Lincoln Hills and Civil Rights in ColoradoThe Lincoln Hills Country Club and Resort 7. Laying Out...

LincolnHillsandCivilRightsinColorado

WhywasamountainresortforAfricanAmericansnecessaryinColoradoduringthe1920s?Whatdidtheresortrepresenttoitspropertyownersandvisitors?

HowdidthesuccessesofcivilrightsadvocatesinColoradoimpactLincolnHills?

ByDaniNewsum1StandardsandTeachingStrategiesby:

MingVlasich,ZachCrandall,andOdetteEdbrooke**

1DaniNewsumisaformercivilrightsattorneywhoteachesU.S.historyandAfricanAmericanhistoryattheCommunityCollegeofAurora.Hermaster’sthesisexaminedtheimpactoftheracialpoliticsofWorldWarIIandtheColdWarontheColoradolegislature’spassageofanunprecedentedbodyofcivilrightslegislationduringthe1950s.Danicanbereachedatdani.newsum@cca.eduordnewsum@att.net.**MingVlasichisa4thgradeteacheratPeabodyElementaryinLittleton,ZachCrandallteaches8thgradeU.S.SocietyatSouthernHillsMiddleinBoulder,OdetteEdbrookeistheDirectorofSocialStudiesforBoulderValleySchoolDistrict.

ContentsStandardsAddressedOverviewEssayPrimarySources BeforeLincolnHills:RaceandRacisminEarlyColorado

1. BlackMaleSuffrageProhibited2. EqualAccesstoAll–Colorado’sCivilRightsLaw3. TheTrialofMrs.NoraFrazier4. ADemandforJustice5. HouseBombing6. RacismonParade

TheLincolnHillsCountryClubandResort7. LayingOutLincolnHills(map)8. “ABeautiful,Scenic,RestfulMountainHome”9. “ManyUniqueAdvantagestoOurGroup”10. TheHeartofLincolnHills11. APlaceforYoungBlackGirls

RootsofChange:WorldWarIIandtheColdWar12. “TheEagleisOurNationalBird,nottheJimCrow”13. “HowDoYouRateasanAmerican?”14. “TheHighCostofPrejudice”15. Makingtheargument:JimCrowandCommunism16. “It’sARecord!”

AChangedWorld17. LincolnHillsToday

AdditionalResourcesTeachingStrategies

StandardsAddressedAquick-glanceoverviewofsocialstudiesstandardsthatteachersmightaddressin4thgrade,8thgrade,andhighschoolusingtheresourcesinthisset.4thGradeHistory:

• Standard1.1:OrganizeandsequenceeventstounderstandtheconceptsofchronologyandcauseandeffectinthehistoryofColorado

• Standard1.2:Thehistoricaleras,individuals,groups,ideasandthemesinColoradohistoryandtheirrelationshipstokeyeventsintheUnitedStates

Geography:• Standard2.1:Useseveraltypesofgeographictoolstoanswerquestionsaboutthegeographyof

Colorado• Standard2.2:Connectionswithinandacrosshumanandphysicalsystemsaredeveloped

Civics:• Standard1.1:Analyzeanddebatemultipleperspectivesonanissue• Standard1.2:Theorigins,structure,andfunctionsoftheColoradogovernment

8thGradeHistory:

• Standard1.1:FormulateappropriatehypothesesaboutUnitedStateshistorybasedonvarietyofhistoricalsourcesandperspectives

Geography:• Standard2.1:Usegeographictoolstoanalyzepatternsinhumanandphysicalsystems

Economics:• Standard3.1:Understandtheallocationofscarceresourcesinsocietiesthroughanalysisof

individualchoice,marketinteraction,andpublicpolicyCivics:

• Standard4.1:Analyzeandpracticerights,roles,andresponsibilitiesofcitizens• Standard4.2:Analyzetheorigins,structure,andfunctionsofgovernmentsandtheirimpactson

societiesandcitizens.HighSchoolHistory:

• Standard1.1:Usethehistoricalmethodofinquirytoaskquestions,evaluateprimaryandsecondarysources,criticallyanalyzeandinterpretdata,anddevelopinterpretationsdefendedbyevidence

• Standard1.2:Thekeyconceptsofcontinuityandchange,causeandeffect,complexity,unityanddiversityovertime

OverviewEssayInJuly1932,theCosmopolitanClubofDenverhelditsmonthlymeetingattheLincolnHillsresortinthemountainsofGilpinCounty,justunderfortymileswestofDenver.TheDenverclub,aninterracial,interethnic,andinterfaithorganizationofeducated,middle-classprogressives,wasalocalchapterofthenationalCosmopolitanClubmovement,whosememberswerededicatedtointerracialandinterfaithjusticeandcommunity.MembersoftheDenverorganizationhadbeeninvitedfor“anouting”toLincolnHillsbyDr.ClarenceHolmesandhiswife,Fairfax.Dr.Holmes,anAfricanAmericanandDenvernative,wasadentistandafounderofthelocalCosmopolitanClub.Fairfaxhadpreviouslyworkedfortheall-blackPhylissWheatleybranchoftheDenverYWCA.TheHolmeseswereapicture-perfectexampleofDenver’sblackmiddle-class,andweremembersoftheblacksocialandeconomicstratatargetedbythemarketersoftheLincolnHillsresort.TheresortofferedanidealphysicalandspirituallocationforCosmopolitanClubmembers.NestledalongSouthBoulderCreekbetweenthesmallmountaintownsofNederlandandRollinsville,LincolnHillswastheonlymountainretreatforAfricanAmericanswestoftheMississippiRiver,andoneofonlyahandfulblackresortsintheUnitedStates.Itwasfirstestablishedduringthe1920s,adecadeinwhichthewhitesupremacistKuKluxKlanexertedextraordinarypoliticalandculturalinfluenceinColorado.Atthetime,AfricanAmericanswereoftennotwelcomeinColorado’sgrowingmountainresortcommunitiesexceptaspersonalservantsinthecompanyofwhiteemployers.2LincolnHillswasan1100-acreretreatthatservedasatestamenttothecolor-basedhierarchyofprivilegesandburdensthatwascommoninearlytwentieth-centuryColorado.SomehistorianshavecalledthelongerathatfollowedtheendofReconstructionin1877the“nadirforblackcivilrights”duetothecrushingracismthatpervadedAmericanlaw,politics,andpopularculture.3Indeed,duringthisperiod,whichextendedwellintoWorldWarII,theU.S.SupremeCourtofficiallysanctionedrace-baseddiscriminationandsegregationinitsnowinfamous1896Plessyv.Fergusondecision.InPlessy,theCourtconsideredaLouisianalawthatrequiredAfricanAmericanstorideinrailpassengercarsthatwereseparatefromthosecarsdesignatedforwhitepassengers.TheCourtcreatedthe“separatebutequal”legalfiction,andheldthatLouisiana’sgovernment-requiredsegregationof“Negroes”andwhitepersons–andlikelawsthroughouttheU.S.–didnotviolatetheU.S.Constitutionifthesegregatedfacilitieswereequal.Inreality,thefacilitiesdesignatedforblackAmericanswererarelyequaltothoseusedbywhiteAmericans.AlthoughDenverdidnotsharethepervasiveracistviolence,terroranddejure(state-required)racialsegregationanddiscriminationthatroiledthepost-Civil-WarSouthandotherregionswellintothe1960s,duringthe1920s,theColoradoKuKluxKlanenjoyedapopularitythatplaceditamongstthelargestKlanorganizationsintheUnitedStates.TargetingimmigrantsandCatholics,aswellasAfricanAmericans,thewhitesupremacistColoradoKlancouldboastthatitsranksincludedaU.S.senator,governor,numerousstatelegislators,andaDenvermayorandchiefofpolice.Despitean1895statelawthatguaranteedallColoradansaccesstothestate’spublicplacesregardlessofraceorcolor,inactualityDenverwasacityinwhichracialsegregationanddiscriminationwasmorefrequentlytherulerather

2MoyaHansen,“EntitledtoFullandEqualEnjoyment:LeisureandEntertainmentintheDenverBlackCommunity,1900to1930,”UniversityofColoradoatDenverHistoricalStudiesJournal10:1(Spring1993):69.3KermitL.Hall,PaulFinkelman,andJamesW.Ely,Jr.,AmericanLegalHistory:CasesandMaterials(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2005),267.

thantheexception.4LongafterthedeclineoftheKlaninColoradoduringthelater1920s,aracistwebofexclusionanddiscriminationremained,andensnaredthousandsofblack,Asian,Jewish,Latino,andNativeAmericanpeople.By1920,morethan11,000blackpeoplecalledColoradohome,and6075ofthemlivedinDenver.Althoughthecity’sblackpopulationwassmallwhencomparedtocitieslikeNewYork,LosAngeles,orChicago,AfricanAmericansinDenverwerebettereducatedonaverageandenjoyedahigherstandardoflivingthantheircontemporariesintheEast,West,orMidwest.By1938,nearly40percentofthemwerehomeowners.Duringtheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury,Denver’smiddle-classblackpopulation—whichhadbeenincreasinglyconfinedtoasmallareaofnortheastDenverknownasFivePoints—welcomedtheopportunitytorecreate,socialize,andbuypropertyinthewide-openspacesofLincolnHills.However,interestinLincolnHillsextendedfarbeyondDenver’sAfricanAmericancommunity.TheresortattractedblackpeoplefromotherColoradocitiesaswellasfromacrossthecountry.AlthoughLincolnHillswasclearlyauniqueresponsetoracistexclusion,theAfricanAmericanswhocametoLincolnHills,eitheraspropertyowners,week-longlodgers,dayvisitors,orsummercampers,werealsopartofadevelopingnationaltourismindustrythatluredthousandsofmiddle-classAmericanstobucolicwesternvistas,includingmanyintheRockyMountainWest.LincolnHills,establishedduringaparticularlygrimeraforAmericanblacks,expressedadeterminedanddefiantAfricanAmericanclaimtomiddle-classrespectabilityinthefaceofaracistwhitesupremacythatregularlydeniedblacksaccesstotheemployment,housing,education,andamusements–andinsomecaseseventhemaritalpartners–oftheirownchoice.Indeed,itwasawhitesupremacy,writtenandunwritten,spokenandunspoken,thatattemptedtodenyAfricanAmericansnotonlytherightsandprivilegesofU.S.citizenship,butalsotheirhumanity.Andsoin1932itwasindeedfittingthatDr.ClarenceandFairfaxHolmesinvitedhisfellowCosmopolitanClubmemberstoLincolnHillstopartakeoftheresort’sbreathtakingviewswhilediscussingtheworksofLangstonHughes,oneofthemostcelebratedwritersandplaywrightsoftheHarlemRenaissance.ForLincolnHills,atonceasiteforoutdoorrecreationandsocializing,wasalsoaplaceinwhichAfricanAmericanswereabletoaffirmtheirhumanityandingenuity,andtostakeaclaimtotheequalityandrespectabilitysoroutinelydeniedthem.

4Anoteontheterm“race.”Thebodyofscientificevidencetodaydeniestheexistenceofbiologicallydistinct“races.”Therefore,Idonotusetheword“race”todenotebiologicaldifference,butasshorthandtoexpresstheveryrealprivilegesandburdensexperiencedbygroupsofpeoplebasedonthemeaningandvalueattributedtotheirskincolororracialcategorizationbylegal,political,social,andotherinstitutions.

