Post on 18-Dec-2021
i
METHODS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
By
Doreen Nanky Boikhutso
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE
in the
FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND FINANCE
TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Supervisor Dr Sanya Osha
June 2012
ii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis submitted for the degree of M-Tech Comparative
Local Development Institute for Economic Research on Innovation Faculty of
Economics and Finance at Tshwane University of Technology is my original work
and has not previously been submitted to any other institution of higher education I
further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and acknowledged by
means of a comprehensive list of references
Doreen Nanky Boikhutso
200184327
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all I want to thank God ldquoMoemedi-Modimomothordquo for the sound health and
wisdom He gave unto me throughout the period of this study It is from Him all
blessings flow
My special thanks go to my supervisor Dr Sanya Osha for his thorough supervision
and guidance Despite his busy schedule he created time to attend to this study His
advice and supervision were constructive and thorough I would also like to mention
the tireless support of my beloved husband Molefe Boikhutso and my son Manase
Boikhutso They stood by me throughout the period of this study and their
encouragement and prayers are commendable
I furthermore give thanks to my parents Emily and Fannie Maluwa my sister
Winky and my parents-in-law Nicholas and Shadigolo Boikhutso for their support
and prayers They prayed for me for divine inspiration and guidance throughout my
academic journey
My heart-felt appreciation also goes to the staff of IERI for their support and
mentorship The guidance of Prof Mario Scerri is sincerely appreciated as is the
mentorship of Jan Grundling He was the one who introduced me to the programme
and was always willing to assist me when I needed him The kind contribution of Dr
Benjamin Akpor is also worth mentioning
iv
The contribution of my colleagues is also appreciated most especially the advice
prayers and support of my good friend Sandrine Mouloungui cannot be forgotten
My special thanks also go to the Director of the Institute for Economic Research on
Innovation (IERI) Dr Rasigan Maharajh for creating an enabling environment in the
Institute for Postgraduate Study Finally I thank the Tshwane University of
Technology for providing me with a scholarship that enabled me complete my study
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation 1
12 Problem statement 10
13 Aim and objectives 11
14 Research questions 11
15 Study methodology 12
151 Study design 12
16 Chapter layout 13
17 Conclusion 14
CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction 15
22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16
221 Social theory 17
222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24
24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35
27 Conclusion 41
vi
CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction 42
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42
33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56
35 Conclusion 58
CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN
CONTEXT
41 Introduction 59
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64
531 Department of Arts and Culture 65
532 Department of Trade and Industry 66
533 Department of Health 66
534 Department of Science and Technology 67
44 Conclusion 79
CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH
AFRICA
51 Introduction 80
52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81
53 Museums 83
54 Laboratories 85
55 Libraries 87
56 Knowledge management model 89
57 Conclusion 96
vii
CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction 97
62 Challenges of management and preservation 98
621 Lack of taxonomists 98
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness
of individuals 100
63 Conclusion 101
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction 102
72 Conclusion 102
73 Recommendations 104
REFERENCES 107
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13
Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38
Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44
Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the
Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50
Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51
Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the
Limpopo Province of South Africa 53
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of
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108
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109
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57
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DLAMINI NR MOROKA T MLOTSHWA L REDDY J amp BOTHA G
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589-597
110
EDWARDS E GOSDEN C amp PHILLIPS RB 2006 Sensible objects
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GALENI N MOODLEY I KRUGER H NTULI A amp MCLEOD H
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GEORGE R amp GOODMAN DJ 2003Sociological Theory 6th ed
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111
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8(1)3949
HAGAR C 2004 Sharing indigenous knowledge to share or not to share
Graduate School of Library amp Information Science University of Illinois
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httpsection27orgzadedi47cpt1host-hnetwp-
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112
HONG JJ 2010Cultural aspects of globalizing University industry
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Lapeenrata Finland
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND
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KOTHARI 2007Traditional knowledge and sustainable development
International Institute for Sustainable Development Discussion Paper
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wwwulaczaapplicationnews_andLimpopo_Leader_9-1pdf [Accessed
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MAHARAJ VJ SENABE JV amp HORAK RM 2007Hoodia case study at
CSIR CSIR Pretoria
MAGORO MD amp MASOGA M 2005 Aspects of indigenous knowledge and
protection in small-scale farming systems challenge for advancement
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 4 (2) 414-428
113
MAGORO MD 2008Traditional Health Practitionersrsquo practices and the
sustainability of extinction-prone traditional medicinal plants Masters in
Human Ecology University of South Africa
MANDER M NTULI L DIEDERICHS N amp MAVUNDLA K
2007Economics of the traditional medicines trade in South Africa Future
Works 3189-200
MATENGE ST VAN DER MERWE D KRUGER A amp DE BEERR H 2011
Untilisation of indigenous plant foods in the urban and rural communities
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 36(1)17-37
MAXTED N amp KELL S 2010 Establishment of global network for in-situ
conservation of crop wild relative Status needs Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture Backgroung Study Paper No 39
MCBURNEY DH 1994 Research Methods 3rd ed Wadsworth Inc
Belmount Californiapp1-488
MOENG ET amp POTGIETER MJ 2011The trade of medicinal plants by
muthi shops and street vendors in Limpopo Province South Africa Journal of
Medicinal Plants Research 5(4) 558-564
MONNGAKGOTLA OC 2007 Policy makersrsquo knowledge and practices of
intellectual property rights on indigenous knowledge systems in
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Pretoria
MOTSAATHEBE G 2011 Book publishing in indigenous languages in South
Africa Challenges and Opportunities Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems 10(1) 115- 127
114
MPOFU D amp MIRUKA CO 2009 Indigenous knowledge management
transfer systems across generations in Zimbabwe Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal
of Indigenous Knowledge 8(1) 85-94
MSUYA J 2007 Challenges and opportunities in the protection and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in Africa International Review of
Information Ethics 7 1-8
MUGABE J 1999 Intellectual Property protection and traditional knowledge
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httpwwwwipointtkenhrpaneldisc ussionpaperspdfmugabepdf
[Accessed 02022012]
NAKASHIMA D amp ROUE M 2002Indigenous knowledge people and
sustainable practice Journal of Social and Economic Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change 5 314-324
NAKATA M amp LANGTON M 2005Australia indigenous knowledge and
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NETTLETON A 2010Life in a Zulu village craft and the art of modernity in
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NGULUBE P 2002 Managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in the
knowledge management era challenges and opportunities for information
professionals Sage Journal of information Development 18(2)95-101
NGULUBE P A amp LWOGA E 2007Knowledge management models and
their utility to the effective management and integration of indigenous
115
knowledge with other knowledge systems Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems 6(2)117-131
NYUMBA JB 2006The role of the library in promoting the application of
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International Federation of Library Associations Conference Seoul
OFUKWU RA AYOOLA A amp AKWAUOBU CA 2008 Medicinal plants
used in the treatment of Tuberculosis in humans and animals by Idoma tribe
of North Central Nigeria Nigerian Veterinary Journal 29(2) 25-30
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technology and social change no 20 Technology and social change program
Lowa State University Ames Lowa 50011 USA
OWUOR BO MULEM BA amp KOKWARO JO 2005 Indigenous
knowledge snake bite remedies of the Luo Western Kenya Catholic
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25(1)129-141
RAPHESU M2008 Vulnerability of indigenous knowledge systems initiatives
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httptraditionalhealthorgzatdocumentsvulnerabilityyofiksiniti ativesinsa2-
100615014543-phpapp01pdf [Accessed 02032012]
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water conservation in Africa Earthsan Publication London
116
SEBITOSI EK 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge and the rights and
interests of indigenous medicine practitioners in Africa Indilinga African
Journal of Indigenous Knowledge 7(1) 7286
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117
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AsteranceaeMSC dissertation Pretoria University of Pretoria South Africa
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103 434-436
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Knowledge and Development Monitor 1(3) 11-13
118
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME 2008 Indigenous
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Programme Nairobi Kenya pp4-110
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VAN WYK BE amp GERICKE N 2000 Peoplersquos plants A guide to useful
plants of Southern Africa Pretoria Briza Publications
WITBOOI SL 2005 Current developments in public libraries in South Africa
Department of Library and Information Science University of the Western
Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
ii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis submitted for the degree of M-Tech Comparative
Local Development Institute for Economic Research on Innovation Faculty of
Economics and Finance at Tshwane University of Technology is my original work
and has not previously been submitted to any other institution of higher education I
further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and acknowledged by
means of a comprehensive list of references
Doreen Nanky Boikhutso
200184327
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all I want to thank God ldquoMoemedi-Modimomothordquo for the sound health and
wisdom He gave unto me throughout the period of this study It is from Him all
blessings flow
My special thanks go to my supervisor Dr Sanya Osha for his thorough supervision
and guidance Despite his busy schedule he created time to attend to this study His
advice and supervision were constructive and thorough I would also like to mention
the tireless support of my beloved husband Molefe Boikhutso and my son Manase
Boikhutso They stood by me throughout the period of this study and their
encouragement and prayers are commendable
I furthermore give thanks to my parents Emily and Fannie Maluwa my sister
Winky and my parents-in-law Nicholas and Shadigolo Boikhutso for their support
and prayers They prayed for me for divine inspiration and guidance throughout my
academic journey
My heart-felt appreciation also goes to the staff of IERI for their support and
mentorship The guidance of Prof Mario Scerri is sincerely appreciated as is the
mentorship of Jan Grundling He was the one who introduced me to the programme
and was always willing to assist me when I needed him The kind contribution of Dr
Benjamin Akpor is also worth mentioning
iv
The contribution of my colleagues is also appreciated most especially the advice
prayers and support of my good friend Sandrine Mouloungui cannot be forgotten
My special thanks also go to the Director of the Institute for Economic Research on
Innovation (IERI) Dr Rasigan Maharajh for creating an enabling environment in the
Institute for Postgraduate Study Finally I thank the Tshwane University of
Technology for providing me with a scholarship that enabled me complete my study
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation 1
12 Problem statement 10
13 Aim and objectives 11
14 Research questions 11
15 Study methodology 12
151 Study design 12
16 Chapter layout 13
17 Conclusion 14
CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction 15
22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16
221 Social theory 17
222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24
24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35
27 Conclusion 41
vi
CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction 42
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42
33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56
35 Conclusion 58
CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN
CONTEXT
41 Introduction 59
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64
531 Department of Arts and Culture 65
532 Department of Trade and Industry 66
533 Department of Health 66
534 Department of Science and Technology 67
44 Conclusion 79
CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH
AFRICA
51 Introduction 80
52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81
53 Museums 83
54 Laboratories 85
55 Libraries 87
56 Knowledge management model 89
57 Conclusion 96
vii
CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction 97
62 Challenges of management and preservation 98
621 Lack of taxonomists 98
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness
of individuals 100
63 Conclusion 101
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction 102
72 Conclusion 102
73 Recommendations 104
REFERENCES 107
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13
Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38
Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44
Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the
Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50
Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51
Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the
Limpopo Province of South Africa 53
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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DLAMINI NR MOROKA T MLOTSHWA L REDDY J amp BOTHA G
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wwwthembosdercompublicationshtm [Accessed 10032012]
GIDDENS A 2006Sociology 5th ed Cambridge Polity Presspp2-1094
GEORGE R amp GOODMAN DJ 2003Sociological Theory 6th ed
Indianapolis Phillip A Butcher Publisherspp2-32
111
GORJESTANI N 2002 Indigenous knowledge for development
Opportunities and challenges Indigenous Knowledge for Development
Programme UB Report No WB20294pp1-8
GRENIER L 1998 Working with indigenous knowledge A guide for
researchers International Development Research Centre Ottawa Canada
HAMILTON M 1994 Conservation of wild plant species time to reassess the
genetic assumptions and implications of seed banks Conservation Biology
8(1)3949
HAGAR C 2004 Sharing indigenous knowledge to share or not to share
Graduate School of Library amp Information Science University of Illinois
Report p 337-347
HASSIM A HEYWOOD M amp BERGER J 2007 Traditional and alternative
health care Health amp Democracy Available from
httpsection27orgzadedi47cpt1host-hnetwp-
contentuploads201004Chapter7pdf[Accessed01042010]
HOPPERS CAO 2005 Culture indigenous knowledge and development
the role of the university Centre for Education Policy Development
Occasional Paper (CEPD) No 5 Johannesburg
HUMAN SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) 2011 Indigenous
knowledge to preserve and to protect HSRC Reviews 9(2) Available from
httpwwwhsrcaczaHSRC_Review_Article-249phtml[Accessed01062011]
HUMAN SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) 2009 Healing the fever
abates in South Africa HSRC Reviews 7(2)Available from
httpwwwhsrcaczaHSRC_Review_Article-153phtml[Accessed01062009]
112
HONG JJ 2010Cultural aspects of globalizing University industry
knowledge interaction in China Doctoral Thesis University of Technology
Lapeenrata Finland
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND
INSTITUTIONS (IFLA) 2010 IFLA statement on indigenous knowledge
Available from httpwwwiflaorgpublica tionsifla-statement-on-indigenous-
traditional-knowledge [Accessed 02022012]
ILLGNER P amp NEL E 2000 The Geography of edible insects in Sub-
Saharan Africa a study of mopane caterpillar The Geographical Journal
166(4) 336-351
KARGBO JA 2006 Indigenous knowledge and library work in Sierra Leone
Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 38 (2) 71-78
KOTHARI 2007Traditional knowledge and sustainable development
International Institute for Sustainable Development Discussion Paper
LIMPOPO LEADER 2006 Examining the basic human needs upon which
development depends Food for Africa services from local governments in
crisis Available from
wwwulaczaapplicationnews_andLimpopo_Leader_9-1pdf [Accessed
02022012]
MAHARAJ VJ SENABE JV amp HORAK RM 2007Hoodia case study at
CSIR CSIR Pretoria
MAGORO MD amp MASOGA M 2005 Aspects of indigenous knowledge and
protection in small-scale farming systems challenge for advancement
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 4 (2) 414-428
113
MAGORO MD 2008Traditional Health Practitionersrsquo practices and the
sustainability of extinction-prone traditional medicinal plants Masters in
Human Ecology University of South Africa
MANDER M NTULI L DIEDERICHS N amp MAVUNDLA K
2007Economics of the traditional medicines trade in South Africa Future
Works 3189-200
MATENGE ST VAN DER MERWE D KRUGER A amp DE BEERR H 2011
Untilisation of indigenous plant foods in the urban and rural communities
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 36(1)17-37
MAXTED N amp KELL S 2010 Establishment of global network for in-situ
conservation of crop wild relative Status needs Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture Backgroung Study Paper No 39
MCBURNEY DH 1994 Research Methods 3rd ed Wadsworth Inc
Belmount Californiapp1-488
MOENG ET amp POTGIETER MJ 2011The trade of medicinal plants by
muthi shops and street vendors in Limpopo Province South Africa Journal of
Medicinal Plants Research 5(4) 558-564
MONNGAKGOTLA OC 2007 Policy makersrsquo knowledge and practices of
intellectual property rights on indigenous knowledge systems in
BotswanaMED Science and Technology Dissertation Pretoria University of
Pretoria
MOTSAATHEBE G 2011 Book publishing in indigenous languages in South
Africa Challenges and Opportunities Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems 10(1) 115- 127
114
MPOFU D amp MIRUKA CO 2009 Indigenous knowledge management
transfer systems across generations in Zimbabwe Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal
of Indigenous Knowledge 8(1) 85-94
MSUYA J 2007 Challenges and opportunities in the protection and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in Africa International Review of
Information Ethics 7 1-8
MUGABE J 1999 Intellectual Property protection and traditional knowledge
An exploration in international policy discourse Available from
httpwwwwipointtkenhrpaneldisc ussionpaperspdfmugabepdf
[Accessed 02022012]
NAKASHIMA D amp ROUE M 2002Indigenous knowledge people and
sustainable practice Journal of Social and Economic Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change 5 314-324
NAKATA M amp LANGTON M 2005Australia indigenous knowledge and
libraries Australian and Academic Research Libraries 36(2)
NDHLALAMBI M2009 Strengthening the capacity of traditional health
practitioners to respond HIVAIDS and TB in KwaZulu Natal South Africa
AMREF Case Studies Canada
NETTLETON A 2010Life in a Zulu village craft and the art of modernity in
South AfricaThe Journal of Modern Craft 3(1) 55-78
NGULUBE P 2002 Managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in the
knowledge management era challenges and opportunities for information
professionals Sage Journal of information Development 18(2)95-101
NGULUBE P A amp LWOGA E 2007Knowledge management models and
their utility to the effective management and integration of indigenous
115
knowledge with other knowledge systems Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems 6(2)117-131
NYUMBA JB 2006The role of the library in promoting the application of
indigenous knowledge in developments projects Proceedings of the 72nd
International Federation of Library Associations Conference Seoul
OFUKWU RA AYOOLA A amp AKWAUOBU CA 2008 Medicinal plants
used in the treatment of Tuberculosis in humans and animals by Idoma tribe
of North Central Nigeria Nigerian Veterinary Journal 29(2) 25-30
OLUWAYOMI DA 1992 Indigenous knowledge as a key to local level
development Possibilities Constraints and Planning issues Studies in
technology and social change no 20 Technology and social change program
Lowa State University Ames Lowa 50011 USA
OWUOR BO MULEM BA amp KOKWARO JO 2005 Indigenous
knowledge snake bite remedies of the Luo Western Kenya Catholic
University of Eastern Africa Nairobi Kenya Journal of Ethnobiology
25(1)129-141
RAPHESU M2008 Vulnerability of indigenous knowledge systems initiatives
in South Africa Available from
httptraditionalhealthorgzatdocumentsvulnerabilityyofiksiniti ativesinsa2-
100615014543-phpapp01pdf [Accessed 02032012]
RAZA G amp DU PLESSIS H 2001 A framework for indigenous knowledge
systems and technology research A cross-cultural Indo-South Africa research
project International Design Education Forum Conference Proceedings held
at Museum Africa Newtown Johannesburg South Africa
REIJ C SI amp TOULMIN C 1996Sustaining the soil indigenous soil and
water conservation in Africa Earthsan Publication London
116
SEBITOSI EK 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge and the rights and
interests of indigenous medicine practitioners in Africa Indilinga African
Journal of Indigenous Knowledge 7(1) 7286
SEMALI LM amp KINCHELOE JL 1999What is indigenous knowledge
Voices from the Academy Falmer Press New Yorkpp3-381
SHIVA V 1993 Monocultures of the mind Perspective on biodiversity and
biotechnology Penang Malaysia Zed books pp5-161
SIMPLY GREEN CHOICES FOR LIFE 2010 Indigenous knowledge degree
combines arts and sciences Simply Green Choices for Life Available from
httpwwwsimplygreencozalocal-storiesscience-and-
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[Accessed 19122010]
SILLITOE P 1998 The development of indigenous knowledge Chicago
Journals of the Current Anthropology 39(2) 223-252
SITHOLE J 2007 The challenges faced by African libraries and information
centre in documenting and preserving indigenous knowledge International
federations of library association and institutions IFLA Journal 33 (2)117-
123
SOUTH AFRICAN GAUTENG PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT 2009
Development and implementation of indigenous knowledge systems policy for
Gauteng Department of Sport Arts Culture and Recreation Report of the
indigenous knowledge system stakeholders provincial policy workshop held in
Johannesburg on 5 June 2009
SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY ONLINE 2011 Constructing heritage and
heritage resources Available from
httpwwwsahistoryorgzaprintarticleconstructing-heritage-and-heritage-
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117
STATISTICS SOUTH AFRICA 2008 Community survey 2007 municipalities
Statistical Release Pretoria p 301
STATISTIC SOUTH AFRICA 2011 Mid-year population estimates
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httpwwwstatssagovzapublicationsP0302P03022011pdf
STEVENS A 2008 A different way of knowing Tools and Strategies for
managing indigenous knowledge Libri58 25-33 Available from
http198173123161pdf2008-1pp25-33pdf
STILWELL C 2007 Library and information services in South Africa
International federations of library association and institutions IFLA Journal
33(2)87-108
SWANEPOEL DP 1997 The medicinal value of the Southern African
AsteranceaeMSC dissertation Pretoria University of Pretoria South Africa
TEFFO LS TOMS RB amp ELOFF JN 2007 Preliminary data on the
nutritional composition of the edible stink-bug Encosternum delegorguei
Spinola consumed in Limpopo Province South African Journal of Science
103 434-436
THRUPP LA 1989 Legitimising local knowledge Scientized packages of
empowerment for the Third World people Humanities Social Sciences and
Law 6(3)13-24
ULLUWISHEWA R 1993 Indigenous knowledge National Indigenous
knowledge resource centres and sustainable development Indigenous
Knowledge and Development Monitor 1(3) 11-13
118
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME 2008 Indigenous
knowledge in disaster management in Africa United Nations Environment
Programme Nairobi Kenya pp4-110
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO) 2010 Indigenous knowledge and sustainability
UNESCO eating and learning for a sustainable future report
VAN WYK BE amp GERICKE N 2000 Peoplersquos plants A guide to useful
plants of Southern Africa Pretoria Briza Publications
