothestatusoftheSouthpriorto,andevenaftertheCivilWar– theindustrializedNorthwasseenastreatingtheagrarianSouthasasortofagrarianfiefdom,largelypopulatedbypoor,illiteratewhitesand(largelyenslaved)blacks.Butallofthathasbeenleftbehind.Ithinkallofthiscomesdowntoamatterofinterpretation– therecanbenodefinitiveanswertothequestion.Andlet’snotevengetintotheoverlygeneralizedstatementthatAllChicanos(nationwide)area“colonizedpeople,”nomatterwheretheylive,whattheymightbedoingforaliving,howsuccessfultheymightbe- ?Seemsabitmuch.

Theotherquestionsis– wasthereanyrealresistanceonthepartofMexicanos tothiseconomiccontrol?Infact,therewas.Thereweredozensofstrikesfromthe1880sthroughthe1920sthatweremainly,orwholly,theworkofMexicano workers,yetyouhavesourceaftersourcereportingnothingofthesort.Forexample,the1907CaliforniaFruitGrower’sGuide:“Mexicansareplentiful,generally peaceable,andsatisfiedwithverylowsocialconditions.”And:“TheMexicanisaquiet,inoffensivenecessityinthatheperformsthebigmajorityofourroughworkinagriculture,building,andstreetlabor.TheyhavenoeffectontheAmericanstandardoflivingbecausetheyarenot muchmorethanagroupoffairlyintelligentcolliedogs.”

Howthentoreconciletheseseeminglycontradictorypiecesofinformation?Ontheonehand,thereareaccountsofstrikeafterstrikeonthepartofMexicano workersintheSouthwest,andontheother,theperiodicalsofthetimespaintaportraitofthedocileandeasilycontrolledMexicanlaborerwhodoesallofthehardworkcheerfullyandwithlittleornocomplaint.Theanswertothequestionissimpleboosterism.TheCaliforniaFruitGrower’sGuide,andothersourcesofinformationlikeit,wereanxioustogivethesensethatCaliforniaandtheotherSouthwesternterritoriesandstateswere“gardensofEden,”attractiveandprofitableplacestomove,startbusinesses,makeliving,raiseafamily,etc,andpresentingapictureofalowwageandeasilycontrolledlaborforcethatwasalwaysavailablewasabigpartof“boosting”theregioninquestioninanygivenarticleortext.

WORLDWARI,THEMEXICANREVOLUTION,IMMIGRATION,ANDCOMMUNISM– FUN,HUH?

TheviolenceoftheMexicanRevolutionledtoincreasedlevelsofMexicanimmigrationintotheUS,andconsequentlyintensifieddiscriminationagainstMexicansintheSouthwest,andallthisatatimewheneventsassociatedwithWorldWarIwerealsoalarmingAmericansabouttheirsharedborderwithMexico,aswellasconcernsovercommunistsubversion.ThefearofMexicanviolenceintheSouthwest– inNovemberof1913theLAPDassignedpoliceofficerstoinvestigateasubversiveplotofcommunistsandcholos (slangtermofthetimeforlowerclassMexican).TheLosAngelesTimesclaimedthatatleast10%ofthecity’s35,000Mexicanswereknownvillista rebels(thiswaslaterproventobebasedonnocrediblesourceofinformation).Thishysteriacoincidedwiththenextyear’soutbreakofwarinEuropeandbigbusiness’demandformoreMexicanlabor;whenmoreworkersarrived,thelargelyAnglopublicreactedwithanger.TheJusticeDept suspectedGermanagentsinthecityofrecruitingMexicansasspiesandsaboteurs,andoverthenextthreeyearsthepoliceignoredanysortofanti-Mexicanviolenceordiscrimination,onthepretextthatMexicanswerepro-Germanandsodeservedwhateverilltreatmenttheyreceived.

