Post on 11-May-2020
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LITERATURE REVIEW
The contribution as well as the role of women both for the well-being of
the family and the development of a nation is pivotal. But illiteracy,
inequality, gender bias and sexual exploitation in a male dominated society
build serious blocks in their road to empowerment. Further, women without
independent resources are highly vulnerable to poverty. Therefore, all the
poverty alleviation programmes should essentially focus on women as they are
economically more disadvantaged than men. Accordingly women
empowerment is seen as an expansion of choice and action which ensures an
increase in their authority and control over the resources and decisions that
affect their life. Empowerment is a process of increasing awareness, capacity
building, acquiring greater decision making power and greater participation in
socio-political process. In view of the above facts, the government has taken a
conscious view to make adequate provisions in its policies and programmes
through which it is to be ensured that all the women in the country are
empowered and they become the active participants in the development
process. There are numerous schemes, programmes and models for the
enrichment of the conditions of women. The concept of Self-Help Group
(SHG) is one such model which produced significant success in empowering
the poor and the disempowered women. The very idea of SHG was developed
by Prof.MuhammedYunus of Chittagong University in Bangladesh in 1975.
In India, NABARD initiated SHGs in 1986-87 and the process got accelerated
only after 1991-92, following the linkage of SHGs with banks. The basic
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principles of SHGs are : group approach, mutual trust, organization of small
and manageable groups, group cohesiveness, spirit of thrift, demand based
lending, collateral free and women friendly loans, peer group pressure in
repayment, skill training, capacity building and empowerment Through micro
finance movement, the SHGs facilitated the empowerment of women at the
grass root level.
Review of earlier studies
Lawrence and Franklin (1990) in an article on socio- political participation and
’black’ empowerment opine that when ‘blacks’ hold positions of political power
they are more active and participate at higher rates than ‘whites’ of comparable
socio-economic status. This conclusion is based on the finding that
empowerment leads to higher levels of political knowledge and that it leads to a
more engaged (i.e. trusting and valuable) orientation to politics
Rajamma (1993) in her study relating to empowerment through Income
Generating Projects, in Madhugiri Taluk of Tumkur District in Karnataka
State points out that the Income Generating Project has increased Women’s
access to and control over the factors of production. Women started with the
traditional activities and slowly they showed interest and confidence in taking
up non-traditional employment like brick making (which was usually done by
men), running of food co-operative, construction of smokeless stoves and
construction of low cost latrines. Over the years, the positive changes within
the community are very obvious. Although it is a very slow process, the
women of Madhugiri taluk are steadily changing the system and in the process
of improving community life.
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Kalpagum (1994) in his study related to labour and gender states that women
employed in the informal sector are viewed as vulnerable and this
vulnerability is reinforced by their continued presence in that sector.
Karl (1995) in his book entitled “Women and Employment, Participation and
decision making” opines that empowerment of women involves different
interrelated and mutually reinforcing components: collective awareness and
capacity building, skill development, participation and greater control over
decision making and action to bring about gender equality.
Jeffrey and Frederick (1996) in their article explore the benefits and harm
associated with role, reward, process and governance empowerment and
makes recommendations for minimizing the harm while maximizing the
benefit. According to them, the move towards empowerment is revolutionary
as it may be in the practice of raising a number of significant ethical and moral
issues because some people gain while others lose in this empowerment
process. Empowerment may assume several distinctive forms such as role
empowerment, reward empowerment, process empowerment and governance
empowerment. Role empowerment refers to arrangements that give workers
more discretion over their own work. Reward empowerment implies workers
greater discretion in assessing the quality of their own performances and
allocating corresponding privileges and benefits. By process empowerment,
employees usually work through groups and gain opportunities to affect the
design of organizational processes themselves. Governance empowerment
refers to arrangements that allow workers greater participation in and
influence upon the overall direction of organizations.
Sarala Gopalan (1997) in her article titled “Empowerment of women, a case of
Andhra Pradesh” identifies the factors responsible for women empowerment,
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argues that over and above the literacy level, knowledge and awareness put
great pressure on empowerment. According to her, group formation is vital
for collective strength and access to information.
Anuradha Sharma (1998) in her study argues that women’s most durable
contribution to nation building begins at home, though it doesn’t end then. It
is imperative that customs, traditions, rituals, values and attitudes which view
and treat women as inferior and less desirable than men should be discarded
and changed.