WITBOOI SL 2005 Current developments in public libraries in South Africa
Department of Library and Information Science University of the Western
Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all I want to thank God ldquoMoemedi-Modimomothordquo for the sound health and
wisdom He gave unto me throughout the period of this study It is from Him all
blessings flow
My special thanks go to my supervisor Dr Sanya Osha for his thorough supervision
and guidance Despite his busy schedule he created time to attend to this study His
advice and supervision were constructive and thorough I would also like to mention
the tireless support of my beloved husband Molefe Boikhutso and my son Manase
Boikhutso They stood by me throughout the period of this study and their
encouragement and prayers are commendable
I furthermore give thanks to my parents Emily and Fannie Maluwa my sister
Winky and my parents-in-law Nicholas and Shadigolo Boikhutso for their support
and prayers They prayed for me for divine inspiration and guidance throughout my
academic journey
My heart-felt appreciation also goes to the staff of IERI for their support and
mentorship The guidance of Prof Mario Scerri is sincerely appreciated as is the
mentorship of Jan Grundling He was the one who introduced me to the programme
and was always willing to assist me when I needed him The kind contribution of Dr
Benjamin Akpor is also worth mentioning
iv
The contribution of my colleagues is also appreciated most especially the advice
prayers and support of my good friend Sandrine Mouloungui cannot be forgotten
My special thanks also go to the Director of the Institute for Economic Research on
Innovation (IERI) Dr Rasigan Maharajh for creating an enabling environment in the
Institute for Postgraduate Study Finally I thank the Tshwane University of
Technology for providing me with a scholarship that enabled me complete my study
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation 1
12 Problem statement 10
13 Aim and objectives 11
14 Research questions 11
15 Study methodology 12
151 Study design 12
16 Chapter layout 13
17 Conclusion 14
CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction 15
22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16
221 Social theory 17
222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24
24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35
27 Conclusion 41
vi
CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction 42
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42
33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56
35 Conclusion 58
CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN
CONTEXT
41 Introduction 59
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64
531 Department of Arts and Culture 65
532 Department of Trade and Industry 66
533 Department of Health 66
534 Department of Science and Technology 67
44 Conclusion 79
CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH
AFRICA
51 Introduction 80
52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81
53 Museums 83
54 Laboratories 85
55 Libraries 87
56 Knowledge management model 89
57 Conclusion 96
vii
CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction 97
62 Challenges of management and preservation 98
621 Lack of taxonomists 98
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness
of individuals 100
63 Conclusion 101
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction 102
72 Conclusion 102
73 Recommendations 104
REFERENCES 107
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13
Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38
Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44
Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the
Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50
Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51
Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the
Limpopo Province of South Africa 53
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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knowledge in disaster management in Africa United Nations Environment
Programme Nairobi Kenya pp4-110
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO) 2010 Indigenous knowledge and sustainability
UNESCO eating and learning for a sustainable future report
VAN WYK BE amp GERICKE N 2000 Peoplersquos plants A guide to useful
plants of Southern Africa Pretoria Briza Publications
WITBOOI SL 2005 Current developments in public libraries in South Africa
Department of Library and Information Science University of the Western
Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
iv
The contribution of my colleagues is also appreciated most especially the advice
prayers and support of my good friend Sandrine Mouloungui cannot be forgotten
My special thanks also go to the Director of the Institute for Economic Research on
Innovation (IERI) Dr Rasigan Maharajh for creating an enabling environment in the
Institute for Postgraduate Study Finally I thank the Tshwane University of
Technology for providing me with a scholarship that enabled me complete my study
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation 1
12 Problem statement 10
13 Aim and objectives 11
14 Research questions 11
15 Study methodology 12
151 Study design 12
16 Chapter layout 13
17 Conclusion 14
CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction 15
22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16
221 Social theory 17
222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24
24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35
27 Conclusion 41
vi
CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction 42
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42
33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56
35 Conclusion 58
CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN
CONTEXT
41 Introduction 59
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64
531 Department of Arts and Culture 65
532 Department of Trade and Industry 66
533 Department of Health 66
534 Department of Science and Technology 67
44 Conclusion 79
CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH
AFRICA
51 Introduction 80
52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81
53 Museums 83
54 Laboratories 85
55 Libraries 87
56 Knowledge management model 89
57 Conclusion 96
vii
CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction 97
62 Challenges of management and preservation 98
621 Lack of taxonomists 98
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness
of individuals 100
63 Conclusion 101
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction 102
72 Conclusion 102
73 Recommendations 104
REFERENCES 107
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13
Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38
Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44
Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the
Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50
Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51
Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the
Limpopo Province of South Africa 53
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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108
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109
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57
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DLAMINI NR MOROKA T MLOTSHWA L REDDY J amp BOTHA G
2010Indigenous edible plants as sources of nutrients and health benefiting
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bitstream1020442241Dlamini_2010pdf [Accessed 10112011]
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and institutional reforms Journal of Tribes and Tribalrsquos 141-52
DOLD AP amp COCKS ML 2002The trade in medicinal plants in the Eastern
Cape Province South Africa South African Journal of Science 98(1112)
589-597
110
EDWARDS E GOSDEN C amp PHILLIPS RB 2006 Sensible objects
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ELUJOBA AA ODELEYE OM amp OGUNYEMI CM Traditional medicine
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FABBRO L 2000 Amazonia biodiversity estimation using remote sensing
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httpwwwfaoorgdocrepX2550EX2550E00htm [ Accessed 10022012]
GALENI N MOODLEY I KRUGER H NTULI A amp MCLEOD H
2007Traditional and complementary medicine Available from
httpwwwhstorgzauploadsfileschap12_ 07pdf [Accessed 10032012]
GBENDA J 2010 Tapping the indigenous knowledge system for sustainable
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wwwthembosdercompublicationshtm [Accessed 10032012]
GIDDENS A 2006Sociology 5th ed Cambridge Polity Presspp2-1094
GEORGE R amp GOODMAN DJ 2003Sociological Theory 6th ed
Indianapolis Phillip A Butcher Publisherspp2-32
111
GORJESTANI N 2002 Indigenous knowledge for development
Opportunities and challenges Indigenous Knowledge for Development
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GRENIER L 1998 Working with indigenous knowledge A guide for
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HAMILTON M 1994 Conservation of wild plant species time to reassess the
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8(1)3949
HAGAR C 2004 Sharing indigenous knowledge to share or not to share
Graduate School of Library amp Information Science University of Illinois
Report p 337-347
HASSIM A HEYWOOD M amp BERGER J 2007 Traditional and alternative
health care Health amp Democracy Available from
httpsection27orgzadedi47cpt1host-hnetwp-
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HOPPERS CAO 2005 Culture indigenous knowledge and development
the role of the university Centre for Education Policy Development
Occasional Paper (CEPD) No 5 Johannesburg
HUMAN SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) 2011 Indigenous
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HUMAN SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) 2009 Healing the fever
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httpwwwhsrcaczaHSRC_Review_Article-153phtml[Accessed01062009]
112
HONG JJ 2010Cultural aspects of globalizing University industry
knowledge interaction in China Doctoral Thesis University of Technology
Lapeenrata Finland
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND
INSTITUTIONS (IFLA) 2010 IFLA statement on indigenous knowledge
Available from httpwwwiflaorgpublica tionsifla-statement-on-indigenous-
traditional-knowledge [Accessed 02022012]
ILLGNER P amp NEL E 2000 The Geography of edible insects in Sub-
Saharan Africa a study of mopane caterpillar The Geographical Journal
166(4) 336-351
KARGBO JA 2006 Indigenous knowledge and library work in Sierra Leone
Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 38 (2) 71-78
KOTHARI 2007Traditional knowledge and sustainable development
International Institute for Sustainable Development Discussion Paper
LIMPOPO LEADER 2006 Examining the basic human needs upon which
development depends Food for Africa services from local governments in
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wwwulaczaapplicationnews_andLimpopo_Leader_9-1pdf [Accessed
02022012]
MAHARAJ VJ SENABE JV amp HORAK RM 2007Hoodia case study at
CSIR CSIR Pretoria
MAGORO MD amp MASOGA M 2005 Aspects of indigenous knowledge and
protection in small-scale farming systems challenge for advancement
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 4 (2) 414-428
113
MAGORO MD 2008Traditional Health Practitionersrsquo practices and the
sustainability of extinction-prone traditional medicinal plants Masters in
Human Ecology University of South Africa
MANDER M NTULI L DIEDERICHS N amp MAVUNDLA K
2007Economics of the traditional medicines trade in South Africa Future
Works 3189-200
MATENGE ST VAN DER MERWE D KRUGER A amp DE BEERR H 2011
Untilisation of indigenous plant foods in the urban and rural communities
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 36(1)17-37
MAXTED N amp KELL S 2010 Establishment of global network for in-situ
conservation of crop wild relative Status needs Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture Backgroung Study Paper No 39
MCBURNEY DH 1994 Research Methods 3rd ed Wadsworth Inc
Belmount Californiapp1-488
MOENG ET amp POTGIETER MJ 2011The trade of medicinal plants by
muthi shops and street vendors in Limpopo Province South Africa Journal of
Medicinal Plants Research 5(4) 558-564
MONNGAKGOTLA OC 2007 Policy makersrsquo knowledge and practices of
intellectual property rights on indigenous knowledge systems in
BotswanaMED Science and Technology Dissertation Pretoria University of
Pretoria
MOTSAATHEBE G 2011 Book publishing in indigenous languages in South
Africa Challenges and Opportunities Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems 10(1) 115- 127
114
MPOFU D amp MIRUKA CO 2009 Indigenous knowledge management
transfer systems across generations in Zimbabwe Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal
of Indigenous Knowledge 8(1) 85-94
MSUYA J 2007 Challenges and opportunities in the protection and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in Africa International Review of
Information Ethics 7 1-8
MUGABE J 1999 Intellectual Property protection and traditional knowledge
An exploration in international policy discourse Available from
httpwwwwipointtkenhrpaneldisc ussionpaperspdfmugabepdf
[Accessed 02022012]
NAKASHIMA D amp ROUE M 2002Indigenous knowledge people and
sustainable practice Journal of Social and Economic Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change 5 314-324
NAKATA M amp LANGTON M 2005Australia indigenous knowledge and
libraries Australian and Academic Research Libraries 36(2)
NDHLALAMBI M2009 Strengthening the capacity of traditional health
practitioners to respond HIVAIDS and TB in KwaZulu Natal South Africa
AMREF Case Studies Canada
NETTLETON A 2010Life in a Zulu village craft and the art of modernity in
South AfricaThe Journal of Modern Craft 3(1) 55-78
NGULUBE P 2002 Managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in the
knowledge management era challenges and opportunities for information
professionals Sage Journal of information Development 18(2)95-101
NGULUBE P A amp LWOGA E 2007Knowledge management models and
their utility to the effective management and integration of indigenous
115
knowledge with other knowledge systems Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems 6(2)117-131
NYUMBA JB 2006The role of the library in promoting the application of
indigenous knowledge in developments projects Proceedings of the 72nd
International Federation of Library Associations Conference Seoul
OFUKWU RA AYOOLA A amp AKWAUOBU CA 2008 Medicinal plants
used in the treatment of Tuberculosis in humans and animals by Idoma tribe
of North Central Nigeria Nigerian Veterinary Journal 29(2) 25-30
OLUWAYOMI DA 1992 Indigenous knowledge as a key to local level
development Possibilities Constraints and Planning issues Studies in
technology and social change no 20 Technology and social change program
Lowa State University Ames Lowa 50011 USA
OWUOR BO MULEM BA amp KOKWARO JO 2005 Indigenous
knowledge snake bite remedies of the Luo Western Kenya Catholic
University of Eastern Africa Nairobi Kenya Journal of Ethnobiology
25(1)129-141
RAPHESU M2008 Vulnerability of indigenous knowledge systems initiatives
in South Africa Available from
httptraditionalhealthorgzatdocumentsvulnerabilityyofiksiniti ativesinsa2-
100615014543-phpapp01pdf [Accessed 02032012]
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systems and technology research A cross-cultural Indo-South Africa research
project International Design Education Forum Conference Proceedings held
at Museum Africa Newtown Johannesburg South Africa
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water conservation in Africa Earthsan Publication London
116
SEBITOSI EK 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge and the rights and
interests of indigenous medicine practitioners in Africa Indilinga African
Journal of Indigenous Knowledge 7(1) 7286
SEMALI LM amp KINCHELOE JL 1999What is indigenous knowledge
Voices from the Academy Falmer Press New Yorkpp3-381
SHIVA V 1993 Monocultures of the mind Perspective on biodiversity and
biotechnology Penang Malaysia Zed books pp5-161
SIMPLY GREEN CHOICES FOR LIFE 2010 Indigenous knowledge degree
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[Accessed 19122010]
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123
SOUTH AFRICAN GAUTENG PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT 2009
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httpwwwsahistoryorgzaprintarticleconstructing-heritage-and-heritage-
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117
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International federations of library association and institutions IFLA Journal
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AsteranceaeMSC dissertation Pretoria University of Pretoria South Africa
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nutritional composition of the edible stink-bug Encosternum delegorguei
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103 434-436
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ULLUWISHEWA R 1993 Indigenous knowledge National Indigenous
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Knowledge and Development Monitor 1(3) 11-13
118
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME 2008 Indigenous
knowledge in disaster management in Africa United Nations Environment
Programme Nairobi Kenya pp4-110
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO) 2010 Indigenous knowledge and sustainability
UNESCO eating and learning for a sustainable future report
VAN WYK BE amp GERICKE N 2000 Peoplersquos plants A guide to useful
plants of Southern Africa Pretoria Briza Publications
WITBOOI SL 2005 Current developments in public libraries in South Africa
Department of Library and Information Science University of the Western
Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation 1
12 Problem statement 10
13 Aim and objectives 11
14 Research questions 11
15 Study methodology 12
151 Study design 12
16 Chapter layout 13
17 Conclusion 14
CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction 15
22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16
221 Social theory 17
222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24
24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35
27 Conclusion 41
vi
CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction 42
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42
33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56
35 Conclusion 58
CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN
CONTEXT
41 Introduction 59
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64
531 Department of Arts and Culture 65
532 Department of Trade and Industry 66
533 Department of Health 66
534 Department of Science and Technology 67
44 Conclusion 79
CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH
AFRICA
51 Introduction 80
52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81
53 Museums 83
54 Laboratories 85
55 Libraries 87
56 Knowledge management model 89
57 Conclusion 96
vii
CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction 97
62 Challenges of management and preservation 98
621 Lack of taxonomists 98
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness
of individuals 100
63 Conclusion 101
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction 102
72 Conclusion 102
73 Recommendations 104
REFERENCES 107
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13
Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38
Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44
Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the
Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50
Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51
Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the
Limpopo Province of South Africa 53
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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02022012]
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CSIR CSIR Pretoria
MAGORO MD amp MASOGA M 2005 Aspects of indigenous knowledge and
protection in small-scale farming systems challenge for advancement
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 4 (2) 414-428
113
MAGORO MD 2008Traditional Health Practitionersrsquo practices and the
sustainability of extinction-prone traditional medicinal plants Masters in
Human Ecology University of South Africa
MANDER M NTULI L DIEDERICHS N amp MAVUNDLA K
2007Economics of the traditional medicines trade in South Africa Future
Works 3189-200
MATENGE ST VAN DER MERWE D KRUGER A amp DE BEERR H 2011
Untilisation of indigenous plant foods in the urban and rural communities
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 36(1)17-37
MAXTED N amp KELL S 2010 Establishment of global network for in-situ
conservation of crop wild relative Status needs Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture Backgroung Study Paper No 39
MCBURNEY DH 1994 Research Methods 3rd ed Wadsworth Inc
Belmount Californiapp1-488
MOENG ET amp POTGIETER MJ 2011The trade of medicinal plants by
muthi shops and street vendors in Limpopo Province South Africa Journal of
Medicinal Plants Research 5(4) 558-564
MONNGAKGOTLA OC 2007 Policy makersrsquo knowledge and practices of
intellectual property rights on indigenous knowledge systems in
BotswanaMED Science and Technology Dissertation Pretoria University of
Pretoria
MOTSAATHEBE G 2011 Book publishing in indigenous languages in South
Africa Challenges and Opportunities Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems 10(1) 115- 127
114
MPOFU D amp MIRUKA CO 2009 Indigenous knowledge management
transfer systems across generations in Zimbabwe Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal
of Indigenous Knowledge 8(1) 85-94
MSUYA J 2007 Challenges and opportunities in the protection and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in Africa International Review of
Information Ethics 7 1-8
MUGABE J 1999 Intellectual Property protection and traditional knowledge
An exploration in international policy discourse Available from
httpwwwwipointtkenhrpaneldisc ussionpaperspdfmugabepdf
[Accessed 02022012]
NAKASHIMA D amp ROUE M 2002Indigenous knowledge people and
sustainable practice Journal of Social and Economic Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change 5 314-324
NAKATA M amp LANGTON M 2005Australia indigenous knowledge and
libraries Australian and Academic Research Libraries 36(2)
NDHLALAMBI M2009 Strengthening the capacity of traditional health
practitioners to respond HIVAIDS and TB in KwaZulu Natal South Africa
AMREF Case Studies Canada
NETTLETON A 2010Life in a Zulu village craft and the art of modernity in
South AfricaThe Journal of Modern Craft 3(1) 55-78
NGULUBE P 2002 Managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in the
knowledge management era challenges and opportunities for information
professionals Sage Journal of information Development 18(2)95-101
NGULUBE P A amp LWOGA E 2007Knowledge management models and
their utility to the effective management and integration of indigenous
115
knowledge with other knowledge systems Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems 6(2)117-131
NYUMBA JB 2006The role of the library in promoting the application of
indigenous knowledge in developments projects Proceedings of the 72nd
International Federation of Library Associations Conference Seoul
OFUKWU RA AYOOLA A amp AKWAUOBU CA 2008 Medicinal plants
used in the treatment of Tuberculosis in humans and animals by Idoma tribe
of North Central Nigeria Nigerian Veterinary Journal 29(2) 25-30
OLUWAYOMI DA 1992 Indigenous knowledge as a key to local level
development Possibilities Constraints and Planning issues Studies in
technology and social change no 20 Technology and social change program
Lowa State University Ames Lowa 50011 USA
OWUOR BO MULEM BA amp KOKWARO JO 2005 Indigenous
knowledge snake bite remedies of the Luo Western Kenya Catholic
University of Eastern Africa Nairobi Kenya Journal of Ethnobiology
25(1)129-141
RAPHESU M2008 Vulnerability of indigenous knowledge systems initiatives
in South Africa Available from
httptraditionalhealthorgzatdocumentsvulnerabilityyofiksiniti ativesinsa2-
100615014543-phpapp01pdf [Accessed 02032012]
RAZA G amp DU PLESSIS H 2001 A framework for indigenous knowledge
systems and technology research A cross-cultural Indo-South Africa research
project International Design Education Forum Conference Proceedings held
at Museum Africa Newtown Johannesburg South Africa
REIJ C SI amp TOULMIN C 1996Sustaining the soil indigenous soil and
water conservation in Africa Earthsan Publication London
116
SEBITOSI EK 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge and the rights and
interests of indigenous medicine practitioners in Africa Indilinga African
Journal of Indigenous Knowledge 7(1) 7286
SEMALI LM amp KINCHELOE JL 1999What is indigenous knowledge
Voices from the Academy Falmer Press New Yorkpp3-381
SHIVA V 1993 Monocultures of the mind Perspective on biodiversity and
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SIMPLY GREEN CHOICES FOR LIFE 2010 Indigenous knowledge degree
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httpwwwsimplygreencozalocal-storiesscience-and-
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[Accessed 19122010]
SILLITOE P 1998 The development of indigenous knowledge Chicago
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SITHOLE J 2007 The challenges faced by African libraries and information
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federations of library association and institutions IFLA Journal 33 (2)117-
123
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Development and implementation of indigenous knowledge systems policy for
Gauteng Department of Sport Arts Culture and Recreation Report of the
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httpwwwsahistoryorgzaprintarticleconstructing-heritage-and-heritage-
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117
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httpwwwstatssagovzapublicationsP0302P03022011pdf
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International federations of library association and institutions IFLA Journal
33(2)87-108
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TEFFO LS TOMS RB amp ELOFF JN 2007 Preliminary data on the