In1915thePlandeSanDiegowasdiscoveredonthepersonofBasilio Ramos,asupporterofGeneralVictoriano Huerta.ThePlan’soriginsremainunknowntothisday,butitcalledforageneraluprisingintheSouthwestonthepartofallminorities,andinvolved thekillingofallAnglomalesovertheageofsixteen,aswellasthecreationofaMexicano stateintheSouthwest…REALLY?HOW???Ifthissoundstotallyincredible,thatmaybebecausetherehasbeensomespeculationthatthiswasnothingmorethanaschemeofVenustiano Carranza’stodiscreditHuertaintheeyesoftheUnitedStatesgovernment.Atanyrate,thePlan’sdiscoveryfallsrightintothemidstofastateofgeneralanxietyintheSouthwest– muchviolencealongtheborder,andlaborunrestinthecoppermines.Overthecourseoftwelvemonthsfrom1915into1916therewereoverthirtyrevolutionary raidsfromMexicointotheUS,withappr.300Mexicansand21Angloskilled,andallofthisculminatinginPancho Villa’sraidonColumbus,NewMexicoinMarchof1916.ThefederalgovernmentbelievedallofthistobeinstigatedbyGermanprovocateurs,andbyearly1917 therewere35,000U.S.soldiersonthebordertomonitorthesituation.Andthat’swhentheZimmermannTelegramarrivesinthehandsofPresidentWoodrowWilson.

TheZimmermannTelegramwas,inbrief,aproposalfromtheGermantotheMexicangovernmentthatiftheUnitedStatesjoinedthewarinEuropeagainstGermany,thenMexicowouldallywithGermanyanddeclarewarontheU.S.Germanypromisedthatonceshehadwonthewar,shewouldhelpMexicomediateapeacethatwouldgiveMexicobackTexas,Arizona,andNewMexico,becauseofcoursetherewasneveranyhopethatMexicocoulddefeattheUnitedStates,butonlythathavingtodealwithaMexicanattackintheSouthwestwouldproveproblematicenoughfortheU.S.thatitwouldallowGermanythetimeandspaceitneededtowinthewaragainstEnglandandFrance.ThetelegramwasinterceptedbyBritishintelligenceandacopydeliveredtoPresidentWilson,andwhenthepublicgotwordofit,itnotonlyprovedtobethenecessarycatalysttowhiptheAmericanpeopleintoawarfrenzytogooutandbeattheGermans,italsorousedafiercelyanti-MexicansentimentintheSouthwestoverthemerenotionthatMexicomighthaveevencontemplatedinvadingtheU.S.inthehopesofregainingpartoftheSouthwest.Theendresultofthis,asidefromincreasedbadvibestowardsMexicansonthepartofAmericansingeneral,wasthattheUnitedStatesgovernmentfinallyextendedrecognitiontothetherevolutionarygovernmentwhichithadbeenreluctanttodo;butthishadtobedoneinordertoarrangeaformalagreementofneutralitybetweenthetwogovernmentsforthedurationofthewar,nowthattheUnitedStateshaddeclaredagainstGermanyandherallies. TheZimmermannTelegram

AmericanentryintothewarstimulatedindustryandagriculturesomuchintheSouthwestthatdemandforworkersincreased,evenasmanyAmericanslefttheworkforceandbecamesoldiers.TheUnitedStatesenactedadraftlaw,scaringmanyMexicansintoreturningtoMexico;atthesametime,bymid-1917theRevolutionhadsubsided,andMexicowasenticingmanyworkershometoabetterenvironment.TheU.S.governmentsoughtthecooperationoftheCatholicChurchtogetthemtoconvinceMexicansthattheyshouldstayandworkastheywouldnotbedrafted.MexicanswerealsotobeexemptedfromtheprovisionsoftheImmigrationActof1917duetotheneedfortheirlaborintheSouthwest.The1917ImmigrationActincreasedtheentryheadtaxintotheUnitedStatesto$8;inaddition,thosenowexcludedfromenteringtheUnitedStatesincluded:

"…allidiots,imbeciles,feeble-mindedpersons,epileptics,insanepersons;personswhohavehadoneormoreattacksofinsanity atanytimepreviously;personsofconstitutionalpsychopathicinferiority;personswithchronicalcoholism;paupers;professionalbeggars;vagrants; personsafflictedwithtuberculosisinanyformorwithaloathsomeordangerouscontagiousdisease;personsnotcomprehendedwithinanyoftheforegoingexcludedclasseswhoarefoundtobeandarecertifiedbytheexaminingsurgeonasbeingmentallyorphysicallydefective,suchphysicaldefectbeingofanaturewhichmayaffecttheabilityofsuchalientoearnaliving;personswhohavebeenconvictedoforadmithavingcommittedafelonyorothercrimeormisdemeanorinvolvingmoralturpitude;polygamists,orpersonswhopracticepolygamyorbelieveinoradvocatethepracticeofpolygamy;anarchists,orpersonswhobelieveinoradvocatetheoverthrowbyforceorviolenceoftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates".

Themostcontroversialaspectoftheactwastheproposaltoexcludeall"aliensoversixteenyearsofage,physicallycapableofreading,whocannotreadtheEnglishlanguage,orsomeotherlanguageordialect,includingHebreworYiddish."Thislawwouldbefollowedbyanotherimmigrationlawin1924,theNationalOriginsAct,whichplaceda2%quotaonallethnicandracialimmigrantgroupsfromthatyearuntil1965.Thequotawasbasedonthepopulationnumbersofagivengroupbasedontheinformationprovidedbythe1890census,asopposedtothatof1920,becauseatitsbasethispieceoflegislationhadseveralspecificobjectives:

• “Whiten”upthepopulationbyallowingentrytolargernumbersofnorthwesternEuropeans,andlimitingmorestrictlytheentryofsouthwesternandeasternEuropeans,less“desirablegroups”

• LimitthenumbersofCatholics,Jews,Muslims,andothernon-Protestantreligiousgroupsenteringthecountry• LimitthenumberofimmigrantsenteringthecountryfromRussia,andcountriescloseonherborders,duetotherecentcommunist

revolutioninRussiaandtherebirthofthatcountryastheSovietUnion,anationwhichhadvowedin1923toover- throwtheUnitedStatesandeveryothergovernmentintheworldbywayofcommunistrevolution

Afterthewar,thereisREALfearofcommunistsubversionintheUnitedStates.In1919alone- over3300laborstrikes,involving4millionworkers.RadicalsmailedbombstoprominentAmericans– andallofthisisseenasacommunistconspiracy.TheBureauofInvestigationwascreatedbyAttorneyGeneralA.MitchellPalmer,andgiventotheguidanceofJ.EdgarHoover,whoengineeredthenotoriousPalmerRaids.In33citieshomesarebrokenintowithoutwarrants,over4,000peoplearearrestedandheldwithoutcounsel,andultimately600individualsaredeported,manyofthemAmericancitizens– andmosthadcommittednocrimewhatsoever.Andjustremember…Mexicansarefromthatrevolutionarycountrysouthoftheborder,wheretheyareenacting“communistic”policiesastheyre-imaginetheircountryintoa– hopefully-- betterfuture,andinTHIScountryalotofMexicansarestrikingintheSouthwest,andtheyjustseemtokeepcomingandcomingandcoming…

WomenworkersinthedefenseindustryinsupportoftheWorldWarIwareffort,1919

Hereandfollowingyouhaveexamplesof

posterscelebratingthecontributionsmadeby womenworkers

to AmericansuccessinWorldWarI

WomenandtheRighttoVote

SuffragettedemonstratorairingoneofthemostcommoncriticismsofPresidentWilsonbysupportersofthewoman'srighttovoteaftertheAmericanentryintoWorldWarI:hewashugelyenthusiasticofself-determination(self-government)fortheGermans,sowhynotthenforAmericans,ormoretothepoint,Americanwomen?