Mohini Giri(1998) in her article titled “Emancipation and empowerment of
women” talk about the different strategies adopted to empower women and
classify it into 3 broad categories viz-integrated development approach,
economic approach and consciousness rising cum organizing approach. In the
first approach the assumption is that women’s disempowerment is due to their
lack of education, low economic status, lack of access to resources and low
decision-making power. The second approach is based on the assumption that
economic intervention is considered necessary because of their low economic
status and consequent dependence. The third approach presumes that
empowerment can be achieved through awareness.
Sen Gupta (1998) in his paper titled “Empowerment : A Socio-psychological
approach to Self Help Groups Formation” claims that empowerment of the
deprived begins with their ability to voice their opinion through the process of
consensuses politics and dialogue backed up by access to education,
information, organization, employment and credit.
Sushama (1998) in an article on women empowerment argues that empowerment
process helps women to change other women’s consciousness in the following
ways.
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1) By altering their self-image and their beliefs about their rights and
capabilities.
2) By creating awareness of gender discrimination
3) By challenging the sense of inferiority that has been imprinted on
them since birth and recognizing the true value of their labour and
contribution to the family, society and economy.
She identifies 3 stages in the realization of women empowerment. In the
first stage, women learn to analyze the given situation and in the process the
fear gradually turns into an understanding. In the second stage, women can
experience the change,acquire the courage to protest against injustice and in
the third stage, with much self-confidence women attain a more mature state
of realization which creates a learning spirit among them.
Andre Beteille (1999) in an article relating to empowerment points out that the
most deep-rooted forms of inequality, built into the structure of traditional
Indian society are those based on caste and on gender. The disabilities due to
caste and due to gender were discussed and justified more elaborately in the
traditional literature of the Hindus. But similar disabilities were present
among other religious groups as well and these traditional disabilities were
social and not just economic. These deep-routed ideas of purity and pollution
governed the social standings of different castes and sexes and men and
women were deemed to be of unequal moral worth. The law has now
changes; social attitudes have also changed though to a much smaller extent.
Despite the changes, women and persons of inferior caste continue to suffer
from many disadvantages. India’s antiquated and ponderous social hierarchy
is markedly at odds with its present political system.
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Suseela Gopalan (1999) in her study relating to empowerment of women
through education and employment points out that discrimination adversely
affect the status of women and for increasing the status, prime importance
should be given to alleviation of discrimination. Empowerment of women
with too many opportunities is highly essential for discarding discrimination.
She further notes that the status of women is a not always influenced by high
literacy rates.
Pattanaik (2000) in an article on women welfare and social development
argues that women are the vital human infrastructure and their empowerment -
economic educational, social and political – would hasten the pace of social
development. Investing in women’s capabilities and empowering them to
achieve their ‘choices’ and ‘opportunities’ is the surest way to contribute to
economic growth and overall development.
Nayan and Borkakoty (2000) in a study conducted among the women
entrepreneurs in Assam to find out the impact of EDP strongly argue that
women can be the vital agents of change. Trained women can able to manage
and reap the benefits of different schemes.
John Sommer (2001) in a study relating to the empowerment of the oppressed
suggests that the corner stones of improving the livelihood of women are
organizing them, building the assets of the poor and building capacity that
enables them to control their own affairs and ensuring ‘social security’ defined
in the Indian context
Rao (2001) in his book entitled “Empowering rural women” try to analyze the
role of SHGs in empowering rural women by conducting a study in A.P and
Karnataka by taking 240 members from 48 Women Dairy Co –operative
Societies. He gives stress to the view that SHG’s led credit delivery system
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has down seeds for a self-reliant economy inculcating a business culture
among rural women. It also develops concern for community development and
brings social and economic mobility among poor women.
Shalu Nigam (2001) in his study discloses the factors which break the
traditional family structure. They are consumerism, migration, urbanization,
liberalization and the like socio-economic changes, which led to apparent evils
of insecurity, domestic violence and increased rates of divorce. Empowerment
of society and enrichment of the family can be accomplished only through
empowering women.
Baruah (2002) in his article titled “Women: Vital Resource” opines that women
must realized their hidden potentials and should participate actively in policy
formulation and implementation, which help them to contribute their maximum
in the development process. He identifies 4four factors viz– individual,
organizational, societal and cultural – which hinders the advancement of
women.
Narin and Anju (2002) in their paper titled ‘Finding to groups- Is it
worthwhile?” recognizes the importance of group finance which provides self–
reliance and security among borrowers. They find that the group finance
improves borrower participation, financial responsibility and encourage them
to undertake group activities in areas other than credit. The group members
develop increased confidence and particularly for women, the process leads to
social empowerment.