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THRUPP LA 1989 Legitimising local knowledge Scientized packages of
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ULLUWISHEWA R 1993 Indigenous knowledge National Indigenous
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Knowledge and Development Monitor 1(3) 11-13
118
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME 2008 Indigenous
knowledge in disaster management in Africa United Nations Environment
Programme Nairobi Kenya pp4-110
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO) 2010 Indigenous knowledge and sustainability
UNESCO eating and learning for a sustainable future report
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plants of Southern Africa Pretoria Briza Publications
WITBOOI SL 2005 Current developments in public libraries in South Africa
Department of Library and Information Science University of the Western
Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
vi
CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction 42
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42
33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56
35 Conclusion 58
CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN
CONTEXT
41 Introduction 59
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64
531 Department of Arts and Culture 65
532 Department of Trade and Industry 66
533 Department of Health 66
534 Department of Science and Technology 67
44 Conclusion 79
CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH
AFRICA
51 Introduction 80
52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81
53 Museums 83
54 Laboratories 85
55 Libraries 87
56 Knowledge management model 89
57 Conclusion 96
vii
CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction 97
62 Challenges of management and preservation 98
621 Lack of taxonomists 98
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness
of individuals 100
63 Conclusion 101
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction 102
72 Conclusion 102
73 Recommendations 104
REFERENCES 107
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13
Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38
Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44
Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the
Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50
Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51
Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the
Limpopo Province of South Africa 53
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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109
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DLAMINI NR MOROKA T MLOTSHWA L REDDY J amp BOTHA G
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110
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International Institute for Sustainable Development Discussion Paper
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MAHARAJ VJ SENABE JV amp HORAK RM 2007Hoodia case study at
CSIR CSIR Pretoria
MAGORO MD amp MASOGA M 2005 Aspects of indigenous knowledge and
protection in small-scale farming systems challenge for advancement
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 4 (2) 414-428
113
MAGORO MD 2008Traditional Health Practitionersrsquo practices and the
sustainability of extinction-prone traditional medicinal plants Masters in
Human Ecology University of South Africa
MANDER M NTULI L DIEDERICHS N amp MAVUNDLA K
2007Economics of the traditional medicines trade in South Africa Future
Works 3189-200
MATENGE ST VAN DER MERWE D KRUGER A amp DE BEERR H 2011
Untilisation of indigenous plant foods in the urban and rural communities
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 36(1)17-37
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MOTSAATHEBE G 2011 Book publishing in indigenous languages in South
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Knowledge Systems 10(1) 115- 127
114
MPOFU D amp MIRUKA CO 2009 Indigenous knowledge management
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[Accessed 02022012]
NAKASHIMA D amp ROUE M 2002Indigenous knowledge people and
sustainable practice Journal of Social and Economic Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change 5 314-324
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115
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OFUKWU RA AYOOLA A amp AKWAUOBU CA 2008 Medicinal plants
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knowledge snake bite remedies of the Luo Western Kenya Catholic
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25(1)129-141
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httptraditionalhealthorgzatdocumentsvulnerabilityyofiksiniti ativesinsa2-
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project International Design Education Forum Conference Proceedings held
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water conservation in Africa Earthsan Publication London
116
SEBITOSI EK 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge and the rights and
interests of indigenous medicine practitioners in Africa Indilinga African
Journal of Indigenous Knowledge 7(1) 7286
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Voices from the Academy Falmer Press New Yorkpp3-381
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117
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International federations of library association and institutions IFLA Journal
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SWANEPOEL DP 1997 The medicinal value of the Southern African
AsteranceaeMSC dissertation Pretoria University of Pretoria South Africa
TEFFO LS TOMS RB amp ELOFF JN 2007 Preliminary data on the
nutritional composition of the edible stink-bug Encosternum delegorguei
Spinola consumed in Limpopo Province South African Journal of Science
103 434-436
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ULLUWISHEWA R 1993 Indigenous knowledge National Indigenous
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Knowledge and Development Monitor 1(3) 11-13
118
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME 2008 Indigenous
knowledge in disaster management in Africa United Nations Environment
Programme Nairobi Kenya pp4-110
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO) 2010 Indigenous knowledge and sustainability
UNESCO eating and learning for a sustainable future report
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plants of Southern Africa Pretoria Briza Publications
WITBOOI SL 2005 Current developments in public libraries in South Africa
Department of Library and Information Science University of the Western
Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
vii
CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction 97
62 Challenges of management and preservation 98
621 Lack of taxonomists 98
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness
of individuals 100
63 Conclusion 101
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction 102
72 Conclusion 102
73 Recommendations 104
REFERENCES 107
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13
Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38
Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44
Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the
Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50
Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51
Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the
Limpopo Province of South Africa 53
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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(SNLS)M Bibl Dissertation University of Western Cape
DLAMINI NR MOROKA T MLOTSHWA L REDDY J amp BOTHA G
2010Indigenous edible plants as sources of nutrients and health benefiting
component Proceedings of the Science Real and Relevant Conference
Available from httpresearchspacecsircozadspace
bitstream1020442241Dlamini_2010pdf [Accessed 10112011]
DOMFEH KA 2007Indigenous knowledge systems and the need for policy
and institutional reforms Journal of Tribes and Tribalrsquos 141-52
DOLD AP amp COCKS ML 2002The trade in medicinal plants in the Eastern
Cape Province South Africa South African Journal of Science 98(1112)
589-597
110
EDWARDS E GOSDEN C amp PHILLIPS RB 2006 Sensible objects
colonialism museums and material culture 1sted New York Berg Publishers
ELUJOBA AA ODELEYE OM amp OGUNYEMI CM Traditional medicine
development for medical and dental primary health care delivery system in
Africa African Journal of Traditional Complementary and Alternative
Medicines 2(1) 46-61
ESCOBAR A 1995Encountering Development the Making and Unmaking of
the Third World Princeton University Press Princeton pp3-275
FABBRO L 2000 Amazonia biodiversity estimation using remote sensing
and indigenous taxonomy San Polino-53024 Montalcino Italy Avaliable from
httpmartedpiinpebrcoldpiinpebrlise200109240914doc158915911
96pdf [ Accessed 10032012]
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women and communication Available from
httpwwwfaoorgdocrepX2550EX2550E00htm [ Accessed 10022012]
GALENI N MOODLEY I KRUGER H NTULI A amp MCLEOD H
2007Traditional and complementary medicine Available from
httpwwwhstorgzauploadsfileschap12_ 07pdf [Accessed 10032012]
GBENDA J 2010 Tapping the indigenous knowledge system for sustainable
development in Nigeria Available from
wwwthembosdercompublicationshtm [Accessed 10032012]
GIDDENS A 2006Sociology 5th ed Cambridge Polity Presspp2-1094
GEORGE R amp GOODMAN DJ 2003Sociological Theory 6th ed
Indianapolis Phillip A Butcher Publisherspp2-32
111
GORJESTANI N 2002 Indigenous knowledge for development
Opportunities and challenges Indigenous Knowledge for Development
Programme UB Report No WB20294pp1-8
GRENIER L 1998 Working with indigenous knowledge A guide for
researchers International Development Research Centre Ottawa Canada
HAMILTON M 1994 Conservation of wild plant species time to reassess the
genetic assumptions and implications of seed banks Conservation Biology
8(1)3949
HAGAR C 2004 Sharing indigenous knowledge to share or not to share
Graduate School of Library amp Information Science University of Illinois
Report p 337-347
HASSIM A HEYWOOD M amp BERGER J 2007 Traditional and alternative
health care Health amp Democracy Available from
httpsection27orgzadedi47cpt1host-hnetwp-
contentuploads201004Chapter7pdf[Accessed01042010]
HOPPERS CAO 2005 Culture indigenous knowledge and development
the role of the university Centre for Education Policy Development
Occasional Paper (CEPD) No 5 Johannesburg
HUMAN SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) 2011 Indigenous
knowledge to preserve and to protect HSRC Reviews 9(2) Available from
httpwwwhsrcaczaHSRC_Review_Article-249phtml[Accessed01062011]
HUMAN SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) 2009 Healing the fever
abates in South Africa HSRC Reviews 7(2)Available from
httpwwwhsrcaczaHSRC_Review_Article-153phtml[Accessed01062009]
112
HONG JJ 2010Cultural aspects of globalizing University industry
knowledge interaction in China Doctoral Thesis University of Technology
Lapeenrata Finland
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND
INSTITUTIONS (IFLA) 2010 IFLA statement on indigenous knowledge
Available from httpwwwiflaorgpublica tionsifla-statement-on-indigenous-
traditional-knowledge [Accessed 02022012]
ILLGNER P amp NEL E 2000 The Geography of edible insects in Sub-
Saharan Africa a study of mopane caterpillar The Geographical Journal
166(4) 336-351
KARGBO JA 2006 Indigenous knowledge and library work in Sierra Leone
Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 38 (2) 71-78
KOTHARI 2007Traditional knowledge and sustainable development
International Institute for Sustainable Development Discussion Paper
LIMPOPO LEADER 2006 Examining the basic human needs upon which
development depends Food for Africa services from local governments in
crisis Available from
wwwulaczaapplicationnews_andLimpopo_Leader_9-1pdf [Accessed
02022012]
MAHARAJ VJ SENABE JV amp HORAK RM 2007Hoodia case study at
CSIR CSIR Pretoria
MAGORO MD amp MASOGA M 2005 Aspects of indigenous knowledge and
protection in small-scale farming systems challenge for advancement
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 4 (2) 414-428
113
MAGORO MD 2008Traditional Health Practitionersrsquo practices and the
sustainability of extinction-prone traditional medicinal plants Masters in
Human Ecology University of South Africa
MANDER M NTULI L DIEDERICHS N amp MAVUNDLA K
2007Economics of the traditional medicines trade in South Africa Future
Works 3189-200
MATENGE ST VAN DER MERWE D KRUGER A amp DE BEERR H 2011
Untilisation of indigenous plant foods in the urban and rural communities
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 36(1)17-37
MAXTED N amp KELL S 2010 Establishment of global network for in-situ
conservation of crop wild relative Status needs Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture Backgroung Study Paper No 39
MCBURNEY DH 1994 Research Methods 3rd ed Wadsworth Inc
Belmount Californiapp1-488
MOENG ET amp POTGIETER MJ 2011The trade of medicinal plants by
muthi shops and street vendors in Limpopo Province South Africa Journal of
Medicinal Plants Research 5(4) 558-564
MONNGAKGOTLA OC 2007 Policy makersrsquo knowledge and practices of
intellectual property rights on indigenous knowledge systems in
BotswanaMED Science and Technology Dissertation Pretoria University of
Pretoria
MOTSAATHEBE G 2011 Book publishing in indigenous languages in South
Africa Challenges and Opportunities Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems 10(1) 115- 127
114
MPOFU D amp MIRUKA CO 2009 Indigenous knowledge management
transfer systems across generations in Zimbabwe Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal
of Indigenous Knowledge 8(1) 85-94
MSUYA J 2007 Challenges and opportunities in the protection and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in Africa International Review of
Information Ethics 7 1-8
MUGABE J 1999 Intellectual Property protection and traditional knowledge
An exploration in international policy discourse Available from
httpwwwwipointtkenhrpaneldisc ussionpaperspdfmugabepdf
[Accessed 02022012]
NAKASHIMA D amp ROUE M 2002Indigenous knowledge people and
sustainable practice Journal of Social and Economic Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change 5 314-324
NAKATA M amp LANGTON M 2005Australia indigenous knowledge and
libraries Australian and Academic Research Libraries 36(2)
NDHLALAMBI M2009 Strengthening the capacity of traditional health
practitioners to respond HIVAIDS and TB in KwaZulu Natal South Africa
AMREF Case Studies Canada
NETTLETON A 2010Life in a Zulu village craft and the art of modernity in
South AfricaThe Journal of Modern Craft 3(1) 55-78
NGULUBE P 2002 Managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in the
knowledge management era challenges and opportunities for information
professionals Sage Journal of information Development 18(2)95-101
NGULUBE P A amp LWOGA E 2007Knowledge management models and
their utility to the effective management and integration of indigenous
115
knowledge with other knowledge systems Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems 6(2)117-131
NYUMBA JB 2006The role of the library in promoting the application of
indigenous knowledge in developments projects Proceedings of the 72nd
International Federation of Library Associations Conference Seoul
OFUKWU RA AYOOLA A amp AKWAUOBU CA 2008 Medicinal plants
used in the treatment of Tuberculosis in humans and animals by Idoma tribe
of North Central Nigeria Nigerian Veterinary Journal 29(2) 25-30
OLUWAYOMI DA 1992 Indigenous knowledge as a key to local level
development Possibilities Constraints and Planning issues Studies in
technology and social change no 20 Technology and social change program
Lowa State University Ames Lowa 50011 USA
OWUOR BO MULEM BA amp KOKWARO JO 2005 Indigenous
knowledge snake bite remedies of the Luo Western Kenya Catholic
University of Eastern Africa Nairobi Kenya Journal of Ethnobiology
25(1)129-141
RAPHESU M2008 Vulnerability of indigenous knowledge systems initiatives
in South Africa Available from
httptraditionalhealthorgzatdocumentsvulnerabilityyofiksiniti ativesinsa2-
100615014543-phpapp01pdf [Accessed 02032012]
RAZA G amp DU PLESSIS H 2001 A framework for indigenous knowledge
systems and technology research A cross-cultural Indo-South Africa research
project International Design Education Forum Conference Proceedings held
at Museum Africa Newtown Johannesburg South Africa
REIJ C SI amp TOULMIN C 1996Sustaining the soil indigenous soil and
water conservation in Africa Earthsan Publication London
116
SEBITOSI EK 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge and the rights and
interests of indigenous medicine practitioners in Africa Indilinga African
Journal of Indigenous Knowledge 7(1) 7286
SEMALI LM amp KINCHELOE JL 1999What is indigenous knowledge
Voices from the Academy Falmer Press New Yorkpp3-381
SHIVA V 1993 Monocultures of the mind Perspective on biodiversity and
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SIMPLY GREEN CHOICES FOR LIFE 2010 Indigenous knowledge degree
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httpwwwsimplygreencozalocal-storiesscience-and-
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[Accessed 19122010]
SILLITOE P 1998 The development of indigenous knowledge Chicago
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SITHOLE J 2007 The challenges faced by African libraries and information
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123
SOUTH AFRICAN GAUTENG PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT 2009
Development and implementation of indigenous knowledge systems policy for
Gauteng Department of Sport Arts Culture and Recreation Report of the
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httpwwwsahistoryorgzaprintarticleconstructing-heritage-and-heritage-
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117
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STEVENS A 2008 A different way of knowing Tools and Strategies for
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http198173123161pdf2008-1pp25-33pdf
STILWELL C 2007 Library and information services in South Africa
International federations of library association and institutions IFLA Journal
33(2)87-108
SWANEPOEL DP 1997 The medicinal value of the Southern African
AsteranceaeMSC dissertation Pretoria University of Pretoria South Africa
TEFFO LS TOMS RB amp ELOFF JN 2007 Preliminary data on the
nutritional composition of the edible stink-bug Encosternum delegorguei
Spinola consumed in Limpopo Province South African Journal of Science
103 434-436
THRUPP LA 1989 Legitimising local knowledge Scientized packages of
empowerment for the Third World people Humanities Social Sciences and
Law 6(3)13-24
ULLUWISHEWA R 1993 Indigenous knowledge National Indigenous
knowledge resource centres and sustainable development Indigenous
Knowledge and Development Monitor 1(3) 11-13
118
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME 2008 Indigenous
knowledge in disaster management in Africa United Nations Environment
Programme Nairobi Kenya pp4-110
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO) 2010 Indigenous knowledge and sustainability
UNESCO eating and learning for a sustainable future report
VAN WYK BE amp GERICKE N 2000 Peoplersquos plants A guide to useful
plants of Southern Africa Pretoria Briza Publications
WITBOOI SL 2005 Current developments in public libraries in South Africa
Department of Library and Information Science University of the Western
Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13
Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38
Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44
Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the
Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50
Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51
Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the
Limpopo Province of South Africa 53
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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113
MAGORO MD 2008Traditional Health Practitionersrsquo practices and the
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MANDER M NTULI L DIEDERICHS N amp MAVUNDLA K
2007Economics of the traditional medicines trade in South Africa Future
Works 3189-200
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Untilisation of indigenous plant foods in the urban and rural communities
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Knowledge Systems 10(1) 115- 127
114
MPOFU D amp MIRUKA CO 2009 Indigenous knowledge management
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115
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httptraditionalhealthorgzatdocumentsvulnerabilityyofiksiniti ativesinsa2-
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116
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118
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International conference 11-14 July California USA
ix
LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation
Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss
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ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic
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BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in
Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79
BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges
experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI
108
Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf
[Accessed 12022012]
CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility
to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development
International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92
CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous
knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South
Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of
Science and Technology South Africa
CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost
from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science
106(1112) 1
CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication
technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous
knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review
38132-138
CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford
University Press
COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH
COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)
1-56
DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary
health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in
rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94
DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape
Librarian 38(1) 34-35
109
DAVENPORT TH DE LONG DW amp BEERS MC 1998Successful
knowledge management projectsMIT Slogan Management Review 39(2)43-
57
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND CULTURE (DAC) 2009 National policy on
South Africa living the heritage first draft March 2009 DAC Republic of
South Africa Policy Document
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE amp TECHNOLOGY (DST) 2005 Indigenous
knowledge systems DST Republic of South Africa Policy Document
DEPARTMENT OF TRADE AND INDUSTRY (DTI) 2008 The protection of
indigenous knowledge through the intellectual property system DIT Republic
of South Africa Policy Framework Pretoria Government Printers
DLAMINI DNB 2005The management of indigenous knowledge in
Swaziland with specific reference to the Swaziland National Library SERVICE
(SNLS)M Bibl Dissertation University of Western Cape
DLAMINI NR MOROKA T MLOTSHWA L REDDY J amp BOTHA G
2010Indigenous edible plants as sources of nutrients and health benefiting
component Proceedings of the Science Real and Relevant Conference
Available from httpresearchspacecsircozadspace
bitstream1020442241Dlamini_2010pdf [Accessed 10112011]
DOMFEH KA 2007Indigenous knowledge systems and the need for policy
and institutional reforms Journal of Tribes and Tribalrsquos 141-52
DOLD AP amp COCKS ML 2002The trade in medicinal plants in the Eastern
Cape Province South Africa South African Journal of Science 98(1112)
589-597
110
EDWARDS E GOSDEN C amp PHILLIPS RB 2006 Sensible objects
colonialism museums and material culture 1sted New York Berg Publishers
ELUJOBA AA ODELEYE OM amp OGUNYEMI CM Traditional medicine
development for medical and dental primary health care delivery system in
Africa African Journal of Traditional Complementary and Alternative
Medicines 2(1) 46-61
ESCOBAR A 1995Encountering Development the Making and Unmaking of
the Third World Princeton University Press Princeton pp3-275
FABBRO L 2000 Amazonia biodiversity estimation using remote sensing
and indigenous taxonomy San Polino-53024 Montalcino Italy Avaliable from
httpmartedpiinpebrcoldpiinpebrlise200109240914doc158915911
96pdf [ Accessed 10032012]
FOOD AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION (FAO) 1999 Voices for change rural
women and communication Available from
httpwwwfaoorgdocrepX2550EX2550E00htm [ Accessed 10022012]
GALENI N MOODLEY I KRUGER H NTULI A amp MCLEOD H
2007Traditional and complementary medicine Available from
httpwwwhstorgzauploadsfileschap12_ 07pdf [Accessed 10032012]
GBENDA J 2010 Tapping the indigenous knowledge system for sustainable
development in Nigeria Available from
wwwthembosdercompublicationshtm [Accessed 10032012]
GIDDENS A 2006Sociology 5th ed Cambridge Polity Presspp2-1094
GEORGE R amp GOODMAN DJ 2003Sociological Theory 6th ed
Indianapolis Phillip A Butcher Publisherspp2-32
111
GORJESTANI N 2002 Indigenous knowledge for development
Opportunities and challenges Indigenous Knowledge for Development
Programme UB Report No WB20294pp1-8
GRENIER L 1998 Working with indigenous knowledge A guide for
researchers International Development Research Centre Ottawa Canada
HAMILTON M 1994 Conservation of wild plant species time to reassess the
genetic assumptions and implications of seed banks Conservation Biology
8(1)3949
HAGAR C 2004 Sharing indigenous knowledge to share or not to share
Graduate School of Library amp Information Science University of Illinois
Report p 337-347
HASSIM A HEYWOOD M amp BERGER J 2007 Traditional and alternative
health care Health amp Democracy Available from
httpsection27orgzadedi47cpt1host-hnetwp-
contentuploads201004Chapter7pdf[Accessed01042010]
HOPPERS CAO 2005 Culture indigenous knowledge and development
