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MARINE STRUCTURES ENGINEERING: SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS
MARINE SlHUCTURES ENGINEERING: SPECIALilEO APPLICATIONS
Gregory P. Tsinker, Ph.D.,P.E.
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
The intent ofthis book is to provide information that the author(s) have generated or obtained from other sources that are considered to be reliable. No presumption is made to guarantee the accuracy or the completeness of the information or its appropriateness to solve any given engineering or scientific problem. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as granting a license, expressed or implied, under any patents. The supplying of this information does not constitute a rendering of engineering or other professional services and neither the author(s) nor any person named herein nor Chapman & Hali shall be held liable for any omissions, errors, or damages resulting from the application of the material and information contained in this book.
Cover photo courtesy of: Port Autonome de Nantes/St. Nazaire (Photo: A. Bouquel) Cover design: Edgar Blakeney
Copyright © 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1995 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1995
IQ;lP The ITP lega is a trademark under license
Ali rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher.
1 2 345 67 8 9 10 XXX OI 00 99 98 97 96 95
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tsinker, Gregory P. Marine structures engineering : specialized applications I Gregory P. Tsinker.
p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-5865-7 ISBN 978-1-4615-2081-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2081-8 1. Harbors-Design and construction. 2. Ocean engineering.
1. Title. TC205.T75 1994 627'.2-dc20
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available
94-30074 CIP
To dear mother with all my love
Preface
Introduction
Contributors
Contents
1 THE DOCK-IN-SERVICE: EVALUATION OF LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY, REPAIR, REHABILITATION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Deterioration of Structural Materials in a Marine Environment
1.2.1 The Marine Environment 2 1.2.2 Concrete Deterioration in the Marine Environment 5 1.2.3 Corrosion of Steel in the Marine Environment 17 1.2.4 Timber Degradation in the Marine Environment 23
1.3 Damages Attributed to Dock Operation
1.3.1 Physical Damage to the Structure by Vessel and/or Cargo Handling Systems 27
1.3.2 Propeller-Induced Scour 28
1.4 Cost-Effective Approach to Evaluation of the Dock-in-Service
1.4.1 Inspection 39 1.4.2 Engineering Evaluation 47 1.4.3 Structure RepairlRehabilitation 50
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1
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viii Contents
1.5 Rehabilitation of Distressed Soil-Retaining Structures 77
1.5.1 Soil Replacement 77 1.5.2 Use of Slabs and Piled Platforms for Reduction of the Soil Pressure 80
1.6 Scour Protection 84
1.6.1 Geotextiles 85 1.6.2 Rip-Rap 87 1.6.3 Concrete Blocks 88 1.6.4 Gabions 91 1.6.5 Precast Concrete Slabs 95 1.6.6 Fabric Containers Filled with Concrete 95 1.6.7 Deflectors 97
References
2 MARINE STRUCTURES IN COLD REGIONS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Ice Covers
2.2.1 Ice Microstructure and Morphology 107 2.2.2 Ice Formation 108 2.2.3 Sea Ice Characteristics (Parameters of Importance) 110 2.2.4 Mechanical Properties 113
97
105
105
107
2.3 Ice--Structure Interaction: Typical Problems and Practical Examples 123
2.3.1 General 123 2.3.2 Port of Anchorage, Alaska 124 2.3.3 Wharf at Godthab, Greenland 128 2.3.4 Wharf at Nanisivik, Baffin Island 129 2.3.5 Offshore Oil Loading Terminal in Cook Inlet, Alaska 131 2.3.6 Caps Noirs Wharf, Quebec 135