Source1

1/BeforeLincolnHills:RaceandRacisminEarlyColoradoBlackMaleSuffrageProhibitedCitation“TheConstitutionalAmendment,”RockyMountainDailyNews,November18,1865.WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary.ExcerptThediscontentedoneswhohavesuffereddefeatatthelastelectionare,weunderstand,makingpreparationstoopposetheadmissionofColoradobythenextCongress.Amongoureasternexchanges,nearlyallareinfavorofouradmission;some,however,aredisposedtoobject.Theseareconfinedtothemostradical,whoweredispleasedwiththevotegivenagainstnegrosuffrageattheelectionwhentheConstitutionwasadopted.Thisquestionofnegrosuffragehasbeenverylittleagitated,andthepopularfeelinguponthemeasurecouldbecompletelyrevolutionizedbyalittlesystematiceffortanddiscussion.AttherecentspeechmadeinthiscitybytheOctoroonorator,thelargeandattentiveaudienceallvotedinfavorofaccordingtherightofsuffragetothespeaker.InthisaudiencealonetherewerenearlyasmanyvotersastherewereballotsinfavorofnegrosuffrageattheConstitutionalelection.AnnotationUnderstandingthewaysinwhichbothlawandsocialpracticesmade“race”inColoradofromitsearliestdaysasafederalterritoryiskeytounderstandingthecontextinwhichtheLincolnHillsresortwasconceived,advertised,andbuiltduringthe1920s.InFebruary,1861,justtwomonthsbeforetheoutbreakoftheCivilWar,aUnitedStatesCongressdominatedbynorthernlawmakersestablishedtheColoradoTerritory.BythatFebruary,thenewRepublicanparty–scarcelysixyearsoldbutdeterminedtostopthespreadofslaveryintonewwesternterritorieslikeColorado–enjoyedacongressionalmajorityandhadalsocapturedtheWhiteHouseafteraheatedpresidentialelectioncatapultedAbrahamLincolntothepresidencydespitethefactthathehadnotwonasingleelectoralvotefromasouthernslavestate.BythetimeofLincoln’sinaugurationinMarch,1861,justonemonthafterCongressapprovedColorado’sterritorialpetition,sevensouthernstateshadsecededfromtheUnitedStatesandformedtheConfederateStatesofAmerica.Fourmorewouldfollowinthenextseveralmonths.TheColoradoTerritorywasbornamidsttheexplosivenationalissuesofblackslaveryandblackfreedom.Althoughpro-Unionsentimentdominatedthenewterritory,Colorado’sterritoriallegislatorswerenotchampionsofracialequality.In1864,lawmakersapprovedastatutethatdenied“Negroandmulatto”mentherighttovote(theyalsoprohibitedintermarriagebetweenwhitesand“Negroesandmulattos”).Thesameyear,delegatestoaterritorialconstitutionalconventiondraftedaproposedColoradostateconstitution.ThestatehoodprocesswasalongandhighlypoliticizedprocessthatlefttheultimatequestionofstatehoodtotheU.S.Congress,requiringCongresstoapproveaterritory’sproposedconstitutionaswellasitsstatehoodpetition.IntheColoradoTerritory,thebattleoverblackvoting

rightshadbecomethoroughlyenmeshedintheeffortsofadeterminedgroupofboosterstoachievestatehood.BeforethematterreachedCongress,however,Colorado’sstatehoodboosterssufferedasetbackin1864whentheterritory’swhitemalevotersrejectedtheproposedconstitution,forreasonsthatdidnotinvolvetheblacksuffrageissue.Meanwhile,adeterminedgroupofAfricanAmericanmeninDenver,includingWilliamJ.Hardin,EdwardSanderlin,andHenryO.Wagoner,lobbiedstateandnationalpoliticiansaswellasinfluentialnewspapereditorstocondemntheterritory’sblacksuffrageban.InNovember,1865,Colorado’slawmakerssubmittedbothanewproposedconstitutionandtheissueofblackmalevotingrightsintheterritorytoapublicvote.Votersapprovedthenewconstitutionandprohibitedblacksuffrage.Twoweeksaftertheelection,theRockyMountainDailyNewswarneditsreadersthatopponentsofColoradostatehoodplannedtousetheterritory’santi-blacksuffragelawtosecureCongress’rejectionofstatehoodfortheterritory.Thepapercharacterizedstatehoodopponentsasbeingamong“themostradicalwhoweredispleasedwiththevotegivenagainstnegrosuffrageattheelectionwhentheConstitutionwasadopted.”TheNewsalsoadvisedthatanorganizedandstrategiccampaignmightresolvethesuffrageissueinColorado,andobservedwithfavorarecentspeechbyasupporterofblackmalesuffrage.Thenewspaperalsousedthenowarchaicterm,“octoroon”tonotethespeaker’srace.Thetermoctoroonreferredtoapersonwhowhitesconsideredblackduetohavingatleastoneblackgreat-grandparentinthefamilylineage.Inatwist,Congressenfranchisedtheterritory’sblackmalesalmosttenyearsbeforeitapprovedstatehoodforColorado.In1867,twoyearsaftertheCivilWarendedwiththeUnion’svictoryoverGen.RobertE.Lee’sConfederateforces,reform-mindedRepublicanswerefirmlyincontrolofboththeU.S.Congressandpost-CivilWarReconstructionpoliciesthatweredesignedtoensureameasureoflegalandpoliticalequalitytoAfricanAmericans.ThatyearCongress,wellawareoftheColoradoTerritoryprohibitionagainstblacksuffragethankstothelobbyingeffortsofblackColoradans,approvedtheTerritorialSuffrageAct.Thestatutemadecolor-basedvotingprohibitionsillegalinallU.S.territories,includingColorado.Nineyearslater,CongressapprovedstatehoodforColorado,makingitthe36thstateintheUniononAugust1,1876.

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2/BeforeLincolnHills:RaceandRacisminEarlyColoradoEqualAccesstoAll-ColoradoCivilRightsLawCitationTheColoradoCivilRightsLaw-ColoradoSessionLaws,TenthSession,1895,Ch.61.CivilRights,pp.139-141ExcerptBeitenactedbytheGeneralAssemblyoftheStateofColorado: Section1.ThatallpersonswithinthejurisdictionofsaidStateshallbeentitledtothefullandequalenjoymentoftheaccommodations,advantages,facilitiesandprivilegesofinns,restaurants,eatinghouses,barbershops,publicconveyancesonlandorwater,theaters,andallotherplacesofpublicaccommodationandamusement,subjectonlytotheconditionsandlimitationsestablishedbylawandapplicablealiketoallcitizens. Section2.Thatanypersonwhoshallviolateanyoftheprovisionsoftheforegoingsectionbydenyingtoanycitizen,exceptforreasonsapplicablealiketoallcitizensofeveryraceandcolor,andregardlessofcolororrace,thefullenjoymentofanyoftheaccommodations,advantages,facilitiesorprivilegesinsaidsection[innumerated],orbyaidingorincitingsuchdenial,shallforeverysuchoffenseforfeitandpayasumofnotlessthanfiftydollars($50)normorethanfivehundreddollars($500)tothepersonaggrievedthereby,toberecoveredinanycourtofcompetentjurisdictioninthecountywheresaidoffencewascommitted;andshallalsoforeverysuchoffencebedeemedguiltyofamisdemeanor;anduponconvictionthereof,shallbefinedinanysumnotlessthantendollars($10),ormorethanthreehundreddollars($300),orshallbeimprisonednotmorethanoneyear,orboth;and,Providedfurther,thatajudgmentinfavorofthepartyaggrieved,orpunishmentuponanindictmentorinformationshallbeabartoeitherprosecution,respectively. Section3.JusticesofthepeaceintheCountywheretheoffenceiscommittedshallhavejurisdictioninallcivilactionsbroughtunderthisacttorecoverdamages,totheextentofthejurisdictionofjusticesofthepeacetorecoveramoneydemandinotheractions,asfixedbylaw,andeitherpartyshallhavetherighttohavethecausetriedbyjuryandtoappealfromthejudgmentofthejustice,inthesamemannerasinothercivilsuits.AnnotationNationalandregionalpoliticsduringthe1890scombinedtopresentblackColoradanswithanopportunitytore-writeachapterinstateracerelationswiththepassageofamajorpieceofcivilrightslegislation.In1895,JosephStuart,anAfricanAmericanlawyerandRepublicanwhorepresentedArapahoeCountyintheColoradostatelegislature,successfullysponsoredabillthatguaranteedColoradans“ofeveryraceandcolor”equalaccesstoestablishmentsopentothegeneralpublic,including“inns,restaurants,barbershops,publicconveyances,theaters…andallotherplacesofpublicaccommodationandamusement.”Atthetime,thelegislaturedidnotcreateastateagencytoenforcethelaw’sprovisions,butleftittotheindividualcomplainingofdiscriminationtobringalawsuitbeforealocaljusticeofthepeace.

Itshouldbenotedthattwoyearspriortothestatelegislature’spassageofthe“CivilRightsLaw”–asitssupporterscontinuedtocallitwellintothetwentiethcentury–Colorado’smalevotersapprovedawomen’ssuffrageballotmeasure.Boththe1895publicaccommodationslawandthe1893women’ssuffragebillwerebeneficiariesofasurgingwesternpopulistmovement.Duringthe1890s,abadeconomymadeworsebythecollapseofthenationalsilvermarketinsilver-richColoradocontributedtothegrowthofastrongandorganizedpopulistmovementinwesternstates,includingColorado.Aswesternpopulistschallengedthegrowingeconomicandpoliticalmightoftherailroad,bankingandotherindustries,manyreachedouttoformallianceswithothermarginalizedgroups,includingAfricanAmericansandwomensuffragists.However,the1895civilrightslawwasdifficulttoenforce,andsegregation–whetherbylaw(“JimCrow”)orbycustom–becametheruleacrossmuchoftheUnitedStatesaftertheendofpost-CivilWarReconstruction.InColorado,whitepoliticiansandbusinessownersroutinelyignoredtheequalaccessstatute,asdidtheownersoftherecreationalresortsthatwerebeginningtospringupinthemountainsjustwestofDenver.Still,manyblackColoradanswerekeenlyawareoftheoft-ignoredlaw,andasthetwentiethcenturyapproached,weredeterminedtowinitsenforcement.

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3/BeforeLincolnHills:RaceandRacisminEarlyColoradoTheTrialofMrs.NoraFrazierCitation“BloodwillbedrawnincourttoprovethatwomanisNegress,”DenverPost,August18,1913.WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary.Excerpt“Blood-lettingwilltakeplaceinthemunicipalcourttomorrowmorning,ifJudgeBenjaminF.Stapletonwillpermitit.Bloodwillbedrawnandanalyzedinopencourtasevidence,ifthewishesofawomandefendantaregranted.Mrs.NoraHarringtonFrazier,whosayssheisanoctoroon,demandsthatherbloodbeanalyzedtoprovethatsheisanegress.Ifthebloodtestproveshercontention,shewillgofree;ifnot,shewillpayafineorserveasentence.Sheoffersherbloodasthetest.TendaysagoMrs.FrazierappearedatthemarriagelicenseofficewithFrankFrazier,acoalblacknegro,andthetwoaskedforamarriagelicense.ThelicensewasdeniedonthegroundthatMrs.Frazierwasawhitewomanandhercompanionanegro.ThelawofColoradoprohibitstheintermarriageofthetworaces.Mrs.Frazierofferedtomakeoaththatshewasanegress,claimingtobeanoctoroon.Stillshewasrefused.TheservicesofJamesA.Harris,anattorneyformerlyofTennessee,weretheninvokedandMr.HarrisconvincedthemarriagelicensedepartmentthathisclientwasanegressHehadherbareherneckandheshoweddarkblotchesattherootofherhaironthebackofherneck.ThenhehadFrazierpressherfingersattherootofthenails.Theyturnedblack.HeofferedtohavethemarriagelicenseclerkrubthespinalcolumnofMrs.Frazier,which,heasserted,wouldturnblack,butthemarriagelicenseofficersweresatisfied,thelicensewasissuedandthemarriageperformed.Thenshewasarrestedonachargeofmiscegenation.”AnnotationInadditiontoracialdiscriminationinemployment,housing,andpublicaccommodations,duringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,blackColoradansalsofaceddiscriminationintheirmostintimaterelationships.Colorado’sloneJimCrowlawcriminalizedmarriagesbetweenwhitepersonsand“Negroesormulattos.”TheColoradoterritoriallegislaturefirstapprovedthelegalprohibitionin1864,thesameyearinwhichthelegislaturedeniedblackmenvotingrights.InrecognitionoftheadditionoflandtoColorado’slandbasethatresultedfromtheU.S.victoryintheMexican-AmericanWarin1848,thelegislaturemadethemarriagebanapplicabletoDenver,theFrontRangeandeasttotheKansasborder,butexemptedthatpartofthestatethathadbeenacquiredfromMexicointhe1848TreatyofGuadalupeHidalgo.