the role of the university Centre for Education Policy Development
Occasional Paper (CEPD) No 5 Johannesburg
HUMAN SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) 2011 Indigenous
knowledge to preserve and to protect HSRC Reviews 9(2) Available from
httpwwwhsrcaczaHSRC_Review_Article-249phtml[Accessed01062011]
HUMAN SCIENCE RESEARCH COUNCIL (HSRC) 2009 Healing the fever
abates in South Africa HSRC Reviews 7(2)Available from
httpwwwhsrcaczaHSRC_Review_Article-153phtml[Accessed01062009]
112
HONG JJ 2010Cultural aspects of globalizing University industry
knowledge interaction in China Doctoral Thesis University of Technology
Lapeenrata Finland
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND
INSTITUTIONS (IFLA) 2010 IFLA statement on indigenous knowledge
Available from httpwwwiflaorgpublica tionsifla-statement-on-indigenous-
traditional-knowledge [Accessed 02022012]
ILLGNER P amp NEL E 2000 The Geography of edible insects in Sub-
Saharan Africa a study of mopane caterpillar The Geographical Journal
166(4) 336-351
KARGBO JA 2006 Indigenous knowledge and library work in Sierra Leone
Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 38 (2) 71-78
KOTHARI 2007Traditional knowledge and sustainable development
International Institute for Sustainable Development Discussion Paper
LIMPOPO LEADER 2006 Examining the basic human needs upon which
development depends Food for Africa services from local governments in
crisis Available from
wwwulaczaapplicationnews_andLimpopo_Leader_9-1pdf [Accessed
02022012]
MAHARAJ VJ SENABE JV amp HORAK RM 2007Hoodia case study at
CSIR CSIR Pretoria
MAGORO MD amp MASOGA M 2005 Aspects of indigenous knowledge and
protection in small-scale farming systems challenge for advancement
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 4 (2) 414-428
113
MAGORO MD 2008Traditional Health Practitionersrsquo practices and the
sustainability of extinction-prone traditional medicinal plants Masters in
Human Ecology University of South Africa
MANDER M NTULI L DIEDERICHS N amp MAVUNDLA K
2007Economics of the traditional medicines trade in South Africa Future
Works 3189-200
MATENGE ST VAN DER MERWE D KRUGER A amp DE BEERR H 2011
Untilisation of indigenous plant foods in the urban and rural communities
Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 36(1)17-37
MAXTED N amp KELL S 2010 Establishment of global network for in-situ
conservation of crop wild relative Status needs Commission on Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture Backgroung Study Paper No 39
MCBURNEY DH 1994 Research Methods 3rd ed Wadsworth Inc
Belmount Californiapp1-488
MOENG ET amp POTGIETER MJ 2011The trade of medicinal plants by
muthi shops and street vendors in Limpopo Province South Africa Journal of
Medicinal Plants Research 5(4) 558-564
MONNGAKGOTLA OC 2007 Policy makersrsquo knowledge and practices of
intellectual property rights on indigenous knowledge systems in
BotswanaMED Science and Technology Dissertation Pretoria University of
Pretoria
MOTSAATHEBE G 2011 Book publishing in indigenous languages in South
Africa Challenges and Opportunities Indilinga-African Journal of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems 10(1) 115- 127
114
MPOFU D amp MIRUKA CO 2009 Indigenous knowledge management
transfer systems across generations in Zimbabwe Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal
of Indigenous Knowledge 8(1) 85-94
MSUYA J 2007 Challenges and opportunities in the protection and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in Africa International Review of
Information Ethics 7 1-8
MUGABE J 1999 Intellectual Property protection and traditional knowledge
An exploration in international policy discourse Available from
httpwwwwipointtkenhrpaneldisc ussionpaperspdfmugabepdf
[Accessed 02022012]
NAKASHIMA D amp ROUE M 2002Indigenous knowledge people and
sustainable practice Journal of Social and Economic Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change 5 314-324
NAKATA M amp LANGTON M 2005Australia indigenous knowledge and
libraries Australian and Academic Research Libraries 36(2)
NDHLALAMBI M2009 Strengthening the capacity of traditional health
practitioners to respond HIVAIDS and TB in KwaZulu Natal South Africa
AMREF Case Studies Canada
NETTLETON A 2010Life in a Zulu village craft and the art of modernity in
South AfricaThe Journal of Modern Craft 3(1) 55-78
NGULUBE P 2002 Managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in the
knowledge management era challenges and opportunities for information
professionals Sage Journal of information Development 18(2)95-101
NGULUBE P A amp LWOGA E 2007Knowledge management models and
their utility to the effective management and integration of indigenous
115
knowledge with other knowledge systems Indilinga ndashAfrican Journal of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems 6(2)117-131
NYUMBA JB 2006The role of the library in promoting the application of
indigenous knowledge in developments projects Proceedings of the 72nd
International Federation of Library Associations Conference Seoul
OFUKWU RA AYOOLA A amp AKWAUOBU CA 2008 Medicinal plants
used in the treatment of Tuberculosis in humans and animals by Idoma tribe
of North Central Nigeria Nigerian Veterinary Journal 29(2) 25-30
OLUWAYOMI DA 1992 Indigenous knowledge as a key to local level
development Possibilities Constraints and Planning issues Studies in
technology and social change no 20 Technology and social change program
Lowa State University Ames Lowa 50011 USA
OWUOR BO MULEM BA amp KOKWARO JO 2005 Indigenous
knowledge snake bite remedies of the Luo Western Kenya Catholic
University of Eastern Africa Nairobi Kenya Journal of Ethnobiology
25(1)129-141
RAPHESU M2008 Vulnerability of indigenous knowledge systems initiatives
in South Africa Available from
httptraditionalhealthorgzatdocumentsvulnerabilityyofiksiniti ativesinsa2-
100615014543-phpapp01pdf [Accessed 02032012]
RAZA G amp DU PLESSIS H 2001 A framework for indigenous knowledge
systems and technology research A cross-cultural Indo-South Africa research
project International Design Education Forum Conference Proceedings held
at Museum Africa Newtown Johannesburg South Africa
REIJ C SI amp TOULMIN C 1996Sustaining the soil indigenous soil and
water conservation in Africa Earthsan Publication London
116
SEBITOSI EK 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge and the rights and
interests of indigenous medicine practitioners in Africa Indilinga African
Journal of Indigenous Knowledge 7(1) 7286
SEMALI LM amp KINCHELOE JL 1999What is indigenous knowledge
Voices from the Academy Falmer Press New Yorkpp3-381
SHIVA V 1993 Monocultures of the mind Perspective on biodiversity and
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SIMPLY GREEN CHOICES FOR LIFE 2010 Indigenous knowledge degree
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[Accessed 19122010]
SILLITOE P 1998 The development of indigenous knowledge Chicago
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SITHOLE J 2007 The challenges faced by African libraries and information
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123
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Development and implementation of indigenous knowledge systems policy for
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indigenous knowledge system stakeholders provincial policy workshop held in
Johannesburg on 5 June 2009
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httpwwwsahistoryorgzaprintarticleconstructing-heritage-and-heritage-
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117
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http198173123161pdf2008-1pp25-33pdf
STILWELL C 2007 Library and information services in South Africa
International federations of library association and institutions IFLA Journal
33(2)87-108
SWANEPOEL DP 1997 The medicinal value of the Southern African
AsteranceaeMSC dissertation Pretoria University of Pretoria South Africa
TEFFO LS TOMS RB amp ELOFF JN 2007 Preliminary data on the
nutritional composition of the edible stink-bug Encosternum delegorguei
Spinola consumed in Limpopo Province South African Journal of Science
103 434-436
THRUPP LA 1989 Legitimising local knowledge Scientized packages of
empowerment for the Third World people Humanities Social Sciences and
Law 6(3)13-24
ULLUWISHEWA R 1993 Indigenous knowledge National Indigenous
knowledge resource centres and sustainable development Indigenous
Knowledge and Development Monitor 1(3) 11-13
118
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME 2008 Indigenous
knowledge in disaster management in Africa United Nations Environment
Programme Nairobi Kenya pp4-110
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANISATION (UNESCO) 2010 Indigenous knowledge and sustainability
UNESCO eating and learning for a sustainable future report
VAN WYK BE amp GERICKE N 2000 Peoplersquos plants A guide to useful
plants of Southern Africa Pretoria Briza Publications
WITBOOI SL 2005 Current developments in public libraries in South Africa
Department of Library and Information Science University of the Western
Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research
IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations
IK - Indigenous Knowledge
LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems
NGO - Non Governmental Organisation
NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations
SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes
FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational
WHO - World Health Organisation
UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights
SIDS - Small Island Developing States
THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation
DST - Department of Science and Technology
DTI - Department of trade and industry
HSRC - Human Science Research Council
NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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Cape Bellville pp 61-70
WORLD BANK 1998 Indigenous knowledge for development a framework
for action Knowledge and learning centre African Region World Bank
development report
WORLD INTERLLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION ACADEMY 2008
Hoodia Patent World Intellectual Property Organisation Magazine article
Available from
httpwwwwipointacademyenipacademieseducational_materialscs1_hood
iapdf [Accessed 01012008]
YOKAKUL N ZAWDIE G amp BOOTH P 2011 The social capital knowledge
exchange and the growth of indigenous knowledge based industry in the
Triple Helix System the case of SMErsquos in Thailand The Triple Helix IV
International conference 11-14 July California USA
xi
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people
through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at
reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular
emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of
a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and
the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge
promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and
document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for
decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources
management human animal and environmental health and other important activities
at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the
agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also
discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified
as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a
national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property
rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The
challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa
include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination
and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals
This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous
knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in
the country with particular emphasis on its preservation
1
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11 Background and motivation
The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers
group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the
UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them
having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe
1998244)
Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism
was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign
colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking
control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the
colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics
and culture which regroup most of indigenous people
According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the
practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced
upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to
show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for
some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the
Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot
2
belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research
study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an
impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous
people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in
common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)
It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of
years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous
knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science
world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the
academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by
governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies
Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given
society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local
people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This
knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories
symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)
According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination
of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical
educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates
to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including
those used in liberation struggles
3
Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that
is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the
environment across cultures and geographical spaces
Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the
concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is
because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since
there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They
represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and
classification systems (Sithole 2007117)
Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms
such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural
people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although
certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the
purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo
are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts
of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the
preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of
indigenous knowledge
Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world
The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include
4
Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this
knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs
rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those
communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from
one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment
and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and
libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their
communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being
dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment
Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is
referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed
outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as
tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily
codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner
since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in
Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit
knowledge into explicit knowledge further
Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to
generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many
more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be
acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge
of what to eat
5
Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining
characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in
the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the
society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived
by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case
Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different
categories
(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)
According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa
is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a
multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up
about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of
black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural
resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous
people have always relied on their environment for survival
The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to
deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to
time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has
largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200812)
6
It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has
caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The
challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge
especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of
traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the
important aspects for sustainable resources
The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to
development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the
very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse
species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when
the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western
knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an
epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local
and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a
result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)
Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields
such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices
gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by
word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be
lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to
South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a
societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)
7
Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from
international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies
such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete
attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial
activities and development projects
Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management
objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both
knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little
indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places
of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge
serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of
the population as should be the case
There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is
the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information
plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is
also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs
to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by
authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)
Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos
minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though
8
most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to
explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden
the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and
generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important
for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool
This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving
indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of
material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals
Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly
designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According
to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of
their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and
access to them was aligned along racial lines
Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to
libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers
Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of
local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in
black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be
inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi
200562)
Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of
apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national
9
transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the
process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel
development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels
199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on
the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous
knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive
studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies
This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous
knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in
transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and
frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of
indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving
such information when needed
This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the
storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes
The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource
for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western
sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp
Lwoga 2007124)
10
12 Problem statement
Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due
to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a
result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies
which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is
argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer
quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances
where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations
Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental
Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and
younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To
avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent
need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few
instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are
either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)
Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous
knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for
preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will
adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South
Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that
serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos
indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo
11
(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as
well as in transferring it to future generations
13 Aims and objectives
Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect
encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution
this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and
methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were
pursued
to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with
specific focus on South Africa
to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge
systems and
to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of
indigenous knowledge in South Africa
14 Research questions
To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were
answered
Why is indigenous knowledge important
What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa
12
What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa
Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South
Africa
What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems
face in South Africa
15 Study methodology
The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data
which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books
articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A
source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as
official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources
data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information
was then analysed in order to answer the research questions
151 Study Design
This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data
Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available
(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another
investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is
limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that
heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of
13
the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the
phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and
preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area
16 Chapter layout
The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11
Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study
Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter
Chapter 1
General introduction
This chapter starts with an overview of
indigenous knowledge in perspective It also
covers the problem statement the aim of the
study its research objectives and research
questions
Chapter 2
Theoretical framework
and literature review
This chapter presents the theoretical
framework of indigenous knowledge and
critically reviews the literature relating to
indigenous knowledge
Chapter 3