2.4 Ice Forces on Structures 136
2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.4.7 2.4.8 2.4.9 2.4.10
General 136 Environmental Driving Forces 138 Ice Crushing Load 139 Loads Due to Ice Buckling Mode of Failure 143 Horizontal and Vertical Loads Due to Ice Bending Mode of Failure Forces Due to Adfreeze Mode of Failure 148 Load Due to Ice Splitting Mode of Failure 149 Ice Load on Multilegged. Structures 150 Ice Load of Thermal Origin 154 Icing 155
143
Contents Ix
2.4.11 Dynamic Ice Forces 15B 2.4.12 Ice-Induced Vibration of Structures 163
2.5 Harbor Operation: Basic Design Considerations
2.5.1 General 164 2.5.2 Site Selection 166 2.5.3 Subsurface Investigation 167 2.5.4 Layout 169 2.5.5 Effects of Vessel Operation on Ice Growth in the Ship Track 170 2.5.6 Effects of Ice Buildup Due to Tidal Action 173 2.5.7 Effect of Harbor Operation 174
2.6 Ice Control
2.6.1 General 174 2.6.2 Icebreaking 174 2.6.3 Ice Suppression 175 2.6.4 Ice Diversion 17B 2.6.5 Ice Removal and Disposal 1B1 2.6.6 Ice Management in a Berthing Zone 1B1 2.6.7 Environmental Aspects of Ice Control Management 1BB 2.6.8 Ice Control (Management) Selection Criteria 1BB
2.7 Dock Structure: Design Considerations
2.7.1 Loading 190 2.7.2 Foundation Design 191 2.7.3 Earthworks 192 2.7.4 Piles in Permafrost 195 2.7.5 Structural Materials 196
2.8 Design Aspects
2.8.1 General 200 2.8.2 Structures 201 2.8.3 Dock Fendering 203 2.8.4 Basic Design Principles 204
164
174
190
200
2.9 Marine Structures in Cold Regions: Some Characteristic Case Histories 205
2.9.1 Gravity-Type Structures 205 2.9.2 Piled Structures 210 2.9.3 Single-Point Moorings 214 2.9.4 Offshore Terminals in Moving Ice 21B
References 222
x Contents
3 SHIPLIFTS, MARINE RAILWAYS, SHIPWAYS, AND DRY (GRAVING) DOCKS (by B. K. Mazurkiewicz)
3.1 General Information on Shipbuilding and Ship Repair Yards
3.1.1 Shipyard Layout: Basic Design Considerations 240 3.1.2 Shipyard Main Structures: General Specifications 242
3.2 Shiplifts
3.2.1 General 245 3.2.2 Platforms 248 3.2.3 Hoists 250 3.2.4 Hydraulically Operated Shiplifts 250 3.2.5 Design 251 3.2.6 Horizontal Ship Transfer System 256
3.3 Marine Railways
3.3.1 Function and Main Parameters 260 3.3.2 Structural Design and Construction Aspects 265
3.4 Shipways
3.4.1 Functions and Main Parameters 268 3.4.2 Structural Design and Construction of Longitudinal and
Transverse Shipways 276
3.5 Dry
3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 3.5.6 3.5.7 3.5.8
(Graving) Docks
Functions, Types, and Main Parameters Heavy (Gravity) Dry Docks 284 Anchored Dry Docks 287 Drainage Dry Docks 290 Mechanical Equipment 295 Gates 298 Cranes 302 Structural Design 305
References
4 OFFSHORE MOORINGS (by J. R. Headland)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Offshore Mooring Systems
4.3 Mooring System Components
4.3.1 Anchors 314
281
240
240
245
260
268
281
309
311
311
311
314
4.3.2 Sinkers 317 4.3.3 Anchor Chains 317 4.3.4 Buoys 318 4.3.5 Mooring Lines or Hawsers 318
4.4 Mooring Design Procedure
4.4.1 Mooring Layout 318 4.4.2 Environmental Site Conditions 318
4.5 Static Wind and Current Loads
4.5.1 Wind Load 322 4.5.2 Current Load 324
4.6 Design of Mooring Components
4.6.1 Selection of Anchor Chain 328 4.6.2 Computation of Chain Length and Tension 329 4.6.3 Some Applications of the Catenary Equations 331 4.6.4 Anchor Design 338
4.7 Loads on Mooring Elements
4.7.1 Static Versus Dynamic Analysis 343 4.7.2 Static Analysis 343 4.7.3 Dynamic Analysis 353
References
5 FLOATING BREAKWATERS (by J. R. Headland)
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Wave Mechanics
5.3 Mechanics of Vibration
5.4 Dynamics of Floating Bodies
5.5 Buoyancy and Stability of Floating Breakwaters
5.6 Prediction of Wave Transmission