Sujit and Ghosh(2002) in their study in Namoor block of the Birhum district in
the state of West Bengal state that even after introduction of massive poverty
eradication programmes like IRDP, the conditions of the female headed
households did not improve much. Further, only economic measures alone
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can’t eliminate all the evils; they should be supplemented by social actions
also for alleviating deprivation of female headed households.
Reddy (2002) in his paper titled “Empowering women through self-help
groups and Micro-credit. The case of NIRD Action Research Projects”
affirms his view that the NIRD action research groups, by utilizing micro-
credit as a main intervention have initiated a range of economic and social
development activities which created positive impact on the status of women
in their households and communities. However, in the context of bridging
gaps in gender inequality, increasing attention is being paid to enable women
to become active partners in decision making, implementation and evaluation
of all interventions.
Christabell (2003) in a study among women entrepreneurs opines that work
related training programmes should be arranged by micro financial
institutions. Technical advice for the marketing of products as well as for
quality improvement should be ensured. Proper attention should be given
while designing EDPs so that they should suit the requirements of women
entrepreneurs.
Jameela (2003) in her study to examine the effectiveness of various policies
and programmes implemented by the government in empowering women
points out that micro-credit approach was successful not only for alleviating
poverty but also for empowering women. It further enhances their self-esteem
and confidence which in turn helpful in building the capacity of the poor
women in managing self-employment opportunities.
Archana Sinha (2004) in her study titled “Micro-Finance for women’s
empowerment’ finds micro-finance as an effective instrument for women
empowerment. It can contribute to solve the problem of inadequate housing
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and urban services. She suggests a system of ‘multipurpose composite credit’
for making the SHG concept more effective.
Meenakshi Malhotra (2004) in her book entitled “Empowerment of women”
examine the potential of micro-finance programmes for empowering and
employing women and discusses the opportunities and challenges of using micro-
finance to tackle the feminization of poverty. She express the view that the
micro-finance programmes are aimed to increase the income levels of women
which ultimately lead to economic independence and enabled the women to have
more social network, access to information and possibilities for development of
social and political roles. They also enhance perceptions of women’s
contributions to household income and family welfare and increase women’s
participation in house hold decisions about expenditure and other issues.
Rimjhim Mousumi (2004) in a study in Sambalpur district of Orissa to identify
the role of micro – finance in empowering the rural poor, finds that credit for
consumption is unavoidable for the rural mass. He opines that expecting income
generating activities from the rural poor without providing for food and cloth is
unrealistic and so fulfilment of basic needs of the people is indispensable and
hence the SHGs should give prime importance to this matter.
Vasudeva Rao (2004) in an article on emancipation of women through self-
Management tried to measure the qualitative changes that the ‘group
approach’ has brought in the lives of women and points out that the changes in
the lives of women, that have occurred in “before” and “after” stage in the
group are encouraging but not adequate. He suggests starting of additional
micro enterprises for the survival of the groups, spreading awareness of
empowerment through regular group meetings and more exposure to the
women.
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Kochurani (2005) identifies women empowerment as a process of awareness
and capacity building which enables them to fully utilize their creative
potential leading to a greater participation and decision making power so as to
lead a meaningful life with all its dignity. In the final stage of women
empowerment, they feel that they would be treated as equals in all spheres of
life. Instead of remaining in a stage of beneficiaries they should grow into a
stage of becoming critical agents of development. She argues that empowered
women are like social capital for the economy. Creation of such social capital
is the resultant change that should be followed by the conscious effort from the
part of government, voluntary and charitable agencies to move towards the
goal of women empowerment.
Parameswaran (2005) in his book entitled “Empowering people – insights
from a local experiment in participating planning” analyzed the role of SHGs
in participatory and sustainable development planning in Kannur district in
Kerala State claims that women in SHGs have become more confident in
decision making process and conflict resolution. Further, in matters like
management of micro-finance, banking-operations and book-keeping, the
women in SHG perform well.
Sahu and Tripathy (2005) in their study on self-help groups and women
empowerment concludes that SHGs have emerged as the most vital instrument
in the process of participatory development and women empowerment. The
rural women are the marginalized groups in the society because of socio-
economic constraints and so they remain backward always. Through micro-
finance and formation of self-help groups, they were emerged as empowered
group by lifting themselves from the morass of poverty and stagnation.