Application of
Indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter outlines the indigenous
knowledge found in South Africa and it
presents the existing of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as
agriculture health and culture in South Africa
Chapter 4
Indigenous knowledge
policy the South
This chapter provides the national policies
available for preserving and protecting
14
African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa
Chapter 5
Preservation of
indigenous knowledge
in South Africa
This chapter identifies the methods of
preserving indigenous knowledge used in
South Africa and the knowledge management
model that assists in preserving and managing
knowledge
Chapter 6 Challenges and
constrains of
indigenous knowledge
In this chapter the challenges and constraints
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are
discussed
Chapter7 Conclusion and
recommendation
Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion
limitations and recommendations
17 Conclusion
This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South
Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of
documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the
concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both
local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation
and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the
documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently
not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is
disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific
objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter
explains the theoretical framework of the study
15
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the
development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In
addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is
seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to
provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A
problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are
unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind
scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on
developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing
other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous
knowledge is important
Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous
farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse
geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations
crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous
knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most
local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable
resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore
16
considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development
processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch
20075)
This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for
development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed
by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different
scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable
development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this
chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries
The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from
harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently
introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that
indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development
22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study
According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of
statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept
that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among
variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and
reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)
Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation
to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving
17
attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of
resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ
and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed
221 Social theory
Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how
aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the
economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what
makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the
society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material
and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with
morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He
further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting
it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity
of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)
Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of
solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since
individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were
held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He
was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a
society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies
individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar
18
activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens
200613)
According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are
characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and
similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the
form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and
collective conscience (Giddens 200613)
Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which
arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and
they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the
body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would
certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was
characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity
was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)
South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that
social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely
appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included
certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the
industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the
result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into
racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic
disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)
19
Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural
context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances
and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and
design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and
conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry
farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers
200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same
purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as
Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order
to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)
In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the
current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business
promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is
difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)
Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn
about the solidarity from the indigenous communities
Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense
thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society
for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday
patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to
describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that
rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down
20
which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined
anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by
modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development
together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)
When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a
sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim
described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he
believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)
In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and
look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the
present (Giddens 200614)
222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches
To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of
survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate
some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is
acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous
knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and
accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important
role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced
two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These
theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering
21
development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for
the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)
The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect
indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various
ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more
The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical
and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve
this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should
be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He
stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate
information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge
systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations
Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of
various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account
the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their
production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural
development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for
designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not
to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick
198787)
Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an
effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another
22
advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in
preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge
preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be
scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and
dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)
The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and
documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of
practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be
considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is
required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their
cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts
and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and
documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of
indigenous knowledge
Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required
attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major
drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need
for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails
to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous
knowledge especially for the marginalised poor
It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to
communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus
23
becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to
gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of
sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to
individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state
and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation
of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights
Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of
the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is
tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs
stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates
that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities
gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on
which they rely
Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still
considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge
preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to
be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous
communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for
indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge
by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge
certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the
study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and
beliefs by spending time together
24
23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge
The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on
economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable
development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for
development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable
development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to
Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit
knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western
sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions
based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)
Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences
analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods
Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development
processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development
programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship
deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities
are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of
knowing
Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one
knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the
Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and
the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that
25
development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field
of women in development (Escobar199514)
Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static
unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing
reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he
explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide
the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be
conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)
Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful
seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When
it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development
although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development
used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level
Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting
something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)
Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions
manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that
technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to
development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-
economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs
to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems
26
However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to
solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing
24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development
Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its
importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level
indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food
security education natural resources management human animal and
environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key
element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival
(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for
developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous
knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local
community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic
development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and
basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World
Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-
directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it
is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when
communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most
effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs
and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most
27
especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure
indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the
process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are
concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be
appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of
wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)
Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When
properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-
centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about
their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of
crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be
used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a
state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)
Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous
knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the
Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially
Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations
Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of
documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other
international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of
indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)
28
Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in
sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries
have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In
addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local
communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of
indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)
However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in
recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries
Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order
recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital
component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy
distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being
neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it
almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems
and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making
it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp
Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)
Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and
municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report
from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous
knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for
29
stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations
were made
Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-
cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for
cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural
democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems
must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa
The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African
Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised
Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes
must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes
Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to
engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions
A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including
traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth
Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for
implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development
programmes
Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are
currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear
that they will give away their rights
Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge
Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning
Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain
categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is
30
restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or
commercialised
All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government
structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous
knowledge system policy
Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical
to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system
Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development
it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is
therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives
originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same
philosophical underpinning
25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge
In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and
dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of
those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information
gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and
developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor
This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are
unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde
20089)
31
The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important
way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years
indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic
and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although
the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various
bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the
appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific
and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it
Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the
prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of
indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove
destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process
of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied
in developing countries The steps are
Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case
indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to
find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it
requires an external observer to identify it
The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of
the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is
essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge
Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because
indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature
32
It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person
to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations
modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs
Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from
disappearing
It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the
form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and
storytelling
Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the
other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments
The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the
developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally
Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and
community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals
and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for
social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement
and capabilities
Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance
development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous
knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals
within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions
that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is
33
vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national
level
According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange
of indigenous knowledge
Computers
Tape recorders
Radio
Television
Newspapers
Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras
ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities
Fax
CD-ROM
Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets
Diskettes
Social gatherings in communities
Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However
formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of
indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge
and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably
34
To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities
there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage
teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its
wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant
skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of
indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by
(Gorjestani 2002)
In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic
Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household
incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted
to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not
properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were
destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied
gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant
increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green
manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to
reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani
2002)
In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk
and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose
by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local
farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work
35
Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200
households in 65 villages
The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce
technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training
institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous
institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned
resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the
importance of community involvement in local solutions
26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation
In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or
damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is
reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the
survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)
According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300
million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and
cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic
approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for
forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap
strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure
indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local
36
communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their
knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been
involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed
their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)
In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the
South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous
people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the
unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The
indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away
from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were
destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima
amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)
A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development
of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge
System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The
programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities
to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges
Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective
governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local
knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to
Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights
methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is
37
still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western
knowledge (Ngulube 2002)
It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small
scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is
more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local
knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation
strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and
national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ
preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous
medicinal practises
It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous
knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on
indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional
medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like
malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical
companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture
of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily
on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief
Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic
needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of
Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported
out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some
38
Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and
protection of biodiversity
Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are
found in Table 21
Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa
Country Application
Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into
sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation
agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted
from generation to generation
Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The
knowledge is passed down from generation to generation
Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and
burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes
away
Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region
were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and
Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural
crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering
accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a
local language called Bambara
Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are
secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of
39
the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating
hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a
special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to
contract and to expel blood clots
South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried
mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are
inhaled through the mouth
Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the
fields to prevent soil degradation
Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of
ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease
Source Dlamini 2005
In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of
society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their
environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to
use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo
people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these
plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake
bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving
as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)
Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per
cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical
infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people
40
rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important
aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality
In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine
practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional
medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when
compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is
120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly
found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more
reasonable option for the rural people
As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances
local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts
of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional
techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally
available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation
and building on the patterns and processes of nature
In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent
of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000
to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic
practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-
billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala
20084)
41
27 Conclusion
Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people
throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of
the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were
also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous
knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable
development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the
application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa
42
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA
31 Introduction
Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges
facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge
available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa
The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries
cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the
health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing
It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective
ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural
communities and future generations
32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture
Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked
collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-
sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its
powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous
communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994
indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)
43
During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in
Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods
which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which
are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous
communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation
(Matenge et al 2011)
Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the
livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated
that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional
agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which
contributed towards better food security
Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology
usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately
modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South
Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous
farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel
owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural
activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga
(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start
ploughing and sowing
44
Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have
gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions
They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite
accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance
which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation
after generation
Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers
in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind
of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the
English translation
Table 31 Classification of different types of rain
Sepedi (local language) English
Pula yakgogolamooko First rain
Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail
Modupi Soft and very desirable rain
Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction
Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction
Borwa A cool rain coming from the south
Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)
Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms
and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-
million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia
45
Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in
Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the
Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people
stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)
The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for
many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-
bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of
Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly
affected during the mopane worm season
Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content
of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it
has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent
protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)
Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated
from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of
warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to
release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes
After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is
repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs
are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat
the bugs raw or cooked with porridge
46
Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed
Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they
dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still
widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried
meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo
Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is
a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa
has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of
trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary
source of income for many people
Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good
source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore
perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects
are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo
Leader Spring 2006)
Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at
the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm
and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted
resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms
valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African
47
silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the
building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)
Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but
over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability
Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they
are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof
Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a
yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)
According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000
square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it
could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is
also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for
rural people
Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is
bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)
33 Indigenous knowledge in health
In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines
was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative
therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft
Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970
48
banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of
traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their
knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al
2007208)
Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an
annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority
for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban
areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for
many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor
households
At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because
they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or
because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties
and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it
defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs
incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies
manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well
being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)
Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important
resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and
economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of
49
diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites
headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others
It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the
treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory
diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)
Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been
lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous
plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is
focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally
Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not
strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)
Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African
economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of
traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade
contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or
traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous
plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines
are still more affordable than Western medicine
It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by
Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal
plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to
50
areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented
them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects
the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the
other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that
the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent
between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male
circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences
Research Council 20091)
The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector
usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32
provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional
healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant
harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same
income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done
through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers
Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional
medicines industry of South Africa
Role player Estimated number in the business Average income
(Rand) per partaker
Traditional healer
diviner herbalist
prophets
6 8000- fulltime healers
20 0000 - include all traditional healers
in South Africa
3 8491
51
Street trader 3 000 7 941
Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do
business on the streets
7 941
Source Mander et al 2007
As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers
Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of
South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of
alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of
preservation qualification and accreditation
Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa
traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To
address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test
products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain
and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)
Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007
Province Total
Gauteng 61 465
Mpumalanga 57 524
KwaZulu-Natal 25 430
Free State 22 645
Eastern Cape 10 780
52
Limpopo 7 366
North West 5 935
Western Cape 2 600
Northern Cape 2 221
Total 185 477
Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi
2009)
Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the
daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in
South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources
including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species
are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South
Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity
Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also
make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger
200979)
Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for
food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while
26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional
which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal
properties
53
In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)
shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of
South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in
muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open
access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi
markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in
Table 34
Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo
South Africa
Scientific name Frequency of
species traded
()
Part
used
Total amount in
16 muthi shops
(kg)
Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308
Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245
Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967
Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940
Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267
Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247
Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935
Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774
Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011
The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the
Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a
54
slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education
widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the
land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional
properties of various plants in their environment
The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites
during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It
has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause
irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels
In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the
hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in
the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )
A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected
extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites
accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The
CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an
ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by
1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$
yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely
scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The
CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has
entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people
55
The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is
another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The
Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different
medicinal plants
According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million
South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700
indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also
known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species
The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a
beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other
beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel
1997)
Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not
yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different
ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have
aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as
medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush
teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people
chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people
boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it
56
34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering
Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social
behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort
(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or
label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its
eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities
which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures
it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates
that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older
person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the
oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the
expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)
Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where
oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure
that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and
traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce
excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and
furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered
heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion
The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great
deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures
by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The
57
Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study
Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive
baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of
sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as
beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea
markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the
economy (Nettleton 201060)
According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets
ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that
are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa
have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain
storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with
lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)
The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to
create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable
indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective
in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its
meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous
groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings
58
Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The
challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small
amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the
cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of
this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous
knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop
indigenous crafts
35 Conclusion
South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of
poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in
order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa
have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other
communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted
preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge
can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible
healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people
having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with
indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully
explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to
promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into