5.6.1 Hydraulic Model Tests 379 5.6.2 Simplified Analytical Methods 379 5.6.3 Numerical Models 380 5.6.4 Comparison of Predictive Techniques 384 5.6.5 Computation of Wave Transmission for Irregular Waves 386
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367
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xii Contents
5.7 Prediction of Mooring Forces
5.7.1 Hydraulic Model Tests 388 5.7.2 Simple Analytical Methods 390 5.7.3 Numerical Models 394
5.8 Structural Design of Floating Breakwaters
5.8.1 Hydraulic Model Tests 407 5.8.2 Simplified Methods 407 5.8.3 Numerical Models 409
5.9 Additional Aspects of Design
References
6 MARINAS
6.1 General
6.2 The Environmental Design Process
6.3 Site Selection
6.4 Site Conditions
6.4.1 Weather Factors 421 6.4.2 Ice 423 6.4.3 Waves 424 6.4.4 Tides 425 6.4.5 Currents 426 6.4.6 Shoaling 426 6.4.7 Geotechnical Conditions 428 6.4.8 Sociological Factors 429
6.5 Layout Planning
6.5.1 Objectives and General Principles 429 6.5.2 Entrance Channel 432 6.5.3 Fairways 437 6.5.4 Turning Basin 437 6.5.5 Berth Areas 437 6.5.6 Berth System 439 6.5.7 Floating Pier Design 462 6.5.8 Perimeter Structures 475
388
407
409
409
412
412
415
417
421
429
6.6 Dredging of the Marina Basin: Some Environmental Aspects 483
6.6.1 General 483 6.6.2 Turbidity Created by Dredge and Underwater Disposal 484
6.6.3 Silt Curtain 486 6.6.4 Curtain Design 4B8
6.7 Dry Berths
6.8 Services at Berth
6.8.1 Water Supply 497 6.8.2 Electric Power 497 6.8.3 Lifesaving Apparatus 497 6.8.4 Communication System 497 6.8.5 Fire Fighting 497 6.8.6 Pollution Prevention 498 6.8.7 Navigation Aids, Tide Levels, Draft Marks 498
References
7 BRIDGE PIER PROTECTION FROM SHIP IMPACT
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Risk Analysis of Vessel Collision
7.3 Design Vessel Selection
7.4 Ship Collision Impact Forces
7.5 Pier Protection Alternatives
7.5.1 Large-diameter Sheet-pile Cells 517 7.5.2 Other Protective Systems 532
7.6 Cost-Effectiveness Criteria
References
Index
Contents xiii
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498
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510
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515
536
540
544
Preface
During my long career as a practicing waterfront consultant, considerable progress has occurred in the field of design and construction of port and navigation related marine structures. Progress in port design, and, in particular design of waterfront structures, has been strongly influenced by dramatic changes in vessel sizes and in modes of modern terminal operation. Multipurpose ports have been replaced by more specialized terminals, which result in dramatic effects on both the design of berth structures and layout of the terminal. Furthermore, marine structures for various purposes have been developed using new design and construction principles, and operation of these structures have been significantly improved by the introduction of new and better fendering systems, and efficient mooring accessories. New and better structural materials have also been introduced. For example, modern concrete technology now enables an engineer to use durable high-strength concrete, highly resistant to deterioration in harsh marine environments. New and better repair procedures and rehabilitation techniques for port structures have also been introduced.
xiv
Progress in development of new marine structures and modernization of existing structures was based on advances in analytical design methods as well as on results of numerous scale-model tests and field studies conducted allover the world. Today, marine structure design is a unique discipline in the field of civil engineering that is based on the use of highly advanced methods of soil foundation investigation and thorough understanding of the principles of soil interaction in the marine environment.