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Dube (2006) in his paper on “Need to Empower women to End
Discrimination” high lights the subordinate status of women in the male
dominated Indian Society. He points out that women’s work is not being
counted in the national income- though house work is production; not
consumption and it should be included in the income accounts. He
emphasized on the need of identifying and eliminating the obstacles for
developing micro-enterprises to enhance the income of female entrepreneurs.
He also argues for the need of shifting the existing strategies and to make
women economically empowered.
Harider Rizvi (2006) in his paper on empowering women through reservation
in urban local bodies refers to the 74th Amendment Act which provided one
third reservation of seats for women in urban local bodies. He gives an
example of Ghazipur Municipality of U.P and finds that only a few women are
active in politics in urban local bodies though there is significant change over
the period. He presents a package of recommendations for women
empowerment in urban local bodies. The suggestions include capacity
building, engagement of women in municipal services and functioning,
encouragement and promotion of caste and religion based professions and
economic activities, regularization of bazaars and meals, access to market,
information and self-help groups.
Ramesh (2006) in a study in a backward district of Mahabubnagar in
Telangana Region to assess the qualitative changes in the lives of rural women
by developing micro-enterprises points out that women’s emancipation
obviously depends on their qualitative participation in self Help groups, and
GramaSabhas. Further, it will be truly meaningful if their economic
empowerment is also ensured to enable the poor women to lead a decent,
prosperous and respectable life.
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Renu Shankar and Suman Lal (2006) in their paper titled “women
Empowerment in urban Administration: Role of NGOs” argue that education
and economic independence are the only methods of women empowerment.
When these two are achieved, then only the dream of having women
politicians and parliamentarians in a country can be achieved.
Singh (2006) in his paper titled “Participation and empowerment of women
(The gaps and the Biases)” focuses on three types of biases. They are 1) bias
against gender, 2) bias against equality and 3) bias against education. He
reiterates the importance of the involvement of women in decision making
which starts from the family and goes up to the Parliament. Therefore 1/3
participation of women is the need of the hour. He states that by empowering
women, we are not favouring the women, but we are favouring the society.
The second and third biases relate to regional and social imbalance which can
be rectified through education, training, group discussion and seminars.
Sreedharan (2006) in his research paper on empowerment of women micro
entrepreneurs under SHGs states that the economic empowerment of women
in terms of income is at low level as the incremental income is less than `1500,
which is targeted by the Kudumbashree mission as the minimum income to be
earned per month.
Abdual Samad (2007) in an article on women empowerment and Panchayati
Raj Institutions in Kerala identify both favourable and unfavourable factors
affecting the political empowerment of women in Kerala state. He opines that
experience in political service, women reservation bill, interest in politics,
encouragement from party and family etc. act as favourable factors for
empowerment while role conflict, health problems, time, religion etc. act as
constraints. However, the study concluded that women in Kerala have not
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much unfavourable elements which prevent them from entering into politics.
Kerala has become a model to others in gender justice and hundreds of women
in Kerala have attained political empowerment.
Jairam Ramesh (2007) in his study stated that SHGs, the major form of
delivery of micro finance in India, have brought about dramatic changes in the
lives of lakhs of women. In A.P, where the government has been a strong
supporter, they have done beyond the provision of credit and assumed many
non-traditional responsibilities leading to economic independence.
Kavitha and Nata (2007) in their article on gender discrimination with
malnutrition opine that women’s empowerment programme do not always
address nutrition or food security, but they promote sustainable livelihoods –
by empowering women through knowledge and awareness and access to key
resources that can facilitate their livelihood activities; thus giving women an
opportunity to meet their basic needs.
Vinayagamoorthy (2007) in his study related to economic empowerment of
women in the northern Tamil Nadu, states that the SHGS in the studied
villages were functioning very successfully. The study revealed that income
of the women has increased after joining the SHGs, so that the monthly house
hold expenditure has also increased considerably. However, the rate of growth
of savings is slow because the incremental expenditure is high and the major
share of the income is spent on consumption need. Since the repayment of
loan was regular and timely, he concludes that the economic activities of
SHGs were successful leading to empowerment.
Beena George (2008) in her study among the rural women for measuring
empowerment through Microfinance finds that the economic independence
and freedom acquired by women through micro-finance activities contributed
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significantly in changing the life styles. Majority of the respondents perceive
changes in their roles in the families and in the society. There is significant
difference in the gross annual family income before and after joining women
in self-help groups. The respondents generally feel that income generation is
essential for their empowerment.