In1913,NoraHarringtonFrazier,foundherselfontrialinDenver,accusedofmarryingablackman,FrankFrazier.Mrs.Frazier’sattorneyrestedhisdefenseonhislight-skinnedclient’sclaimtobean“octoroon”–apersonwithone-eighthblackancestry.TheDenvermagistratewhoheardthecasewasBenjaminStapleton,Denver’sfuturemayorandnamesakeofthenowdefunctStapletonInternationalAirport,whichhasbeenredevelopedasaresidentialneighborhoodandisstillreferredtoasStapleton.TheredonotappeartobeanypublishedreportsontheoutcomeoftheFraziertrial.5However,almost30yearsaftertheDenverPostreportedonMrs.Frazier’strial,theColoradoSupremeCourtupheldthelegalityofthestate’sinterracialmarriagebaninthecaseofJacksonetalv.CityandCountyofDenver(1942).TheFraziertrial,whichwasalsonotedinatleastoneblackNewYorknewspaperwithanationalreadership,highlightedtheintersectionofrace,racistbelief,andlaw.Althougheverywesternstatelegislaturebannedinterracialmarriageatsomepoint,Colorado’swasuniqueinthatitsprohibitionswerelimitedtowhite-blackmarriages.ThemarriagebansinotherwesternstatesincludedprohibitionsonmarriagesbetweenwhitesandahostofAsiannationalities,andlessfrequently,betweenwhitesandNativeAmericans.Nomatterthescopeofthemaritalban,attheheartofthesestatuteslayacommitmenttopreservingthe“purity”ofastate’swhitepopulationbyproscribingmarriagesbetweenwhitepersonsand“other”races,andbyinference,preventingstate-sanctionedprocreation.Inthiscontext,itiscrucialtonotethatstatemaritalbansneverbannedmarriagesbetweenpeoplesofcolor,onlybetweenwhitesandpeoplesofcolor.Inrealityofcourse,inColorado,aselsewhereacrosstheUnitedStates,theselawsdidnotpreventsexbetweentheraces,nordidtheypreventtheconceptionandbirthofmixed-racebabies.AlthoughthePostdidnotfollowupthisstorytotellreaderswhetherMrs.Frazierwassubjectedtoabloodtest,anyconclusionastoMrs.Frazier’s“race”basedonsuchatestwouldberejectedoutofhandtoday.EvenmodernDNAtesting,clearlynotavailablein1913,cannotdetermine“race;”suchtestingcanrevealgeneticmarkersthatareuniquetovariousgeographicregions.

5InColorado,rulingsissuedbythestateSupremeCourtandCourtsofAppealarepublished;howeveropinionsissuedbytrialjudges,orasintheNoraFraziercase,trialmagistrates,arenotpublished.

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4/BeforeLincolnHills:RaceandRacisminEarlyColoradoADemandforJusticeCitation“DenverNeedsaVigilanceCommittee:ACalltoArms,”DenverStar,September20,1913,WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary.Excerpt“ThereisscarcelyacommunityintheU.S.whereagroupofcoloredresidethatought[not]tohaveitsvigilancecommittee…Theworkofthesevigilancecommitteeistoprotectthecoloredpeopleintheirseveralcommunitiesfromaggression.Theaggressiontakesforofhostilelaws,ordinances,curtailmentofcivilrights,newracialdiscrimination,overtaxoroversevereenforcementofthelaw,curtailmentofopportunities,etc.Sometimesthisaggressionisbutthecarelessactofthoughtlessfolkandneedsbutawordinseasontocorrectit.MoreoftenitisapartofthepersistentundergroundcampaigncenteringlargelyamongwhiteAmericansofsouthernbirth,whichisdetermine[d]tosoentrenchthecolorcasteintheU.S.astomakeitimpossibleforanypersonofNegrobloodtobemorethanamenial.Againstbothsortsofracialaggressionorganizedeffortisnecessary.Manythoughtfulcoloredpeoplehavesoughttoavoidthis:toactindependentlyandtorefusetomeetorganizationbyorganization.Thisinmostcaseshasbeenfoundimpossible.Theblowsofracialandcolorprejudicefallalikeonall,richandpoor,educationandignorantandallmuststandtogetherandfight…TheobjectoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleistofederatelocalcommitteesamongcoloredpeoplesineverycommunityintheU.S.;toco-ordinatetheiractivities,toexchangeexperiences,andtoconcentratetheapplicationoffundswheretheneedisgreatest.–MayCrisis.InDenversuchanimportantorganizationisgreatlyneeded.Todayalongourpublicstreetthesesignsareprintedandimpudentlydisplayedwiththegreatestimpunity,“Wecatertowhitepeopleonly,”attheColonialtheatre,“Coloredtradenotwanted,”attheParistheatre,ablockapartonCurtisstreet;aroundthecorneron18thstreetbelowChampastreet,“WhitePeople’sRestaurant,”inthenextblockaboveonChamp,“Niggerheadbullets,”withapictureofablackfaceonpaintedonalumpofcoal.Allthisdiscriminationwithinaradiusoftwoblocksalongthethoroughfaresofourcity.Whatarewedoingaboutit?Whatarewegoingtodoaboutit?TheansweristoformtheabovecommitteeanddoasdirectedbyDr.DuBoisandmeetorganizationwithorganization.ThenorganizealocalbranchoftheCrisissocietyhere.We,inColorado,areinthegreatestfightofourlives;wemustfighttoretainourcivilrights,citizenshipandpoliticalrights.Everydaynewaggressionsaremadeagainstusandwemusteitherfighttogetherorfightapart.TheStarsayorganizesystematicallywithgoodsubstantial,cool-headedmenofhonorandintegrityatthehead.Eschewthepolitician,thetruckler,thegrafterandthenotoriety-seeker.Organizeforbusinessandthendoit.ThePeople’sSundayAlliancehasameetingat2630Weltonstreet,Sept.21.LetthismeetingbeanucleusfortheVigilanceCommittee.

AnnotationIn1913,theDenverStar,oneoftwoleadingblackDenvernewspapers,chargedthatsomanyofthecity’sstores,restaurants,andplacesofamusementweredenyingentrytoAfricanAmericansinviolationofthe1895statecivilrightslawthatitcalledforthecreationofalocalbranchofthe“crisiscommittee,”alsoknownastheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP).AninterracialgroupofcivilrightsactivistshadfoundedtheNAACPinNewYorkin1910,afteroutbreaksofwhitemobviolenceinnortherncities.Thenationalorganization,withsatellitesinWashingtonD.C.Baltimore,Detroit,KansasCity,andSt.Louis,plannedtouselitigationtochallengeracialsegregation.Duringthenextseveraldecades,theNAACPbecametheUnitedStates’leadingandmostsuccessfulcivilrightsorganization.Notedintellectual,historian,sociologist,andcivilrightsadvocate,W.E.B.DuBois,becametheeditoroftheNAACPjournal,TheCrisis.Thejournalpublishedsomeofthemostacclaimedsocialcritiques,poetry,andfictionintwentiethcenturyAmericanliterature.TheDenverStar’sdemandfortheestablishmentofa“crisiscommittee”wasacalltoestablishalocalDenverbranchoftheNAACP.TheStararguedthattheattentionsofsuchacommitteewereneededtocombat“hostilelaws…curtailmentofcivilrights,newracialdiscrimination”and“curtailmentofopportunities…”Insupportofitsdemand,thepapercitedsignspostedbybusinessesthatadvertised“Wecatertowhitepeopleonly,”and“Coloredtradenotwanted.”In1915,twoyearsaftertheDenverStar’sentreatyforitscreation,theDenverbranchoftheNAACPwasfounded–amongitsprimarytasks:togainenforcementofthe1895“CivilRightsLaw.”Oneofitsfounders,DenvernativeClarenceHolmes–atthetimeayoungdentalstudentatHowardUniversityinWashingtonD.C.–wouldlaterbecomeacabinownerintheLincolnHillsresort.

Source5

Source5(detail)

5/BeforeLincolnHills:RaceandRacisminEarlyColoradoHouseBombingCitation“NegroHomeBombedbyAutoists,”RockyMountainNews,July8,1921.6WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary.ExcerptResidentsnear2112Gilpinstreetwereterrorizedandseveralnarrowlymisseddeathorinjurywhenabomb,believedbythepolicetohavebeenthrowntointimidateanegrofamilywhichrecentlymovedintothisresidencedistrict,explodedat10:30o’clocklastnight,onthefrontlawnatthataddress.WalterR.Chapman,agovernmentmailcarrierhereforfifteenyears,andhiswife,thetwocolorednewcomersintheneighborhood,weresittinginthefrontroomoftheirnewhomeat2112Gilpinstreetwhenthebombwentoff,shatteringthefrontwindowsofthehouseandsidewindowsofthatofAdolphChristendom,fifteenfeetaway,at2108Gilpinstreet.Noonewasinjured.Thebomb,whichevidentlyexplodedthemomentitstrucktheground,toreaholeinthefrontlawnsixfeetfromthehouse.

BombThrownFromAuto.PatrolmenJackDes,CarlWilmot,andC.W.Powers,whoweresenttothespotbyPoliceCaptainGeorgeMerritt,expressedtheopinionthatthebombwasthrownfromanautomobile,whichprobablygotwelldownthestreetbeforetheexplosionoccurred.Sofarasthepolicecouldlearn,however,nowitnesssawanymachinewhichmighthavecarriedabomb.Chapmansaidthatafterheboughthisnewpropertyrecently,throughF.R.Rossasagent,fromPatrolmanRichardPorter,alsocolored,whowasnotoccupyingthehouse,hewasthreatenedbyawhiteman,whosaid,“Stayoutofthisneighborhood.Ifyoumoveinhere,yourhouseisgoingtobeblownup.”AnnotationBlackpeopleinDenver,themajorityofwhomwereemployedasdomesticservantsandphysicallaborersduringtheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury,enjoyedahigherstandardoflivingthanAfricanAmericansinotherpartsofthecountry.In1890,theDenverRepublicanannouncedthatthereweremore“colored”homeownersinDenverthanin“anyotherNortherncity.”Infact,Denver’ssmallblackpopulationnearlydoubledbetween1900and1929,asAfricanAmericansmovedwestnotonlyforthepleasingclimatebutforgreateropportunities.

6Whiletheword“autoist”isunfamiliartomostAmericanstoday,atthetimethisstorywaspublishedintheRockyMountainNews,thewordwasasynonymfor“motorist.”

DespitetheopportunitiesDenverpresentedforAfricanAmericanresidents,thecity’sblackhomeownerswerenotfreetobuyandlivewherevertheymightchoose:Denverwasasegregatedcity.Duringthe1920s,mostAfricanAmericansinDenverlivedinthecity’s“Negrodistrict”inanareathenknownasEastDenver.BlackswhoattemptedtobuyhomesoutsideoftheprescribedNegrodistrictwereoftentargetedwiththreatsofviolence,andonoccasion,actualviolence.OntheeveningofJuly7,1921,asmailcarrierWalterR.Chapmanandhiswifesatintheirfrontroom,theRockyMountainNewsreportedthatabombhurledfromamovingcarleftasixfootcraterintheChapman’sfrontyard.Mr.ChapmantoldthepolicethatafterheboughtthehomeonGilpinStreet,eastofthecity’s“colorline,”awhitemanapproachedhimandthreatenedtoblowthehouseupifthecoupleremainedintheneighborhood.Duringthe1920sand1930s,Denver’sso-calledNegrodistrictextendedeastofFivePointstoHighStreet;thePlatteRivermarkedthewesternborder;andEast21stand32ndStreetsmarkedthedistrict’ssouthernandnorthernbordersrespectively.AlthoughColoradohadnolawthatrequiredracialsegregationinhousing,innortheastDenver,theChapmansandotherAfricanAmericanscontinuallycontestedtheveryrealresidentialcolorlinethatlocalrealtors,banks,builders,andhostilewhitehomeownersimposedonthem,inwhatbecameaslow,decades-longeastwardadvancetowardsColoradoBoulevard.FivePointswastheheartoftheNegrodistrict,aneighborhoodthatwashometoanestimated80percentofDenver’sblackpopulation.TheFivePointsnamereflectedthefive-wayintersectionoffourstreets:WeltonStreet,WashingtonStreet,26thAvenue,and27thStreet.Althoughdiscriminatorymortgagelendingpolicies,restrictivecovenants,threatsofviolence,andactsofviolence–asinthecaseoftheChapmans–hadcombinedtoforcemostAfricanAmericansintotheneighborhood,“thePoints”becameathrivingresidential,commercial,andculturalhubofimmensesocialdiversity,hometowealthy,middleandworking-classblackpeople.Theneighborhoodwasatonceacommunityandaculturethatwovetogetherthelivesofallitsresidents,fromthemostprominenttothemostobscure.FivePointsresidentsestablishedandsupportedtheirownchurches,stores,funeralhomes,newspapers,restaurants,andamusementsinwhatmanycalledthe“HarlemoftheWest.”FivePointswasalsoajazzhub,withnationallyknownvenuessuchastheRossonianHotel,Rice’sTapRoomandOven,andBennyHooper’sCasinohostingthetopjazzactsofthetime,includingDukeEllington,BillyHoliday,andCharlieParker.However,asnewresidentialdevelopmentsmushroomedinresponsetoDenver’spost-WorldWarIIpopulationboom,AfricanAmericanswereforcedtoremaininnortheastDenver:theneighborhood’sfabulousentertainmentvenueseventuallydisappeared,andthehomesthathadoncecomfortablyhousedsingleblackfamiliesduringtheearlydecadesofthecenturybecameblightedstructuresforcedtoaccommodatemultiplefamilies.