During recent years sophisticated computational procedures and mathematical models have been developed and used for design of various marine structures. It must be stressed, however, that in many cases the diverse and complex geology at various port locations results in a wide variety of geotechnical environments. Such conditions require a careful approach to the selection of structure type and use of the appropriate design method, which should not necessarily be highly sophisticated. It is a misconception that the sophisticated computer analyses, with their greater accuracy, will automatically lead to better design. Despite the highly
sophisticated analytical methods available today, the marine structural designer must be aware that the design is not merely a stress analysis process. The use of computers has not diminished the value of some hand calculations. In fact, many questions about marine structure engineering are best answered with simple, often empirically based, but practical formulas.
Computers have revolutionized the process of structural engineering and greatly increased productivity of engineering consulting firms. Computer aided analyses are of great help when used in the proper context, for example when modeling of the structure is correct, the real boundary conditions are taken into account, and most of all when the output is examined and interpreted by an experienced engineer.
This work has been conceived as a two part treatise in which I have attempted to provide marine structure designers with state-of-theart information and common sense guidelines to the design of basic types of marine structures associated with port activities.
The total material is presented in two separate volumes. This volume Marine Structures Engineering: Specialized Applications contains seven chapters. It covers important subjects such as evaluation of capacity of the in-service marine structures and methods of their remediation and maintenance (Chapter 1), construction and operation of the marine structures in cold regions with in-depth discussion on ice mechanical properties and ice loads acting on marine structures (Chapter 2), design and construction of marine structures used for construction and repair of vessels (Chapter 3), design of anchored offshore moorings and floating breakwaters (Chapters 4 and 5), design and construction of marinas (small craft harbors) (Chapter 6) and design and construction of the marine structures used in navigable waterways for protecting the bridge piers from ship impact (Chapter 7).
The second volume, which is tentatively titled "Design of Marine Structures," will
Preface xv
be published in 1996. The material included in this volume will contain approximately ten chapters and provide the state-of-the-art information on design of miscellaneous port elements, i.e. breakwaters, port layout, access channel, port entrance and other; structural materials used in a port/harbor construction; and design construction and modernization of gravity type quay walls, sheet pile bulkheads, piled structures and dolphins of miscellaneous designs.
In both books each chapter includes a considerable list of relevant references intended to help the interested reader to study the subject in depth.
I have drawn from about 40 years of my own experience as a marine engineer involved with research and all practical aspects of structural design, construction, and project management. Also, worldwide experience has been examined and the best was included in this work. Subsequently, acknowledgements of material used in this book are given the appropriate places in the text and figures. I wish to extend my deepest gratitude to all the publishers, authors, and organizations from whom material for this work has been drawn.
This volume is not a one-man job. I am deeply indebted to many experienced individuals who have contributed materials and comments to this project. In attempting to make this most helpful and useful I have drawn from sources including the knowledge and experience of my former colleagues at Acres International Limited, who assisted in a variety of ways: Dr. A. Mee contributed information on redundant pier system design included in Chapter 6, Mr. T. Lavender made a number of useful comments on Chapter 2; special gratitude goes to Mr. R. Tanner for his review of a number of chapters and searching criticism and valuable recommendations; Messrs I. Shaw, D. Daw and D. Protulipac dedicated a good deal of their personal time to editing the text. These individuals, of course, are in no way responsible for faults that may remain.
xvi Preface
I would also like to express my gratitude to Ms. M. Mitnick (Moffatt & Nicol, Baltimore office) who assisted with editing the final version of Chapters 4 and 5.
I wish to record my deep gratitude and to acknowledge enjoyable cooperation with Professor B. Mazurkiewicz (Gdansk Polytechnical Institute, Poland) who contributed Chapter 3 and Mr. J. Headland (vice president, Moffatt & Nichol Engineers) who contributed Chapters 4 and 5.