Gladis Mary (2008) in a study among SHGs conducting jasmine cultivation in
Ernakulam district in Kerala concludes that after forming SHGs, the women
attained economic independence. They have freedom in spending their
earnings. In addition to that, significant increase was noticed in matters like
self-confidence and health matters. The attitude of their husbands was also
changed.
Lathika (2008) in her study in the rural areas of Kerala state for assessing
the empowerment of women through kudumbashree project concludes that
empowerment can arrest the deterioration of the mental state of women.
Kudumbashree has made its mark in threading a new route to women
empowerment. She claims that vulnerability of women can become an
unsung saga if kudumbashree put on its mettle in the right perspective.
Palani and Selvaraj (2008) conducted a study in Tirunelveli district in Tamil
Nadu for assessing the impact of SHGs on women empowerment. For this, 72
respondents from 12 villages were selected randomly and it was found that
SHGs play a major role in transforming the weaker section (women) into
worthy people with modest earning capacity. Though there are many schemes
by the government for the upliftment of women, SHG concept is worthy and
productive to change the status and self-respect of the women. After
membership, the women become independent to meet their personal
expenditure and they contribute more to their household income. Major share
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of loans taken from SHGs were utilized for pursuing income generating
activities.
Ruby (2008) in her study about micro finance and women empowerment notes
that women empowerment is critical to the process of development of the
economy. It plays a crucial role in the alleviation of poverty and in the all
round progress of the nation. Kudumbashree project in Kerala has been
instrumental in empowering the members through micro-financing.
Kudumbashree at the NHG level have enhanced their saving habit and access
to credit.
Sneha Gopee Krishna (2008) conducted a study in Kumarakom GramaPanchayat
in Kerala State for evaluating the role of micro finance in fostering women
empowerment and the major findings are:
There is an upward trend in the growth rate of SHGS and micro-
financing bank linkage programme.
There is a move on the part of all political/religious groups to
possess the members of the SHGs and used them for their
advantage.
Women, at the advice of the men at home and friends, seem to
prefer lending out the loan amount for higher interest than getting
themselves involved in any other IGAS.
They fall easy prey to the bad effects of consumerism and catch
hold of every opportunity to make a show off their proud
possessions.
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Subbalakshmi (2008) in her study in Poondi village in Tamil Nadu for
assessing the impact of microfinance in empowering rural women reveales
that –
1) Micro-credit programmes increase the ability of women to buy
things independently and make them economically secure.
2) Through their role in the SHG, the community even looked at them
as leaders and decision makers.
3) The path to women’s empowerment is full of stumbling blocks.
Having to shoulder complete responsibility for house hold work and
child care in addition to paid employment, many women
entrepreneurs are unable to participate in training programmes/
entrepreneurial activities.
Susy Paul (2008) in her study titled ‘Impact of SHG – Bank linkage
programme on empowerment of rural poor in Kerala’ concludes that
Kudumbashree units in Kerala played a major role in employment generation
and imparting useful training to its members. The structural set up and
association with different external agencies enabled Kudumbashree units in
attaining their objectives.
Tulika Chandra (2008) in a paper titled “Institutional support for women
empowerment in India – Special Reference to Mahila co-operative Bank”
gives a detailed account of the concept of empowerment. The paper briefs on
the institutional interventions by the government, the NGOs, SHGs and the
financial institutions for the women empowerment in India. The major
objective of the study was to analyse whether the organizations that are led by
women for women respond to women’s needs and help in their empowerment
and the author concludes the study with the following suggestions.
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a - More active and genuine support of government.
b - More women co-operative banks, especially in rural areas.
c - Effective awareness programme for women regarding their rights
and training facilities for upgrading managerial capabilities of
women.
d - Effective linkage between various institutions like the
Government, NGOs, Bank and the SHGs.
Khari (2009) conducted a case study in Tamil Nadu reveals that given the
proper assistance and guidance, the women led SHGS bound to make not only
a sea change in empowering women but also tap the hither to unutilized power
of women for sustainable development of the society as a whole. Impressed by
the activities of the SHG, the Vellore district Rural Development agency and
SBI provided credit to the SHG with which it acquired 1.5 acres of land on
lease and cultivated flower plants and start marketing flowers directly at
Chennai without middle men, thus earning substantial profit.
Munian (2009) in his paper titled “Micro-Finance and Poverty Reduction:
Analytical Issues”, opines that the SHG – Bank linkage approach is found to
be an effective instrument by which very poor people can access hassle free
formal credit without any collateral security and simultaneously improve their
thrift habits. The approach also contributes to a social empowerment of the
women.