Source6

6/BeforeLincolnHills:RaceandRacisminEarlyColoradoRacismonParadeCitationKlansmenparadedownLarimerStreet,downtownDenver,May31,1926.WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary,http://cdm16079.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15330coll22/id/21857AnnotationAstheLincolnHillsCompanyurgedAfricanAmericansinColoradoandacrosstheUnitedStatestobuylotsinitsGilpinCountyresort,theirentreatiesweremadeagainstabackdropofanincreasinglyracistpoliticalclimateinthestate.TheKuKluxKlandominatedColoradopoliticsduringthefirsthalfofthe1920s.Cross-burningsandpublicparadesliketheoneindowntownDenvercapturedinthisphotographwerecommonin1920sColorado.FromtheWesternSlopetoDenverandtheeasternplains,theKlan,wavingthebannerof“100%Americanism,”targetedAfricanAmericans,immigrants,Catholics,andJews.TheColoradoKlandidnotemploytheterroristicviolenceofsouthernKlansmen,bututilizeditspoliticalinfluenceandpopularitytotarnishandisolateitstargetswithclaimsof“un-Americanism.”In1923,KlansupportandmoneypropelledDenvermagistrateBenjaminStapletontovictoryinthecity’smayoralelection.Thefollowingyear,theKlanreachedthezenithofitspowerandinfluenceintheCentennialState,asitgainedcontroloftheColoradoRepublicanpartyandachievedanunprecedentednumberofvictoriesintheNovemberelections.In1924,KlanmemberandDenverjudgeClarenceMorleywonthegubernatorialcontest,voterssentRiceMeans,anotherDenverKlanmember,toWashingtonD.C.asthestate’snewU.S.senator,andKlancandidateswonjudicialandlegislativeseatsthroughoutColorado.TheywereparticularlysuccessfulintheCityandCountyofDenver,where,inadditiontothemayor,theKlanclaimedthechiefofpoliceandamajorityofthecitycouncil.NationalKlanofficialsweresoimpressedwithColoradoGrandDragonGalenLocke’ssuccessfulelectoralstrategythatjustoneweekafterthe1924fallelection,anentourageoftopKlanofficersdescendedonDenver,withaphalanxofnewspaperandradioreportersintow.Althoughinternalpowerstruggles,graft,corruption,andtaxevasionchargesleveledatColoradoGrandDragonGalenLockeendedtheKlan’sgriponpoliticalpowerbytheendofthedecade,inthefallof1924,Colorado’sKKKseemedinvincible.ThatyeartheDenverPostclaimedthattheColoradoKlanwasthe“largest,mostcohesive,andmostefficientlyorganizedpoliticalforceinthestateofColoradotoday.”

Documentation of Historic Properties along the Gilpin Tunnel Rail Corridor, Gilpin County, Colorado

Figure 11. LHDC Plat of Lincoln Hills, 1922.

Map courtesy Gilpin County Clerk and Recorder’s Office.

Source7

7/TheLincolnHillsCountryClubandResortLayingoutLincolnHillsCitation:LincolnHillsDevelopmentCompanyPlatofLincolnHills,1922.AvailablefromGilpinCountyClerkandRecorder’sOffice,inKathleenCorbettetal,DocumentationofHistoricPropertiesintheGilpinTunnelDistrict,GilpinCounty,Colorado(2009),onlineat:http://www.co.gilpin.co.us/Auxiliary%20Advisory%20Boards/Historical%20Society/Gilpin%20Tunnel%20Rail%20Corridor_Final%20Report_SWCA.pdfAnnotationTheLincolnHillsresortnestledalongSouthBoulderCreekbetweenthesmalltownsofNederlandtothenorthandRollinsvilletothesouth.ThetwomenbehindthedevelopmenthadlongbeenassumedtohavebeenAfricanAmerican,yet,recentresearchleavesthequestionoftheracialoriginsofE.C.RegnierandRobertE.Ewaltopentodebate.7Whatiscertain,however,isthatRegnierandEwaltintendedtomarketLincolnHillsasavacationresorttoeducated,middle-classblackslivinginDenver,throughoutColorado,andaroundtheUnitedStates.Ultimately,470lotswerepurchased,someforaslittleas$25.Manyplotownershailedfromoutofstate,fromNewYorktoCaliforniaandpointsin-between.However,mostofLincolnHills’propertyownerslivedinColorado,andthemajorityofthoselistedDenverashome.Arelativelysmallnumberofcabinswereactuallybuiltonthe470purchasedlots.LincolnHillswasperhapsmorepopularasaweek-endorweek-longvacationdestinationforfamilies,churchandothercivicgroups,aswellastheyoungcampersofthePhylissWheatleybranchoftheDenverYoungWomen’sChristianAssociation.BarredfromEstesParkandothercampgrounds,thePhylissWheatleyYWCAcampersspenttheirsummersatCampNizhoni,onlandleasedbytheLincolnHillsCompany.Duringthe1930s,the“Y”boughtthelandfortheincrediblyaffordablesumof$10.00.WinksLodge,asix-roominn,alsoknownasWinksPanoramaLodge,becamethevibrantheartoftheLincolnHillsresort.BuiltbyObrey“Winks”Hamletandhisfirstwife,Naomi,thethree-storylodgeservedasarestaurant,diningroom,socialcenter,andentertainmentvenuefortheresort’svisitors.WinksHamlet,anaccomplishedFivePointsbusinessman,builtanothertwenty-twocabinsinLincolnHills,andrentedthem,alongwiththesixroominWinksLodge.VisitorstravelledtoLincolnHillsbycarandbytrain.TherewasnoLincolnHillstraindepot.Thetrainstoppedalongtherailroadtracksthatranbytheresort,andafterdepartingthetrain,visitorscouldhiketheshorthilltotheircabins.WinksHamletfrequentlymetvisitorsatthetraintracksandloadedthemintohisflat-bedtruckfortheshort,bumpyridetohislodgeortonearbycabins.

7MelanieShellenbarger,HighCountrySummers:TheEarlySecondHomesofColorado,1880-1940(UniversityPressofArizona,2012),130.

LincolnHillshostedaverageandfamousblackpeoplealike.Duringthe1920sand1930s,someofthebrightestlightsoftheHarlemRenaissance–musicians,poets,novelists,essayists–visitedthemountainretreat.AfterperforminginsomeofDenver’srenownedbutsegregatedjazzclubs,someofthemostcelebratedAfricanAmericanmusiciansofthetime,includingCountBasie,LenaHorne,andDukeEllington,headedtoLincolnHills.Denver’stonyhotelswereoff-limitstoeventhemostfamousblackcelebrities,butinLincolnHills,theyfoundwelcome,food,shelter,spectacularscenery,andevenotherperformancevenues–WinksHamlet’slodgeandtavern.

Source8

8/TheLincolnHillsCountryClubandResort“ABeautiful,Scenic,RestfulMountainHome”CitationLincolnHillsad,“MountainResortSummerHomeColony,”publishedintheColoradoStatesman,May9,1925.WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary.ExcerptMOUNTAINRESORTSUMMERHOMECOLONYABEAUTIFUL,SCENIC,RESTFULMOUNTAINHOME.AWONDERSPOTINNATURE’SVASTEXPANSEOFTHEROCKYMOUNTAINS.INMANYWAYSEQUALINGANDEXCELLINGESTESPARKORANYOTHERSUMMERPLAYGROUNDINCOLORADOANDFARSURPASSINGALLINACCESSIBILITY.Arestfulretreatamongthepines.Fourautomobilehighwaystothepark.Excellenttrainserviceduringthesummermonthsontheworld’sgreatestscenicrailroad–“TheMoffatRoad.”HEALTHANDHAPPINESSGetawayfromtheroutineofbusinesslifeforaday,aweekoramonth.Takeavacationonyourownpropertyamidthestatelypines,thecoolglensanddales,ruggedrocksandcanyonsandgentleslopesbesideoneofthemostbeautifulstreamsinColorado.Youowethistoyourself,yourwifeandyourchildren...PEACEANDPROSPERITYItissaidthatGodmadethemountainsandmanmadethecity,butrememberthe“HillswereGod’sfirstTemples…”Tenyearsagoourmountainswereawildernessbuteveryavailableplacehasbeenpurchasedandcolonizedforrecreationpurposes.ThisresortwillbeaNATIONALgatheringplaceforthecoloredraceduringthesummermonthsandyoumayexpecttoseepropertyvaluesincreasemostrapidly...AnnotationBlacknewspapersservedavitalfunctioninAfricanAmericancommunities.Theydeliverednewsandopinionofinteresttotheirblackreaders.Yet,evenmoresignificantly,intheirpagesthepapersconveyedacollectivesenseofsharedexperience–ofcommunity–whethertheneighborhoodwasafive-blocksquare,acity,thenation,ortheworld.Mostimportantly,duringaperiodofhistorysoladenwithdisregardforthebasichumanityofAfricanAmericans,blacknewspaperssharedamissiontouplifttheirreaders–touplifttherace.Callstoaction,asexemplifiedbytheDenverStar’sdemandforthecreationofalocalNAACPin1913(seeresourcenumber4,“ADemandforJustice”),werealsocallstouplift,toimprovebothone’spersonallotinlifeaswellasthatofthelargerblackcommunity.Similarly,storiesofdeterminationandachievementalsosignifiedracialuplift–beitahighschoolgraduation,a

civichonor,oramilitaryexploit.Allwerenewsitemsthathelpedtocreateasharedsenseoftimeandspace-andfunctionedasexpressionsofacollectiveblackaspirationforabetterfuture.Eventheadspublishedinblacknewspapershelpedweavebondsofcommunity.TheLincolnHillsadplacedintheColoradoStatesmaninthespringof1925fitthepaper’simplicitmissionofblackupliftandachievement,evenasithelpedtopaythepaper’sbills.DeclaringthebeautyofthemountainresortequaltoifnotgreaterthanthatofEstesParkandothermountainenclaveswhereAfricanAmericansweregenerallynotwelcome,theadworkedtoremindablackmiddleclassshapedbyaspirationasmuchasbyincomethatbybuyingaplotoflandinLincolnHillstheycouldnotonlyescapethedrudgeryoftheworkweekbutcouldbeapartofa“Nationalgatheringplaceforthecoloredrace.”Surely,theadpromiseditsreaders,LincolnHillswoulddeliver“healthandhappiness…peaceandprosperity,”totheblackAmericanswhoinvestedtheirmoneyandtheirhopein“abeautiful,scenic,restfulmountainhome”ina“wonderspot”justforthem,highinColorado’sRockyMountains.

Source9

9/TheLincolnHillsCountryClubandResort“ManyUniqueAdvantagestoOurGroup”CitationLetterfromPastorG.L.PrincetoLincolnHillsInc.,endorsingtheLincolnHillsdevelopment,March17,1926.Box1,FF5,LincolnHillsCollection,Blair-CaldwellAfricanAmericanResearchLibrary,Denver,Colorado.ExcerptGentlemen:LincolnHills,nearDenver,whereIhavepurchased4lotsandwhereIhavevisitedondifferentoccasions,offersmanyuniqueadvantagestoourgroup:

1. Abeautifulspotforcamp,orcabinorfinesummerhome.2. Acool,invigoratingsummerclimatewhichisthefinestknowntonicforpeoplewhohave

hadahardyearofwork.3. Alargetractoflandcontaining2milesoftroutstream,beside4creeksandfinelakestocked

withtrout.4. Arailroadand4autoroadsfromDenvertotheresort.5. Asummercolonywherelotsarebeingsoldatsuchaverylowpricethatbuyerswillmake

moneyonthelotseveniftheyneverusethemthemselves.6. AplacewhereourracecanshowtotheNationaconstructivepieceofwork,inthe

upbuildingofagreatNationalgatheringplaceforhealth,recreations,educationanduplift.Thisdemonstrationofourcreativeabilityseemstometobethegreatestthingaboutthissplendidproject.Welikethebeauty,theclimate,thefishingandrecreationofallsorts,andwelikethemoneyprofit,buttopointwithpridetobeautifulLINCOLNHILLSastheproductofourowncreativegeniusisstillmoreinspiring.LincolnHillsisnotanoldresortabandonedbyothers,butanewproject,startedandsupportedbytheleadersofourGroupinDenverandothercities,anddestinedtobecomeamonumenttothevisionandconstructiveabilityoftheColoredRace.AnnotationMinisterswereamongthemostrespectedmembersofAfricanAmericancommunities.IntheyearsthatfollowedtheCivilWarandtheemancipationofmorethanfourmillionenslavedAfricanAmericans,freedblacksjoinedinthecommunity-buildingthatfordecadeshadengagedtheirnortherncounterparts.LongthecenterofnorthernAfricanAmericancommunitiesinthenorth,blackchurchesalsobecamethecornerstoneofthecommunitiesbuiltbyblackfreedmenandwomeninthesouth.