the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge
policy and framework
59
CHAPTER 4
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
41 Introduction
The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a
result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities
experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South
Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has
resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and
development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard
all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted
the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New
Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge
system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished
continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)
South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual
property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some
countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding
their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology
(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on
indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free
60
education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla
200729)
Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of
indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of
indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its
preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in
many African countries (Msuya 20074)
This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of
indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property
rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes
the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy
42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge
Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen
as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever
government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla
200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is
essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities
Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some
government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key
61
ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the
participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play
an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity
reasoning of policy
Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and
recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to
realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring
about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous
knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and
exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates
the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural
communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for
indigenous knowledge
Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge
Political commitment on indigenous knowledge
Preservation of indigenous knowledge
Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge
Copyright and patent issues
Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it
Use of indigenous knowledge
Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge
In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing
protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to
62
understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are
connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the
protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and
Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the
society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or
companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical
performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo
Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people
have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over
the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property
rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at
an international level through legally binding treaties
Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a
result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while
developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is
communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult
to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)
Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative
sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft
sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and
63
eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial
benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)
Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge
Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus
on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the
preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council
2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are
in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several
countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among
themselves
Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different
agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements
were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These
include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)
TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO
agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with
trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement
The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to
64
developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities
(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access
to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard
for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise
and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe
199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the
UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty
needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the
sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights
of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural
identity (Mugabe 199925)
43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy
Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a
policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999
The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and
research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory
measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the
DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on
formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge
policy
65
431 Department of Arts and Culture
The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with
encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and
tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of
Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the
Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local
As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South
Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of
social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The
policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural
diversity during apartheid
Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression
which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to
redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise
all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected
and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge
by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the
value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department
of Science and Technology 200519)
It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social
imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and
remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions
66
expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next
Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and
documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that
reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established
(Department of Trade Industry 2008)
432 Department of Trade and Industry
The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being
exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered
protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are
various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual
property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African
context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis
legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved
in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents
Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a
positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a
model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)
433 Department of Health
Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a
source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive
contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while
67
knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a
hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of
benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of
NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that
give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to
preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the
benefits
The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly
recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to
ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The
purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a
national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over
registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and
Technology 200518)
434 Department of Science and Technology
The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting
indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge
report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is
committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing
indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge
adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate
for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive
68
various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at
organisations such as the National Research Foundation
Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm
recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because
of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of
Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the
identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology
(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous
knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of
globalisation
As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos
development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions
towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of
African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different
cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One
of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of
self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must
ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a
commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture
language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)
69
Development of services provided by traditional healers
Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa
making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South
Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As
indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the
practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks
safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available
also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The
Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system
The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the
Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional
Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the
constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement
The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety
and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management
and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners
It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in
violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing
At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such
as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the
circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South
70
Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos
Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)
Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy
Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in
the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has
been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the
lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role
in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir
for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems
Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national
laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and
Development linear model of innovation
Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge
system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge
to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to
the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms
promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous
knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology
200528)
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems
Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create
new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale
71
of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is
therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge
The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable
cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South
African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing
framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures
minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous
knowledge research
Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous
knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds
wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a
good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to
innovation
Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has
contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is
adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to
appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology
sector
While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant
methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various
learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many
72
years Western context has influenced the South African education and development
policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the
educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not
only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous
knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning
The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous
knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST
enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology
strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as
specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science
and Technology 200528)
In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At
the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0
76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds
(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in
addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as
the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty
In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous
knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance
of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the
various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems
The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous
73
knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the
follows
The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed
under the DST
The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to
advise the ministers
The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge
systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights
Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional
framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous
knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced
with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the
rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play
a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information
Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the
NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the
National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual
Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous
knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)
Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from
growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an
indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges
74
the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and
bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to
organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the
project
Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of
funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of
these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and
international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding
indigenous knowledge are
To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous
communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and
technologies
Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural
industries that cater for rural areas in particular
Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to
local communities
Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous
knowledge centres studies and laboratories
Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers
and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills
In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous
knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to
75
enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative
framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued
that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by
their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in
terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights
As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of
understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no
function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently
using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents
neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and
geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of
indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and
socially achieved
While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is
important there is a time limit to ownership
Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy
for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous
knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos
indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous
knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local
communities
76
Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge
systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge
holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge
systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)
The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will
serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge
systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to
promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to
develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to
provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training
for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and
Technology 200530)
In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective
mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems
practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous
knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved
and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to
conduct and develop indigenous knowledge
However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous
knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available
regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this
77
study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving
indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library
service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department
of Science and Technology 200533)
Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community
information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes
community participation in empowering the community through preservation
However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore
libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment
Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record
and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous
and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one
person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law
Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of
indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording
using technology instruments such as video recording and others
At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including
abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from
the past The next chapter will focus more on this
It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its
ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners
78
Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure
that it is successfully preserved
Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local
communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current
policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and
there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems
Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights
while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective
policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain
their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against
indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal
The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous
knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the
policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must
legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms
recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of
rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort
has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of
indigenous knowledge
79
54 Conclusion
After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that
government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous
knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The
implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of
indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge
in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous
communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge
collectively
80
CHAPTER 5
MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
51 Introduction
Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from
getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous
knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is
also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices
(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep
alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through
specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by
keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on
passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp
Miruka 200990)
It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous
knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into
contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community
development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)
81
This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge
systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums
libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established
and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge
52 Indigenous knowledge centres
A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading
national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in
1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and
universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which
new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered
The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of
South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal
medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous
knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent
applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health
benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)
82
The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised
database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants
remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard
materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology
plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous
knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Communication 2007)
The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous
knowledge centres should follow to include
Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect
document and distribute information on various components of indigenous
knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment
and so forth
Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable
methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap
and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor
Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary
research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including
knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence
on indigenous knowledge systems
Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres
should be promoted
83
Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical
assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge
53 Museums
Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language
culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable
resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous
knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public
money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage
of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of
Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online
2012)
The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of
indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs
with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the
mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people
It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with
human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal
plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial
(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their
consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)
84
In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the
public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as
their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San
peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also
accessible to the public
However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from
the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry
Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include
rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections
Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an
alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and
protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations
In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked
However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that
every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for
museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in
the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a
Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South
African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as
a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England
85
According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large
buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display
throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both
inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris
displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a
ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie
Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial
Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African
History Online 20111)
Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics
and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at
Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study
collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South
Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a
new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online
20111)
54 Laboratories
Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in
various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many
more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for
researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in
line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development
86
The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and
Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In
2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF
of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for
the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource
development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity
to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55
million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of
research equipment (Cherry 20101)
The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces
innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been
involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from
indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge
that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new
herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in
collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles
were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant
Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication
2007)
The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the
custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of
indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together
87
towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa
(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)
55 Libraries
Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional
cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have
generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving
indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals
to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection
organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)
Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have
positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21
and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed
that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks
and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation
of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)
Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly
and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important
process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs
different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species
The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and
Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have
established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which
88
commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the
foundation of indigenous knowledge systems
According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous
Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and
teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous
knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific
areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including
languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green
magazine 2010)
Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local
communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations
(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express
knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends
libraries and archives to do the following
It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and
disseminates indigenous knowledge resources
Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research
and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society
The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be
involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to
understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the
indigenous knowledge system
89
Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to
indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people
56 Knowledge management model
When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is
important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge
Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by
indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities
(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be
preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if
indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become
static and redundant
The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems
store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by
going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology
music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving
indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to
be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a
good opportunity to refine it and renew it
Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge
systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated
90
in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing
retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of
individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the
community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the
first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models
are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can
also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the
Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports
libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa
needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa
is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural
collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In
this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture
will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that
comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube
amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it
should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the
indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture
91
Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated
with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which
have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe
Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to
create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product
development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)
It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because
the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous
knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model
promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural
values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit
knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The
process entails four different modes of conversion
Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with
converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to
show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together
In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous
knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work
experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and
teamwork (Hong 2010)
92
Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and
internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)
The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of
tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an
organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and
other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit
understanding
The third process called the combination process is the type where members
combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop
strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)
Socialisation
Empathising
Externalisation
Articulating
Embodying
Internalisation
Connecting
Combination
Tacit knowledge
Explicit
knowledge
Tacit
knowledge
Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge
93
If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such
knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the
community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of
common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively
creates a sharing atmosphere
Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the
embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of
self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge
through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental
assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo
The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word
which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed
together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and
a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the
knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge
management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the
knowledge management processes
There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba
and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are
94
Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences
beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is
particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things
especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is
built (socialisation)
Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared
converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images
symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit
(Externalisation)
Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing
knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for
growth and development
Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit
knowledge
According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the
inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his
colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets
to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of
knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a
negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities
Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten
principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp
95
Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge
management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The
principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes
and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is
based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter
The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective
management requires investment of other assets
Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and
technology in complementary ways
Knowledge management requires knowledge managers
It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their
knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which
will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes
(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the
Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in
formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on
knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)
96
57 Conclusion
This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South
Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management
provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and
in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries
and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that
government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local
needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded
access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and
other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering
with communities
The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous
knowledge system in South Africa
97
CHAPTER 6
CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
61 Introduction
The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing
requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction
(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that
concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge
Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the
discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring
the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu
20084)
This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and
preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we
can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path
to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous
knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the
next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several
challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge
Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution
and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives
98
62 Challenges of management and preservation
621 Lack of taxonomists
Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of
organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the
variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four
tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem
diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are
as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen
as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)
There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new
and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification
classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be
preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific
names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have
always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species
that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)
Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has
encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy
positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it
can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000
botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)
99
stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous
knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology
and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge
(Raphesu 20085)
622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions
Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for
agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the
usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)
The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-
economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance
of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that
explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer
Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution
in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This
has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger
generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South
African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique
indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has
made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was
reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access
100
623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities
The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it
difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous
knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different
parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor
indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge
is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and
information centres
National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the
documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge
Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous
knowledge
624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of
individuals
Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the
profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in
particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products
for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was
tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an
individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and
documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not
want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for
knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)
101
63 Conclusion
Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels
the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of
proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals
and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges
facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa
Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of
indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to
promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the
potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing
information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much
more
The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the
study
102
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
71 Introduction
This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to
different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as
for future research on the subject
72 Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge
preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the
theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available
in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of
preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main
findings are
The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in
different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and
traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several
fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-
economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because
the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this
103
knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast
growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research
activities etc
In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available
to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries
museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible
mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present
libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model
thus their services currently only caters for the elite
Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National
Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition
only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities
Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous
knowledge studies
Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more
attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is
crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is
a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which
was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In
addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the
needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for
104
policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and
initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation
72 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this
study makes the following recommendations
Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social
interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure
that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to
generation
Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow
of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such
as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage
and share their indigenous knowledge
To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories
and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information
are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All
bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and
databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will
achieve sustainable development
105
All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have
indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be
obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information
centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in
the preservation of indigenous knowledge
Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation
and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous
knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement
of traditional healers but should include farmers and others
There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC
and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in
facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not
only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual
Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in
order for various indigenous species to be preserved
It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels
are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and
documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder
such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute
the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful
106
Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it
was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time
and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the
geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the
researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would
have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview
of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation
and its importance as a development tool
107
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ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of
linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of
YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33
AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and
scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of
Development and Change 26 413-439
AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical
comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41
AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss
Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11
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110
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115
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