AP, usual my good friend Mr. R. Glusman has helped a lot with preparation of illustrations. My deep gratitude is extended to Ms. L. Dunn, who typed the manuscript and dealt ably with many difficulties in the process. Special thanks go to Sumitomo Rubber Industries, Ltd. for sponsorship of this project. I wish to extend my deepest gratitude to Messrs. M. Shiono and Ed Patrick of Sumitomo Canada for support given this pro-
ject. I also wish to thank my publisher, Chapman & Hall, for cooperation and patience. I hope that a useful contribution to the profession has been made.
Any project of this magnitude requires many months and hundreds of hours of hard work in the evenings, during weekends, and on vacations. It cannot be succesfully completed without tremendous understanding and support from many people, especially one's family. This is why I am especially grateful to my wife Nora for her commitment to leave me alone, undisturbed for many hundreds of hours and for her valuable assistance during preparation of this text. I also extend my gratitude to my grandson Daniel who helped with preparation of a subject index to this work.
GREGORY P. TSINKER
Introduction
In the past 30 to 50 years the worldwide seaborne tonnage has increased dramatically. This has created a strong demand for construction of new and modernization of existing ports and terminals. This process has been strongly influenced by dramatic increases in vessel sizes and in modes of modern terminal operation. During this period of time tankers for crude oil and ore carriers have reached 500000 and 350000 DWT respectively, and the largest container vessels now in use are 50000 to 60000 DWT. In most cases traditional multipurpose ports have been replaced by specialized terminals equipped with specialized technology to handle a certain specific kind of cargo, e.g., crude oil, bulk material, containers and other.
Introduction of new large vessels with side thrusters and bulbous flared bows created an almost unique condition for damaging and undermining of the traditional dock structures. Furthermore, propeller and side thruster induced scour can seriously compromise the integrity of structures constructed upon erodible foundations. In most cases the new cargo handling and hauling equipment that is
required for servICIng of larger vessels is much heavier than that previously used. Essentially, all aforementioned complicates the process of modernization of the existing ports or terminals.
To meet todays requirements the existing marine facilities must be carefully evaluated. Many port-related marine structures such as piers, wharves, and others presently in use were built in the early post-World War II years. Naturally, these older structures were designed for smaller vessels and less sophisicated and lighter cargo handling and hauling technology. Thus, evaluation of the real in-service structural capacity of older docks, as well as methods for their remediation and upgrading, as required to service the new seaborne traffic, is of a paramount importance. Not accidentally the latter has become almost a permanent topic of discussion of different specialty conferences. This subject is broadly discussed in Chapter 1 of this book.
In the past 20 to 30 years significant activities related to the offshore oil and gas exploration fields, in regions with cold climates, have led to a surge in research and
xviii Introduction
engineering practices in the field of navigation in ice and construction of port facilities in the ice laden waters. Some of the common problems featured in the ice affected waterways and harbors are as follows: accelerated formation of ice in ship traffic lines, blockage of the open traffic lines by wind-driven ice features, damage of navigation aids by ice, ice growth and its adherence to marine structures, ice formation in berthing area, ice buildup on marine structures due to water spray, and others. The principal solution to the above problems is usually referred to as 'ice control' and/or 'ice management'. Naturally, the behavior and cost of marine structures operating in the ice-affected waters are greatly influenced by ice global or local loads. Hence, ice-structure interaction must be properly understood by the structure designer.
Additionally, in cold regions the marine structure designers usually have to deal with frozen soils, which are referred to as permafrost. Frozen grounds are highly complex in their interaction with structures contructed upon them. Frost/thaw related soil heave and settlement are the principal causes of unacceptable deformation of structures constructed in cold regions. Essentially, this phenomenon must be given proper attention during design process.
Last but not least the cold temperature can greatly affect performance of dock fender systems that are manufactured with rubber components. This must be carefully evaluated and treated with caution. Experience indicates that cold temperature effects upon rubber fenders, as well as effects of the ice buildup on and around fender units, in a great many cases is overlooked by the designers.
The aforementioned problems associated with navigation in ice affected waters and port design and operation in cold regions are discussed in Chapter 2 of this book.