InDenver,thepastorofZionBaptistChurch,theoldestblackchurchinColorado,enjoyedalevelofprestigeandrespectaccordedtofew.Foundedin1877,whenthecityofDenverwaslessthan20yearsold,ZionbecamethecenterofDenver’sblackcommunity.Duringthe1920s,manyColoradans,blackandwhite,wrotelettersendorsingLincolnHillsandurgingAfricanAmericanstobuylotsintheresort.Inhisletter,Zion’spastor,G.L.Prince,capturedthelanguageofracialupliftsopopularamongtheblackmiddle-class,aswellasamongthosewithmiddle-classaspirations.HiswasamessageatonceintendedforAfricanAmericanswhowerelivinglivesofrespectability;thosewhoweredeemedtobeinneedofsocialandmoralcorrection;andforthosewhiteswhobelievedthatAfricanAmericanswerealowlypeople,incapableofachievementorrefinement.PastorPrince’sendorsementofLincolnHillspromisedblackrespectability.AmongtheadvantagesLincolnHillsofferedto“ourgroup”,wrotePrince,was“aplacewhereourracecanshowtotheNationaconstructivepieceofwork,intheupbuildingofagreatNationalgatheringplaceforhealth,recreation,education,anduplift.”PastorPrincemadeclearthatfromitsinception,LincolnHillswasmuchmorethanasummerresortwhereonemightfish,swim,andhikeinthecleanmountainair.TheresortwasalsoaboutAfricanAmericandignity,hope,andachievement.LincolnHills,promisedPastorPrince,was“destinedtobecomeamonumenttothevisionandconstructiveabilityofthecoloredrace.”

Source10

10/TheLincolnHillsCountryClubandResortTheHeartofLincolnHillsCitation:WinksPanorama(WinksLodge),(circa1950s).WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary,http://cdm16079.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15330coll26/id/0AnnotationWinksLodgewastheheartoftheLincolnHillsresortcommunity.BuiltbyObrey“Winks”HamletandhisfirstwifeNaomiin1928,thelodgeofferedsixroomswhereguestscouldspendaweekendoranentireweekortwo.Inthelodge’sparlor,guestscouldsit,read,ortalkinchairswhileafireblazedinafireplaceframedwithlargeriverrock.Hamletbuiltanintimatediningroomwithaceilingcomposedofrestoredornatewhitetintilesrecoveredfromanabandonedofficebuilding,andthesummerkitchenoffereddiningtablessetbehindawalloflargewindowsthatalloweddinerstotakeinthemountainsceneryastheyate.Duringthesummermonths,thelodgekitchenwasthebusiestroominthelodge.NaomiHamlet,andafterherdeath,Winks’ssecondwifeMelba,providedguestswithdownhomemealssoexquisitethatsometravelledtotheresortfortheculinaryexperiencealone.

Source11

11/TheLincolnHillsCountryClubandResortAPlaceforYoungBlackGirlsCitationPhotograph(detail)ofgirlsfromthePhylissWheatleychapteroftheColoradoYoungWomen’sChristianAssociationatplayinSouthBoulderCreek,CampNizhoni,LincolnHills,Colorado.WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibraryhttp://cdm16079.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15330coll22/id/67889AnnotationAfricanAmericanchildrenalsosufferedthestingofracialsegregationanddiscrimination.Duringthe1920sand1930s,astheirparentswerebarredfrommostmountainretreats,blackchildrenwerealsoforbiddenentrytosummercampsandexcludedfrommanyrecreationalandserviceorganizations,liketheYoungWomen’sChristianAssociation(YWCA).CampNizhoniwasamountainretreatthatAfricanAmericangirlscouldcalltheirveryown.Nizhoni–aNavajowordforbeautiful–wasestablishedin1925bytheDenverPhylissWheatleyColoredYWCAonlandprovidedbytheLincolnHillsCompany.MostofthecamperscamefromDenver,butothershailedfrommoredistantColoradocitiesincludingColoradoSpringsandPueblo,andmorethanafewarrivedfromoutofstate.Thecampofferedthegirlsmountainoutingsfilledwithhiking,swimming,fishing,cook-outs,andsingingaroundthecampfire.ThePhylissWheatleyColoredYWCAwaslocatedintheheartofDenver’sFivePointscommunity.Openedin1916,the“Y”chapterwasthenamesakeoftheeighteenth-centurypoetandauthorwhoasayounggirlhadbeencapturedinWestAfricaandenslavedinBoston,Massachusetts.TheColoredYWCAsponsoredmanyserviceandrecreationprogramsforAfricanAmericangirlsandwomen,butCampNizhoniwasitsjewelintheRockies.

Source12

12/RootsofChange:WorldWarIIandtheColdWar“TheEagleisOurNationalBird,NottheJimCrow”Citation“TheEagleIsOurNationalBird,NottheJimCrow,”DenverStar,June7,1941,p.2.WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary.AnnotationDuringtheearlyyearsofWorldWarII,theDenverStarpostedthisbanneratopitseditorialcolumn:“TheEagleIsOurNationalBird,notthe‘JimCrow.’”Theargumentwasclear:Americacouldnotfulfillitscredooflibertyandequalitywhilecondoningsegregation,discriminationandracistterrorism.Duringthewar,theDenverStarandotherblacknewspapersdrewdamningparallelsbetweenthemonsterHitlerandAmericanlynchings,segregation,anddiscrimination.Althoughinitsmosttechnicalcontext,thephrase“JimCrow”referredtofederal,state,andlocallawsthatrequiredracialsegregation,theDenverStarusedthetermmoreexpansively,asdidmostAfricanAmericansgenerally,toincludediscrimination,segregation,andviolencecondonedbycustomaswellasbygovernment-mandate.TheUnitedStates’battleagainstNaziGermanyanditsideologyofAryansupremacypresentedlongtimecivilrightsadvocates(liketheNAACPandtheCosmopolitanClub)andblacknewspapersacrucialopportunitytohighlightthechasmthatseparatedAmericanidealsofindividuallibertyandequalityfromthenation’srealityofsystemicracialsegregation,discrimination,andviolence.TheembarrassinginternationalspotlightonAmericanwhitesupremacyforcedbytheAllies’waragainsttheNazi’swhitesupremacistideologyaswellasHitler’sterritorialaggression,providedcriticalsupportforthecivilrightsargumentsthathadbeenlongpressedbyblacksandotherpeoplesofcolorbutignoredbymostwhites.Paradoxically,thegrowingacknowledgmentofthemoralforceofdemandsforequalrightsunderthelawinthetwodecadesthatfollowedtheendofthewarwould,overtime,alsoupendorganizations,clubs,resorts,andneighborhoodsestablishedbypeoplesofcolor.InColorado,itwasnotacoincidencethatMelbaHamletsoldWinksLodge–theheartofLincolnHills–in1965,theyearherhusbandWinksHamletdied,andperhapsjustassignificant,oneyearafterCongresspassedtheCivilRightsActof1964.Amongthelandmarklaw’sprovisions:abanonracialdiscriminationinpublicaccommodationsanywhereintheUnitedStates.Duringthewar,manyofficialsinthefederalgovernmentobjectedtotheconstantfocusblacknewspaperstrainedonthenation’ssegregatedmilitaryandfederalworkforceandthediscriminatoryemploymentpoliciesofthegovernment’sprivatedefensecontractors.ManygovernmentofficialsaccusedblacknewspapersliketheDenverStarandtheColoradoStatesmanofbeingdisloyal.Theaccusationspromptedonenotableblacknewspaper,thePittsburghCourier,tolaunchitslegendary“DoubleVCampaign,”inwhichtheCourierdeclareditssupportforvictoryovertheenemiesoffreedom–inGermanyaswellasintheUnitedStates.8However,asraceriotsconvulsedAmericancitiesduringWorldWarIIandhighlightedadiscomfitingsynergybetweenGermany’swhitesupremacyandtheracismpracticedonAmericansoil,agrowingnumberofinfluentialwhiteliberalsbegantoembracethe

8InFebruary,1942,thePittsburghCourier,aprominentAfricanAmericannewspaperpublishedinPennsylvania,launcheditsDoubleVCampaignwiththisexplanation:“Thusinourfightforfreedomwewageatwo-prongedattackagainstourenslaversathome,andthoseabroadwhowouldenslaveus.WEHAVEASTAKEINTHISFIGHT…WEAREAMERICANSTOO!”

argumentsadvancedbycivilrightsactivists.HowcouldtheU.S.layclaimtomoralsuperiorityinthebattleagainsttheGerman-ledAxispowerswitharaciallysegregatedfightingforce?HowcouldAmericandemocracybesuperiortoNazitotalitarianismwhenthenation’slawsandcustomscondonedlynching,raceriotsfueledbywhitemobs,andsystemicdiscriminationandsegregationinemployment,housing,publicaccommodationsandotheraspectsofeverydaylife?In1943,ayearinwhichdozensofraceriotseruptedincitiesfromDetroittoLosAngeles,aninterracial,interethnic,andinterfaithcoalitionofcivilrightssupportersandorganizationsinDenverformedtheDenverUnityCouncil(DUC).TheDUCexpressedthesamephilosophyasthatextoledbytheDenverCosmopolitanClubandlocalNAACPdecadesearlier.Americanism,theDUCargued,“isamatterofthemindandheart,andnotamatterofrace,ancestry,orreligion.”

Source13

13/Primarysource/RootsofChange:WorldWarIIandtheColdWar–“HowDoYouRateAsAnAmerican?”CitationDenverUnityCouncilPamphlet,pages1-3,MSS1654,S4.B9,FF9,DenverUnityCouncilcollection,StephenH.HartLibraryandResearchCenter,HistoryColoradoCenter.ExcerptHOWDOYOURATEASANAMERICAN?1. Doyoubelievethatallpeopleshouldhaveanequalopportunityforemploymentregardlessofrace,

colorornationalorigin?2. DoyoubelievethatcitizensshouldbegrantedDenverhotelandrestaurantservicesregardlessof

theircolororreligion?3. DoyoubelievethatallpeopleinDenvershouldhavetherighttolivewheretheywish,andnotbe

forcedintosubstandardareasbyracialrestrictivecovenants?4. Doyoubelievethatpeoplecanbeencouragebyeducationalprogramstobetterunderstandingof

eachother?Ifyouanswered“Yes”toeveryquestion,youarea“positive”American,accordingtotheBillofrightsofourConstitution.Nowwewanttoaskyouanotherquestion:

5. Doyoumakeitapointtotakepositiveactiontosecuretheserightsnotonlyforyourselfbutfor

others?Ifyouransweris“Yes”youwillwanttojoinwithotherswhoareworkingtowardtheseends.Ifyouransweris“No”nowisthattimetobeginto“accentuatethepositive.”Ineithercase,youshouldjoin…THEDENVERUNITYCOUNCILWHATANDWHY…

FouryearsagoseveralDenvercitizens,consciousthatbigotryanddiscriminationwerenottrademarksofHitler’sworldalone,formedtheDenverUnityCouncil.Theair:tofight,onthelocalfront,allpersonsandorganizationswhoshouldattempttodefytheConstitutionbyclaimingthatsomeracesarebetterthanothers,bydenyingemploymentbecauseofcolororcreed,bypreachingthehatredwhich,intheendcanleadonlytobloodshedandrepression.”WHO…

InfouryearstheCouncilhasgrowntoinclude93organizationsandover800individualmembers.TheirworkandtheirmoneyhavebuiltanincreasinglyeffectiveUnityCouncil.HOW…ItisnotENOUGHtotellamanheshouldlovehisbrother,thathisworkandsecurityfinaldependontheabilityofallmentopulltogetherasone.Totalkunityisfine,butitisNOTenough.TheCouncilseeksoutthecausesbehindlocal“anti-Americanism”andworksoutsolutions.