Reddy and Narasimabalan (2009) conducted a study among 990 SHGs in
Tirupati in Chittoor district in A.P, to identify the role of SHGs on urban
poverty eradication find that the linkage between different approach towards
development, poverty reduction and empowerment must be correlated and
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SHG activities are crucial in making changes in the lives of women. However,
the study revealed that women’s participation in decision making outside the
SHG is still
Roona (2009) in her study conducted in Chakia block in Varanasi, to examine
the role of ‘MahilaSamakhya’ (MS) in the political empowerment of the
elected representatives points out that –
1) The MS has provided a forum to women for discussing their
problems and gave them an opportunity to develop common
strategy to encounter challenges affecting their life.
2) Women enjoy a respectable status within their families after getting
elected to the Panchayats.
3) Women leaders in the Panchayati Raji are transforming local
governance by sensitizing the state to the issues of poverty,
inequality and gender injustice.
4) Women are encouraged and even prepared by MS to express their
point of view openly and fearlessly in ward sabha meeting.
(MS is a programme which was formulated in pursuance of the
National Policy of Education (1986) initiated in 10 districts of U.P.
The basic objective of the programme is to create a mechanism
whereby women are given an opportunity to plan and monitor their
own education and thereby to reach out to a new body of
knowledge).
Shidaganal (2009) in a study observed the impact of Strishakti SHG scheme
on the participation of women in Panchayat institutions and states that the
scheme would help the women not only in improving their socio economic
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status but also to create the awareness about their rights. It will bring
additional changes in the outlook of women members and help in realizing
their own intrinsic strength. Due to the awareness of the public grievances and
improvement of the communication skill by the involvement in SHGs, women
are able to raise public issues like construction of sanitary latrines, smokeless
chullas, providing of public lights and drinking water facilities in
GrammaSabha meetings.
Pitta Usha (2010) conducted a study in the coastal region in Andrapradesh to
examine the working of SHGs and efficiency of SHG approach to micro-credit
in empowering poor women. The study reveales that participation of women
in SHG activities changed their self-image, enhanced access to information,
skills, organizational and collective action. It helps to have negotiations with
government and other institutions, thus widening their social network. Thus
from situation of powerlessness or disempowerment, the women progressed
economically, socially and eventually emerged as political leaders.
Neeta Tapan (2010) in a study among 300 women from 150 SHGs scattered in
different blocks in Ujjain district (A.P), to evaluate and assess the level of
economic independence attained by SHG women and the contribution of SHG to
social change and rural development, reveals that inspite of the severe socio-
economic constrains in rural areas, SHGs in the study area have contributed
significantly to the empowerment of women which are reflected in their improved
status in the family, improved communication skills, awareness about financial
transactions and participation in income generating activities. The SHGs are bold
enough to address the structural inequalities in which women are located.
Sasikala and Uma (2011) in their study titled “Women empowerment through
SHG – A study” examine the role of micro finance and SHG in the
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empowerment of women of Hunsur Taluk in Mysore district, Karnataka,
conclude that after joining SHGs, women acquired collective strength for fight
against social evils. Their self confidence and self-esteem reflected in their
decision making process which ultimately resulted in the socio-economic
development of the village.
Some of the important changes noticed are –
Increased access to resources and local group activities.
Enhanced decision making capacity.
Readiness to fight against social evils.
Responsibility for soci-economic development of the village.
Increased self-esteem and confidence.
Research Gap
The studies relating to women empowerment reveal that women
empowerment is a process aimed at making positive changes in the lives of
women through certain mechanisms like SHGs, NGOs, women led agencies
and the like. Studies relating to women empowerment through kudumbashree
also reveal the same results. Kudumbashree is an innovative model of women
empowerment designed by the government of Kerala and has its operations in
each and every district. But an exclusive study considering both the rural and
urban areas of Ernakulam district has not been done so far. Further, the
quality as well as the functioning of NHGs and the assessment of the
economic, social and political empowerment of its members has not been
adequately analyzed. The constraints faced by the women both as
kudumbashree members and other wise and their insights regarding women
empowerment were not adequately considered in the previous studies. The
present work is an attempt in that direction.
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References
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participation and Black empowerment. “The American Political
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[2] Rajamma G, “Empowerment through income generating projects”,
Focus on Gender, Vol.1, No.3, October, 1993, pp.53-55.
[3] Kalpagum U, Labour and Gender: Survival in urban India, New
Delhi:Sage publications,1994, pp. 240-242.
[4] Karl M, Women and Employment. Participation and Decision making,
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