Shipyards engaged with construction of a new and/or repair of vessels in-service include miscellaneous marine structures that allow
complete dry access to a vessel for maintenance, overhaul, and repairs or for new construction and launching. These structures are shiplifts, marine railways, shipways and dry docks; they usually provide a means for transferring vessels to and from dry land as required. There are various types of these structures including those that lift the vessel from the water or launch them either by buoyancy force, vertical lift by means of miscellaneous vertical lift systems, or by use of marine railways.
Traditional and new approaches to design, construction and operation of shipyard related marine structures are discussed in Chapter 3 contributed to this book by Professor B. Mazurkiewicz (Gdansk Polytechnical Institute, Poland).
Offshore moorings play a very important role in port operation. They provide temporary or permanent berthing for vessels and for a wide range of port related floating marine structures such as piers, dry docks and other. Vessels are often moored temporarily at offshore moorings while waiting for their turn to be serviced at the berth. Tankers can be moored at offshore moorings during oil transfer operation.
Depending on their proposed use the offshore moorings can be of either single-point or multi-points designs. The offshore moorings design procedure is presented in Chapter 4. This chapter was written by Mr. J. R. Headland who is vice president for Moffat & Nichol and is current manager of this company office in Baltimore, Maryland. The material presented in Chapter 4 is based in part on the U.S. Navy's Design Manual "Offshore Moorings, Basic Criteria and Planning Guidelines" DM 26.5 which has been prepared by Mr. Headland, formerly the Technical Consultant for the U.S. Navy. It should be pointed out that the guidelines as are given in DM 26.5 are based on the static analyses approach to design of offshore moorings. In Chapter 4 Mr. Headland extended the standard design procedure further by developing
methods for dynamic analysis of offshore moorings.
Mr. J. Headland is also responsible for contributing Chapter 5, "Floating Breakwaters". These breakwaters are gaining popularity for protecting water areas exposed to moderate waves, e.g., Hw:::; 2 m, where Hw = wave height. They are particularly attractive where deep water makes construction of the conventional breakwaters cost prohibitive. In this chapter the guidelines for both static and dynamic analyses of floating breakwaters are presented.
Detailed discussions on design and construction of marinas that are sometimes referred to as small-craft marinas, or smallcraft harbors is presented in Chapter 6. Construction of millions of small craft or pleasure boats worldwide during 1980s resulted in a strong demand for marinas. Many small-craft harbors have been built during the last two decades, and it is obvious that many more will be built in the future. In recent years, however, some marina developments have been curtailed by environmental groups and local residents concerned with the effects of large-scale marinas on the quality of environment, such as water pollution, visual pollution, noise, destruction of wildlife habitat and others. More stringent regulations concerning environmental impact of construction and operation of small craft
Introduction xix
marinas have been implemented. Chapter 6 emphasizes importance of the environmental design process for successful completion of marina design and construction. The material presented in this chapter enables the marina developer to design efficient, costeffective facility. Part of the material included in this chpater, namely subsection 6.5.7.2 "Redundant Pier Systems" is contributed by Dr. A. Mee (Acres International Ltd.).
In the past three decades inland waterways navigation has been marked by catastrophic ship bridge pier collisions, resulting in a heavy structural damage and loss of human lives. In the period 1965 to 1994, an average of one catastrophic accident per year involving bridge collision by vessels have been recorded worldwide. More than half of these bridge collisions occurred in the United States. The bridge collision phenomenon has been subject of numerous publications and discussions which took place elsewhere in the world. The basic conclusions and recommendations drawn from the existing literature on a subject matter are presented in Chapter 7. This chapter covers state-of-the-art approach and provides basic guidelines to the design of marine structures installed in navigable channels for protection of bridges from collision with vessels.
Mr. John R. Headland Vice President Moffatt & Nichol Engineers 2809 Boston Street Suite 6 Baltimore, Maryland 21224 USA
Contributors
Professor B. K. Mazurkiewicz Technical University of Gdansk ul Majakowskiego 11/12 PL 80-952 Gdansk Poland
Dr. All. Mee Project Engineer for Acres International Ltd. 5259 Dorchester Road Niagara Falls, Ontario Canada L2E 6W1