AnnotationADenverUnityCouncil(DUC)pamphletpublishedin1947advocatedfairtreatmentofallDenverresidentsregardlessofrace,color,creed,orreligion.Evenmoresignificantly,thepamphletlinkedracialintoleranceandprejudiceintheUnitedStatestothehorrorsofNaziGermany.EqualityoftreatmentandopportunityweretrueAmericanideals,arguedtheDUC,whilebigotryanddiscriminationwerenot“trademarksofHitler’sworldalone.”AnotherDUCpamphletthathadbeenpublishedduringthewarremindeditsreadersthatsoldiersofallraceswereriskingtheirlivesinthenameofAmericandemocracyandthatthebulletsfiredbyGermansoldiersdidnotdiscriminateintheirtargets.TheUnityCouncil’smotto–“Americanismisamatterofthemindandtheheart,andnotamatterorrace,ancestry,orreligion”–symbolizedtheorganization’smissiontowinapopularrejectionoftheracistandxenophobic“100percentAmericanism”thathadbecomesopopularduringthepost-WorldWarIera.TheUnityCouncilsponsoredseveralfairemploymentbillsintheColoradolegislature–thefirstin1945.AlthoughthelegislaturerejectedtheDUC’sproposal,in1944thesamelegislaturesucceededindefeatingavirulentlyracistproposalthatwouldhavedeniedanypersonofJapaneseancestrywhowasnotanAmericancitizentherighttoownpropertyinColorado.Oppositiontothe1944anti-JapaneselandownershipbillwasledbywarveteranswhoembracedtheargumentsoftheDenverStarandtheDenverUnityCouncil.StateRepresentativeEarlMann,anAfricanAmericanveteranofWorldWarIandcolumnistfortheColoradoStatesman,expressedsolidaritywiththeJapaneseresidentstargetedbythebill.“Ifthismeasurepasses,”Mannqueried,“whatareNegroesfightingfor?”Anotherveteran,WayneHill,whowaswhiteandhadbeenrecentlydischargedfromtheArmy,defendedhisvoteagainsttheanti-Japanesebillasavoteforfreedom.“IamcautionedthatIwillbesorry[formyvote]…IamjustaswillingtodieapoliticaldeathasIamtodieinbattletopreserveAmericanfreedom.”Theimprisonmentofmorethan7000JapaneseAmericansandJapanesenon-citizensattheAmacheinternmentcampinsoutheastColoradoduringthewarmadethestatelegislature’sdefeatoftheanti-Japaneselandownershipbillallthemoreremarkable.(PleaseseethesetofresourcesonAmacheformoreinformation.)Ifthelegislaturecouldrejectanattempttodiscriminateagainstanunpopularminority,civilrightsadvocateshadreasontohopethatthestate’slawmakersmightonedayaccepttheirargumentsforbroad-basedanti-discriminationlegislation.InColorado,andacrossthecountry,theseedsofracialchangehadbeenplanted.WorldWarIIhelpedtoaccomplishwhatdecadesofprotestandadvocacybyblacks,otherpeoplesofcolor,andtheirallieshadnot.Hitler’swhitesupremacisthorrors,thecriticalroleplayedbytheUnitedStatesinthedefeatofNaziGermany,andthewarserviceofthousandsofAmericansofcolorhelpedtransformtheunquestionedwhitesupremacistassumptionsheldbymanywhiteAmericansintobeliefsthatmanywouldcometoconsiderun-democraticharbingersofstrifeandwar.Thoseseedsofracialchangesproutedlocallyandnationallyduringthefollowingtwodecades,andusheredinacivilrightsrevolutionnotseensincethedaysofReconstruction.Butin1945,nooneknewthatasaconsequence,thedaysofinstitutionslikeLincolnHillsthathadbeenbuiltinparttoprovidesanctuaryfromtheslingsandarrowsofexclusion,werenumbered.

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14/RootsofChange:WorldWarIIandtheColdWar“TheHighCostofPrejudice”Citation“TheHighCostofPrejudice,”RockyMountainLife,February,1948.StephenH.HartLibraryandResearchCenter,HistoryColoradoCenter.ExcerptDenver’scomplacencyaboutitstreatmentof“minoritygroups”recentlywasshatteredbythereleaseofashockingreportbyMayorQuiggNewton’sSurveyCommitteeonHumanRelations.Thesurveywasconductedoverafour-monthperiodtoanalyzetheextentofprejudiceanddiscriminationagainstsome65,000Negroes,Spanish-Americans,JewishandJapanesecitizensinDenver,andtochartacourseforfutureactionforcitygovernmenttoremedytheseconditions.Thus,DenverbecamethefirstcityintheUnitedStatestocriticallytakeinventoryofitshumanrelationsproblemsfollowingthecreationofthePresident’sCommissiononCivilRights….Severalstartlingconclusionscanbedrawnfromthisreport.Denvercannothopetoprogresswhileitdeniesequalrightstoalargesegmentofitspopulation.Progressisimpededwhentalent,energy,andthewilltosucceedaredestroyed.Restrictivecovenantsinhousingdeedsalongwith“gentlemen’sagreement”arecontinuingtoshapegeographicalghettoswhichbreedfrustrationandhatred.Economicsanctionsdeprivethousandsofarighttoearnadecentsalarywiththeinevitableresultofadecliningstandardofliving.Ahistoryofpolicebrutalityhasdevelopedafearandalackofrespectforlawenforcementtothepointofbecomingaseriousfactorintheincreaseincrimeandjuveniledelinquency.Discriminationathotels,resorts,restaurants,andatrecreationalfacilitieshaveshapedsocialpatternscontrarytotheAmericanwayoflife.Thedenialofequalpublicandprivatehealthfacilitiesseriouslyimpairsthelivesoftoomanycitizens.Alackofopportunityforapprenticetrainingaswellaseducationdiscriminationcondemnsmanyyoungpeopletoalifeofscarcityandpoverty.AnnotationIntheaftermathofWorldWarII,theimpetusbehindthecreationoftheDenverUnityCouncilandsimilarorganizationsinothernortherncitiescoalescedintoanationalmovement.Thenewmovementtoimprove“humanrelations”wasdedicatedtocombatingracialandreligiousdiscrimination.Movementactivistsfavoredtheuseoforganizedpubliceducationcampaigns,andsome–includingtheDenverUnityCouncil(DUC)–championedpassageofanti-discriminationlaws.TheDUC,abroadcoalitionofindividualactivistsandhumanrelations,civic,religious,educational,labor,andbusinessorganizations,ledthehumanrelationsmovementinColoradoduringthe1940s.In1947,theDUCsecuredakeycampaignpromisefromDenvermayoralcandidateQuiggNewtontoappointacommitteetodocumentdiscriminationinthecity.Newton,ayoungNavyveteran,wontheelectionandmadegoodonhiscampaignpledgebyappointingseveralmembersoftheDUCtoanewMayor’sSurveyCommittee

onHumanRelations.Thecreationofthesurveycommitteewascrucial:itrepresentedamoreexpansiveunderstandingofagovernment’sresponsibilitytoandforitscitizens.Protectingthehealth,safety,andwelfareofDenver’sresidentswouldnowalsoincludecombatingbigotryanddiscrimination.

Inanarticleentitled“TheHighCostofPrejudice,”publishedinRockyMountainLifeinFebruary1948,LouisSidman,chairmanofMayorNewton’sSurveyCommitteeanddirectoroftheTri-StatesAnti-DefamationLeague,notedagrimreportissuedbyU.S.PresidentHarryTruman’sCommitteeonCivilRights.InthewakeoftheTrumancommittee’sreport,Mr.SidmanclaimedthatDenverhadbeenthefirstAmericancitytoappointahumanrelationscommitteetoinvestigate“theextentofprejudiceanddiscriminationagainstsome65,000Negroes,Spanish-Americans,Jewish,andJapanesecitizens.”ThepublishedfindingsandconclusionsofDenver’shumanrelationscommitteewereassensationallocallyasPresidentTruman’scommittee’shadbeennationally.Thelocalcommitteedocumentedsystemicdiscriminationinemployment,housing,publicaccommodations,thecity’shealthcarefacilities,andahistoryofbrutalityagainstracialminoritiesbymembersoftheDenverpoliceforce.Inresponsetothereport,MayorNewtonappointedapermanentDenverHumanRelationsCommitteetodevelopprogramstocombatdiscriminationandprejudiceinthecity.“Thechallengeofobtainingfirst-classcitizenshipforallpeoplesinademocracyisonewhichhasbeenacceptedbyDenver’snewandforwardlookingcityadministration,”LouisSidmanwrotewithapprovalinRockyMountainLife.ChangewasafootinDenver,asinmanyothercitiesintheUnitedStates.Theseedsofchangeplantedduringthewarwereeversoslowlybearingfruit.

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15/RootsofChange:WorldWarIIandtheColdWarMakingtheArgument:JimCrowandCommunismCitationGeorgeBrown,“ItHappensinDenver:JimCrowStrongAllyofCommunistsinAppealtoMinorities,”DenverPost,September25,1951.WesternHistoryandGenealogyDepartment,DenverPublicLibrary.ExcerptJIMCROWSTRONGALLYOFCOMMUNISTSINAPPEALTOMINORITIES(Editor’snote:ThisisthesecondinaseriesofarticlesdealingwithJimCrowinDenver.It’sastoryobtainedbyayoungmanfullyqualifiedinbackgroundandexperience.HeisareporterfortheDenverPost,HealsoisaNegro.)JimCrowandthepeopleinDenverwholethimgoonlivingareleavingthedoorwideopenforCommunistpropaganda.TheminoritiesinDenver—andtheircousinsaroundtheworld—aretuningmoreandmoretotheCommunistliesforrelieffromdailyoppression.IknowbecauseIhaveseenithappen–righthereinDenver.Thehardfactthattheminorityracesnolongeraresatisfiedwithaprogramoflimitedconcessions,piecemealadjustmentsandtardyappeasementwasbroughtintosharpfocusrecentlyaftertheshootingofa15year-oldNegroboybyaDenverpatrolman.Fromthebeginning,DemocracywasonthelosingsideofthatparticulartusslewithCommunism.TheCommunistsseizedquicklyonthedissatisfactionofDenverNegroestostageemotion-raisingpropaganda.TheCommunistsgotalotofbacking….Whyareweminoritiessusceptibletosuchpropagandawhentheliesaresoobvious?I’veaskedmyselfthismanytimes.Ihavetalkedwithmanymembersofmyraceandotherminoritygroups.Theyarealmostwithoutexception100percentloyaltothiscountrywhenitcomestofightingawar,andtheyhavenothingbutpraisefortheirAmericanheritage.Buttheyareconfusedand—aboveall—theyaredispleasedwithmanythings.Theyblamethemajorityfornothavingnationalcivilrightsandfairemploymentpracticelawspassedbycongress….Negroveteranscan’tunderstandwhytheycannotexerciseallthecivillibertiestheyfoughtforinWorldWarII–thesamerightsforwhichmenoftheminoritiesnowaredyinginKorea…ThefactthatDenver“isbetterthanmostplaces”showsthataconstructiveanddemocraticstartforbetterhumanrelationshasbeenmadehere.Butagoodstartisnotenough.TheCommiesthriveonhalfmeasureshere,aselsewhere.”

AnnotationGeorgeBrownwasfirstAfricanAmericanjournalisthiredbytheDenverPost.Brown’shiringin1950wasremarkableenough.Evenmoreremarkable:thePostcommissionedthereportertowriteaseriesofarticleson“JimCrowinDenver.”Inhiscolumns,Brownillustratedtherealityofracialdiscriminationinthecriminaljusticesystem,employment,housing,andpublicaccommodationsinDenverforthepaper’sreaders.Takentogether,Brown’shiringandtheJimCrowseries(alongwiththePost’shiringofBillHosokawa,aJapaneseAmericanreporterwhohadbeenimprisonedatWyoming’sHeartMountaininternmentcampduringthewar)weregroundbreakingfortheirtime.Nolongerwouldcoverageofdiscrimination–bothreportageandeditorialcriticism–belimitedtothecity’sblackandethnicpapers.TheDenverPost,oneofthestate’slargestdailynewspapers,hadbeguntopayattention.

Inhiscolumn,“JimCrowStrongAllyofCommunists”BrownwarnedthePost’slargereadershipthatracialdiscriminationandpolicebrutalityhurtnotonlypeoplesofcolor,butalsoleftDenverand,byextension,theUnitedStates,vulnerabletoCommunistopportunism.Brown’sargumentwasnotnew.Duringthewar,theDenverStar,ColoradotheDenverUnityCouncilandhumanrelationsactiviststhroughouttheU.S.hadanalogizedAmericandiscriminationandracistviolencetoHitlerism,andnow,inthepost-warera,activistscontendedthatAmericanwhitesupremacydamagedthecredibilityoftheU.S.internationally.

TheargumentwasimportantandwouldhaveacriticalimpactoncivilrightsinColoradoandnationallyaswell.AfterWorldWarII,formeralliesUnitedStatesandtheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics(U.S.S.R.)entereda“ColdWar”contestforpoliticalandeconomicsupremacy.TheywagedtheirideologicalcontestinAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmerica.AsAfricanAmericansandotherpeoplesofcolorwerefightingtoendthereignofracistdiscriminationandviolenceintheU.S.,thedark-skinnedpeoplesofAfrica,Asia,andLatinAmericawerefightingtoliberatethemselvesfromtheyokeofEuropeancolonialrule.DuringtheColdWar,theU.S.S.R.usedincidentsofracistterrorandinstitutionaldiscriminationintheU.S.toarguethatwhitesweretheonlybeneficiariesofAmericandemocracyandcapitalism.HowcouldtheemergingnationsofAfrica,Asian,andLatinAmericatrusttheUnitedStatestodealfairly,whenAmericadidnotdealfairlywithitsowncitizens?DenverPostreporterGeorgeBrownreiteratedthisargumentinhisJimCrowcolumn.Citingarecentshootingofayoungblackteen-ageboybyDenverpolice,Brownwarnedthenewspaper’sreadersthattheseincidentswereprimefodderforCommunistanti-Americanpropaganda–athomeandabroad.

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16/RootsofChange:WorldWarIIandtheColdWar“It’sARecord!”Citation“NewCivilRightsLegislation,”and“It’saRecord!”PersonalADLLetter,summer,1957.JamesA.AtkinsCollection,MSS21,Box46,FF2020,StephenH.HartLibraryandResearchCenter,HistoryColoradoCenter.ExcerptNewCivilRightsLegislationThelastsessionoftheColoradolegislaturewasthemostproductiveinhistoryinthepassageofCivilRightsLegislation.TheLegislaturepassedsevenbillswhichhaveadirectbearinguponcivilrights.TheyledoffbypassingacomprehensiveFairEmploymentPracticesAct,coveringprivateemployers,andsetanewprecedent…notadissentingvotewascastineitherhouse…andthenincreasedtheamountofmoneyfortheAnti-DiscriminationCommissionsoitcouldexpanditsstaffforbetterenforcement.Inotheractions,theLegislatureplacedtheenforcementandadministrationofthePublicAccommodationsLawundertheCommission.Theypassedabillrequiringmotelstoposttheirratessothatonepersonwouldnotbechargedmorethananotherbecauseofskincolororreligion.Theyrepealedthemiscegenationlaw…It’sARecord!TheColoradoLegislaturesetanoutstandingexampleofwhatcanbedonetostrengthencivilrightslegislation.It’sarecordwhich,tomyknowledge,hasneverbeenequaledinonesessionbyanyotherstate.CongresscanwelltakealessonfromtheColoradolawmakers!AnnotationThePersonalADLLetter,thequarterlynewsletteroftheMountainStatesAnti-DefamationLeague,wasexultant.WhiletheU.S.Congresshadyettopassamajorcivilrightsbillinthetwentiethcentury,in1957theColoradolegislaturepassedseven.“It’sarecordwhich,tomyknowledge,hasneverbeenequaledinonesessionbyanotherstate.CongresscanwelltakealessonfromtheColoradolawmakers,”enthusedADLregionaldirectorSheldonSteinhauser.ThecoalitionthatchampionedracialequalityandcivilrightslegislationinColorado,firstledbytheDenverUnityCouncil,hadreorganizedin1950undertheleadershipoftheADL.UndertheauspicesoftheADL,theyachievedastunningnumberoflegislativevictories,startingwiththelegislature’spassageofthestate’sfirstfairemploymentlawin1951.Theselegislativeachievementsreflectedachangeinpopularopinionaswell.Althoughracistbeliefsandpracticeswerestillaliveandfestering,anundeniableseachangeinpopularopinionhadtakenplaceregardingwhatbeliefswereandwerenotconsistentwith

Americandemocracyandfreedom.ItwasachangeinpopularopinionthatunderminedtheveryrationaleforthecreationoftheLincolnHillsmountainresort:duringthe1950s,agrowingnumberofColoradanshadcometoviewopenlyracistdiscriminationandexclusionasharmfulandunfair.Amongthemeasurespassedbythestatelegislaturein1957:anextensionofthereachofColorado’sfairemploymenttoincludeprivateemployers(theoriginallawcoveredonlygovernmentalemployers),therepealofthestatebanoninterracialmarriage.Thelegislaturealsoplacedjurisdictionoverthestate’sold1895publicaccommodationslawintheColoradoAnti-DiscriminationCommission–astateagencyspecificallycreatedtoenforcethestate’santi-discriminationlaws.Throughoutthedecade,humanrelationsactivistshadeffectivelyusedtheracialpoliticsofWorldWarIIandtheColdWartotheiradvantage.TheimpactoftheirstrategywasmadecrystalclearbyColoradoGovernorDanThorntonin1951:ashesignedthestate’sfirstfairemploymentlawinfrontofreporters,Thornton–soundingmorelikeaU.S.statesmanthanaColoradogovernor–declaredthatthelaw“wasprooftotheCommuniststhatthiscountryisinterestedinthewelfareofminorities.”Yet,perhapsevenmoretellingthantheselegislativevictories,duringthe1950schangingpublicopinionandprivatebusinesspracticesledtoanincreasingnumberofAfricanAmericansandotherpeoplesofcolorgainingaccesstostores,theaters,swimmingpools,andparks–includingmountainparks–thathadpreviouslydeniedthem.Somuchworklayahead,bothtoensureenforcementofanti-discriminationlawsandtoexpandthenumberofColoradansprotectedbythem.However,itwasclearthatoverthecourseofthedecade,theseedsofcivilrightschangehadindeedmaturedinColorado.

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17/AChangedWorldLincolnHillsTodayCitationWinksLodge,2015.DaniNewsum,photograph.AnnotationMelbaHamlet,thewidowofObrey“Winks”Hamlet,soldherhusband’shistoriclodgeafterhisdeathin1965.ThepassingofHamlet,whoselodgeformedthesocialandculturalheartoftheLincolnHillsCountryresortcommunity,followedcloselyuponCongress’passageofthe1964CivilRightsAct.Botheventswererichinsymbolism,astheymarkedtheendofanera.Congressionalapprovalofthelandmarkcivilrightslawannouncedaseismicchangeinfederalpolicy:discriminationinemployment,publiceducation,andpublicaccommodationswasnowillegalasamatteroffederallaw.TheorganizingprincipleforLincolnHillshaddisappearedasPresidentLyndonBainesJohnson’ssignedthe1964CivilRightsAct.And,asifoncue,Mr.Hamlet’spassingoneyearearliermarkedtheendofWinksLodge,andineffect,LincolnHills.However,inColoradochangehadalreadysettledinyearsbeforetheCivilRightsActof1964.Thestate’scivilrightsrevolutionhadbegunmorethanadecadeearlier,andbytheendofthe1950s,manyblackpeopleinColoradowereenjoyingmountainparksthatjustfiveortenyearsearlierhadbeenofflimitstothem.Duringthe1960s,asAfricanAmericansenjoyedaccesstoanincreasingvarietyofmountainrecreationalparks,hotels,andmotels,thelureofLincolnHillscontinuedtofade.InrecognitionofitssingularlegacyasthesiteofAfricanAmericanrefuge,recreation,entertainment,andculturalenlightenmentintheWestduringthereignofracialsegregationanddiscrimination,WinksLodgewasplacedontheNationalParkServiceRegisterofHistoricPlacesin1980.Today,visitorscandrivetoLincolnHillsandviewthelodgefromtheoutside,orarrangeaguidedtourofthelodge’sinteriorthroughtheLincolnHillsFlyfisherGroup,thecurrentowneroftheformerresortproperty.OutsideofWinksLodge,however,timehasleftitsmarkonLincolnHills.Asmallnumberoffamilieshavemaintainedtheircabinsandtheirconnectionstoahistorictimeandplace,butmostofthehistoricresort’scabinsandotherstructureshavefallenintovariousstagesofdisrepair.CurrentlytheLincolnHillsFlyfisherGroupoperatesaprivateflyfishinglodgeontheoldresortproperty.Thegroup’scharitableLincolnHillsCaresoperation,inassociationwithvariouscommunitypartners,sponsorsmountaintrips,recreation,andentertainmentprogramsdesignedforfamiliesandforyoungpeoplewhomightnototherwisehavetheopportunitytoenjoyColorado’sRockyMountains.

AdditionalResourcesWebsitesHistoricLincolnHillsandLincolnHillsCareswww.lincolnhills.com/historic-lincoln-hills/history/LincolnHills–M.Gerwing–ArchitectsNotebookhttps://mgerwing.wordpress.com/2010/08/31/winks-lodge/LincolnHills-HistoryColoradohttp://exhibits.historycolorado.org/lincolnhills/lincoln_home.htmlLincolnHillsCountryClubwww.blackpast.org/.../lincoln-hills-country-club-1922-1966BooksandArticlesK.A.Anadoitis,JustinaFord:BabyDoctor,GreatLivesinColoradoSeries(PalmerLake,CO:FilterPress,2013).MarkS.Foster,“IntheFaceof‘JimCrow’:ProsperousBlacksandVacations,TravelandOutdoorLeisure,1890-1945,”JournalofNegroHistory(Spring1999).MoyaHansen,“EntitledtoFullandEqualEnjoyment:LeisureandEntertainmentintheDenverBlackCommunity,1900to1930,”UniversityofColoradoDenverStudiesJournal10(No.1,spring1993):47-71.AndreaJuarez,“LincolnHills:AnAfrican-AmericanMonumentinColorado’sMountains,”UrbanSpectrum,May2007.CraigLeavitt,“AShelterfromHarshTimes:TheAfricanAmericanResortofLincolnHills,”ColoradoHeritageMagazine,March-April,2012,14-21.ClaireMartin,“AResorttoRemember,”DenverPost.Com,February15,2009MelanieShellenberger,HighCountrySummers:TheEarlySecondHomesofColorado,1890-1940(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2012).VideoPrograms“LincolnHills,”ColoradoExperience–RockyMountainPublicBroadcastingServicevideo.rmpbs.org/video/2339004018

TeachingStrategiesGeneralInstructionalStrategiesforusingprimarysourcesinclassroomsfollowedbygrade-level-targetedsuggestionsforessentialquestions,inquiryquestions(includingwritingpromptsanddiscussionstarters),activities,andassessmentsalignedtospecificstateacademicstandardsfor4thgrade,8thgrade,andhighschool.4thGradeEssentialQuestions:• HowareeventsinU.S.andworldhistoryconnectedtoeventsinColorado?• HowhavedifferentpeopleleftanimpactonthestateofColorado?• InwhatwaysdoweseeColorado’shistoryreflectedinthestatetoday?• Howdoesconnectingpeople,eventsandideashelpinterprethistory?• Howdoindividualsinfluenceandworkwithgovernment?

• InquiryQuestions(writingpromptsordiscussionstarters):• HowdiddiversepeopleimpactColorado’shistoryandculture?• Whatareexamplesofcauseandeffectrelationshipsassociatedwiththeactionsofdiverse

citizens?• WhywasLincolnHillscreated?WhateffectdidithaveonColorado’sAfricanAmericans?• Howdidcivilrightsactivistsworkwiththegovernmenttoachievemoreequalrights?

Activities:Warmup/quickactivities• ChoosearandomprimarysourcefromthesettoanalyzeusingtheCropItMethod.

http://teachinghistory.org/teaching-materials/teaching-guides/25697• Studentscandoaquickanalysisusingthe6C’sofPrimarySourceAnalysis

(https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B3w0Qd99SapzNWY1OGZhMDYtY2IwYS00MDM4LTkwYjUtZjQ1YjgxOWFhMTA4/edit?hl=en_US&authkey=CN6XlTw)usinganyoftheprimarysourcedocuments.Teachersmaychoosetouseonesourcefromeachsub-sectionoftheset.

Lessonactivities• Readthefollowingbookstostudentspriortoaccessingprimarysourcestoprovidebackground

knowledgeandpersonalconnectionstotheCivilRightsMovement:o UnstoppableOctobiaMaybySharonFlakeo FreedomSummerbyDeborahWiles

• Takeawalkingfieldtrip(http://www.historycolorado.org/educators/explore-denver-walking-

tours)withtheHistoryColoradoCenterthroughFivePointstoexplorethepeople,placesandideasthatshapedAfricanAmericancultureandhistoryinDenver.

• IfyouareunabletovisittheHistoryColoradoCenter,visittheironlineLincolnHillsexhibit(http://exhibits.historycolorado.org/lincolnhills/lincoln_home.html)withstudents.YoucanalsoviewaColoradoExperience(http://video.rmpbs.org/video/2339004018/)video.

• UtilizetheLibraryofCongress’recommendationsforanalyzingprimarysources(http://www.loc.gov/teachers/usingprimarysources/resources/Analyzing_Primary_Sources.pdf).Todothis,studentsshouldeithereachreceiveacopyofaprimarysourcethattheywillbeanalyzing,oracopycanbeprojectedtotheentireclass.Eachstudentshouldhavethreepost-itnoteswheretheycanwriteanobservation(s),areflection(s),andaquestion(s).Aftertheyhavedonethis,theycanposttheirnotesonthreedesignatedplaces(i.e.:abulletinboard,whiteboard,chartspaper,etc.)Theteachercangothrougheachstepofanalyzingwithstudentsanddiscusscommonalities.Followingtheobservationstage,theteachermaywanttoprovidestudentswithmorebackgroundknowledgeaboutthesource.Afollowupactivitymayinvolvehavingstudentsresearchtheirquestionsinmoredepth.

• Studentscanuseacomicstriptohelpexplaintheirunderstandingofcauseandeffectrelationships.Studentsshouldbeginbyanalyzingprimarysources#1-6toexplorehowracismemergedinourstate.ThisshouldalsoexplaintheneedforcreatingaseparateAfricanAmericanmountainresort.DiscusswithstudentsthedifferentperspectivesofeachgroupofColoradocitizenstohelpthemunderstandthetimeperiod.RelateeventsinColoradotoeventsintheUnitedStates(i.e.:theCivilWar,westernexpansion,etc.).AfterstudentshaveanunderstandingofwhyLincolnHillswascreated,havethemanalyzeprimarysources#7-11toexploretheeffectsoftheresort.ThenhavestudentsusethetoolComicLife(http://comiclife.com)tocreateacauseandeffectcomicstriptoexplainthistimelineofevents.

• HavestudentscreateavacationposteradvertisingLincolnHills.Remindthemtoconsidertheiraudienceanduseprimarysources#7-11tohighlightspecificdetailsthattheymightusetopersuadepeopletovisit.TheyshouldalsovisittheLincolnHillswebsite(http://lincolnhillscares.org)toexplorehistory,famousvisitors,andanyotherhelpfulinformationthattheymightincludetoadvertisefortheresort.Havestudentspresenttheirposterstotheclassandexplainhowtheirpostersmight’veinfluencedthediversepopulationinColoradointhe1920s.

• HavestudentsdiscussthecontrastingpointsofviewthatwereprevalentduringWorldWarIIandtheColdWar.DiscusshowcivilrightsactivistsattemptedtodrawparallelsbetweenworldaffairsandaffairsonthehomefrontinordertogiveothersabetterperspectiveofhowAfricanAmericanswerebeingtreatedintheUnitedStates.Useprimarysources#12-16andthetablebelow,orsomethingsimilar,tofacilitatethisconversation.MakesurethatstudentsarealsoconnectingdiscriminationduringWWIItoboththeEuropeanandPacificfrontstoconnectlearningtoCampAmache.

WorldWarIIPointofView

CivilRightsPointofView ColdWarPointofView

Whatdoessegregation&discriminationmeanduringthisera?

Whatdoesracialinequalitylooklikeinthisperiod?

HowwaspropagandausedtorelatethiseratotheCivilRightsMovement?

8thGradeEssentialQuestions:• DidtheCivilWarsolvewhatitintendedtosolve?• Whatsocial,political,andeconomicfactorsencouragedAfricanAmericanstoleavetheSouthafter

theCivilWar?• Howdidculture,geography,politicsandeconomicsdictatewherepeoplemovedduringtheGreat

Migration?• HowwasLincolnHillsasymbolofthehopeAfricanAmericanspossessedaftertheCivilWar?• DiscusstheroleofpoliticsinColoradointhe1920s,specificallytheroleoftheKKK,andhowthose

issuesimpactedAfricanAmericansthenandintheyearstocome.• WasColoradoaleaderorafollowerinexpandingrightsofminoritiesaftertheCivilWarand

beyond?• The1920shaveoftenbeenportrayedasatimeofwealthandexcessintheUnitedStates.Discuss

thevalidityofthisportrayalasitrelatestoDenver/Coloradoduringthe1920s.• HowhasracebeendealtwithintheAmericanWestandhowhasColoradoandLincolnHillsbeena

symboloftheissuesfacedbyminoritiesintheAmericanWest?

InquiryQuestions(writingpromptsordiscussionstarters):• Whatpush/pullfactorsencouragedAfricanAmericanstomoveoutoftheSouth?• TowhatextentdidtheCivilWareffectivelysolvecivilrightsissues?• LincolnHillswascreatedasaresortorrefugeforAfricanAmericanstogetawayfromsocietal

inequities.Whereorinwhatwaysarepeopleintoday’ssocietyseeking“refuge?”• Document17depictspresentdayLincolnHillsandtheflyfishinggroupwhonowownstheresort.

ThepresentdayownersstillallowvisitorstoLincolnHillsonhistorictours,inaddition,theownersstilltrytouseLincolnHillsasitwasonceused,asarefuge.Assuch,the“LincolnHillsCares”initiativeseekstotakegroupsofyoungpeopleandfamilieswhootherwisemightnotenjoythemountains.Whatgroupsofpeopledoyousupposethisgroupassists?Why?Whatlargerconclusionscanyoumakefromthis?

Activities• ReadexcerptsfromIsabelWilkerson’sTheWarmthofOtherSuns(http://isabelwilkerson.com).As

aclass,discusstheexcerpts,videoclips,etc.WhatwasonethingthatstuckouttoyouabouttheGreatMigration?Whatmadeyougo“whoa”?Didanythingresonatewithyouinanotherway?ConductaquickresearchassignmentrelatingtotheGreatMigration,specifically,migrationfromtheSouthtotheWest.

• Priorunderstandingofthefollowingeventswillberequiredfortheseactivities:Reconstruction,

13th,14th,and15thAmendmentstotheConstitution,Plessyvs.Ferguson,CivilRightsAct,VotingRightsAct.Identify,in3-5sentences,thesignificanceofoneoftheprviouseventandhoweachpaintthepictureofcivilrightsinColoradoanddemonstratethecontextinwhichLincolnHillswasborn.Usethisarticleasanadditionalresourceandoneperspective(http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tavis-smiley/tavis-smiley-my-conversat_b_7029466.html)onReconstruction.Watchtheinterviewtohearaboutthesuccessesandfailuresoftheera.

• PuttogetherafieldtriptoLincolnHills,aDenverJazzclub,oranothersignificantdestinationthat

wouldexposestudentstothecultureoftheAfricanAmericanexperienceinDenverandColorado.

• Roleplay/scriptwritingnarrative(similartoaTEDtalk)discussingtheroleofracerelationsintheAmericanWest.StudentscoulduseeventssuchastheChineseExclusionAct,JapaneseInternmentcamps,andLincolnHillsasvehiclestodiscusstheroleofminoritiesinColoradoandtheAmericanWest.StudentproductscanberecordedusingVocarooorVoicethread,orperformedlive.

• UsethewebsiteThinglink(https://www.thinglink.com)toproducearesponse/productusea

primarysourcephotofromtheLincolnHillscollectionanddissectitsmeaningandsignificancetotheCivilRightsmovement.

• GuestSpeaker:InviteaguestspeakertocomeinandtalkabouttheKKKinColorado.Phil

Goodstein,authorofthebookIntheShadowoftheKlan:WhentheKKKruledDenver1920-1926mightbeagoodchoice.OtherpossibilitiescouldincludehavingaroundtablediscussionfromavarietyofspeakerstalkingabouttheirexperienceswithraceinColorado,bothfromahistoricalperspectiveandfromapresentdayperspective.AnotheroptionforguestspeakersmightcomefromtheDenverJazzClub(http://denverjazzclub.com).

• HavestudentswatchsegmentsfromKenBurns’documentaryJazzexplorethefoundationsofjazz

musicandthespreadofjazzthroughouttheUnitedStatesasanindicatorormeasureofmigrationandculturaltransitionandmovement.

Assessments(alignedtospecificstateacademicstandardsforyourgradelevel):• Usethewebsitenarrable(narrable.com)toanswerthefollowingquestion:DidtheCivilWar

accomplishwhatitsetouttoaccomplish?Inansweringthisquestion,useprimarysourcesfrom1865-presentdaytosupportyourargument.StudentresponsesshouldincludethehistoricalbackgroundofslaveryandexpansionthatultimatelyledtotheCivilWar.Furthermore,studentsshouldthentracethestruggleofminoritiesaftertheCivilWarthroughtheCivilRightseratothepresent.

• CreateyourownDBQ.UsingthelinksprovidedfromtheLibraryofCongressandothersources

suchasthisYouTube(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSoeGw3vZms)videofamiliarizeyourselfwithwritingaDocumentBasedQuestion.StudentswillberequiredtousethedocumentsprovidedformtheLincolnHillscollectionandadocumentoftheirchoicefromtheLibraryofCongresstowritetheirownDBQ.Studentswillthenworkinpairstoanalyzethequalityoftheirdocumentandtheirquestions.Inaddition,studentswillcreateagradingrubricforthequestionstheywrite.Asafinalassessment,studentswillansweranotherstudentsquestionandthestudentswillusepeertopeerreviewandassessment.

• Usingthedocumentsprovidedandfactslearned,createanauthenticadvertisementtobeprintedin

anewspaperadvertisingLincolnHills.IncludeinyouradvertisementreasonspeopleshouldconsiderbuyinglandorvacationingatLincolnHills.Remember,thisisanadvertisement

HighSchoolEssentialQuestions:• WhatwastheimpactofPlessyv.Fergusonandthe“separatebutequal”decision?• HowhasdiversityintheWestchangedovertime?• Whatdoesthephrase“allmenarecreatedequal”mean?• HowdidthegeographyoftheWestimpactsegregationandcivilrights?• HowdidthetreatmentofAfricanAmericansdifferintheUSovertimeandindifferentregions?• Howdoesisolationismimpactourownsociety?InquiryQuestions(writingpromptsordiscussionstarters):• CompareandcontrastthetreatmentofdifferentminoritygroupsintheSouthandWestofthe

UnitedStatesintheearly20thcentury.• LincolnHillswasbuiltasaresortforAfricanAmericansinanareawheretheydidnotreceiveequal

treatment.Howdidthisimpactthecivilrightsmovementintheregion?• ThewesternportionoftheUnitedStateswasheavilyinfluencedbybothfrontsofWWII:Nazi

GermanyandthewarinthePacific.Towhatextentdidthewarimpactthecivilrightsmovement?• HowdidColorado’streatmentofAfricanAmericanschangeovertime?Howdoesthiscompareto

movementsinotherareasofthecountry?

Activities:• TakeafieldtriptoDenver’sFourCornersandotherareasofthecitythathavebeenandare

historicallyAfricanAmerican.AnalyzethechangeovertimeoftreatmentofAfricanAmericansinColorado.Leadadiscussion(orwriteanessay)thatdiscusseshowthingshavechanged,orstayedthesamefromtheearly20thcenturytotheearly21stcentury.

• Inthesummerof2015,agroupinDenverhassoughttochangethenameoftheStapleton

community,whichislocatedinthenortheastpartofDenverandwastheformersiteofDenver’sfirstairport.Theairport,andsubsequentneighborhood,wasnamedafterFormerMayorBenjaminStapletonwhowasthoughttobeaKlansmeninDenverinthe1920s.(Watchashortclipfromthelocalnews.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKdJtIt7MUo)DoyouthinkthatStapleton(orothernamesintheDenverareawithsimilarhistories)shouldbechanged?Explainwhyorwhynot.

• UsingresourcesfromtheBoulderCountyLatinoHistoryProject

(http://bocolatinohistory.colorado.edu/category-search?f%5b0%5d=field_topics%3A306),comparethetreatmentofminoritygroupsintheBoulderareatotheDenverarea.

• Manyofthesourcesinthisprojectpre-dateBrownvs.theBoardofEducationinwhich“separate

butequal”wasruledunconstitutional.ImagineyouarethepetitionerwhohasbroughttheissueofunconstitutionalityofPlessytotheSupremeCourt.Writeyouroralargumenttopresenttothecourt.Youcanlistentomodern-dayoralargumentsatwww.oyez.org.

Assessments(alignedwithspecificstateacademicstandardsforyourgradelevel):• CreateyourownDBQ.UsingthelinksprovidedfromtheLibraryofCongressandothersources

suchasthisYouTube(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSoeGw3vZms)videofamiliarizeyourselfwithwritingaDocumentBasedQuestion.StudentswillberequiredtousethedocumentsprovidedfromtheLincolnHillscollectionandadocumentoftheirchoicefromtheLibraryofCongressto

writetheirownDBQ.Studentswillthenworkinpairstoanalyzethequalityoftheirdocumentandtheirquestions.Inaddition,studentswillcreateagradingrubricforthequestionstheywrite.Asafinalassessment,studentswillansweranotherstudent’squestionandthestudentswillusepeertopeerreviewandassessment.

• Lookingatthedifferentgroupsthathavebeendisenfranchisedoverthecourseofthe20thcenturyin

theUS,writeanarrativethatexaminesandevaluatestheissuesofunityanddiversityintheUnitedStates.Throughthisevaluation,studentswilldetermineif20thcenturyUShistorysawmoreunityormorediversity.

Lincoln Hills and Civil Rights in ColoradoThe Lincoln Hills Country Club and Resort 7. Laying Out...

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