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Study of sedimentary rocks Dr. Braide
Mechanisms of plate formation Dr. Braide
Basin classification Dr. BraideBasins and sequence stratigraphy Dr. Braide
Basic Petrophysical Concepts Dr. Opuwari
Well logging Dr. Braide
Sokari BraideSokari Braide
APG 711 APG 711 -- Course ContentCourse Content
PETROLEUM GEOLOGYPETROLEUM GEOLOGY
Well logging Dr. BraideCore analysis Dr. OpuwariCalibration of Log/core Dr. OpuwariOverburden correction Dr. Opuwari
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 1
Lecture 14
Sokari BraideSokari BraideSequence StratigraphySequence Stratigraphy
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Department of Earth SciencesSlide 2
What is Sequence StratigraphyWhat is Sequence Stratigraphy
Sokari BraideSokari BraideSequence StratigraphySequence Stratigraphy
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 3
Sokari Braide
Sequence Stratigraphy Sequence Stratigraphy Sequence Stratigraphy Sequence Stratigraphy
A framework of genetically related
stratigraphic facies geometries and their
bounding surfaces used to determine
depositional setting
Sequence StratigraphySequence Stratigraphy
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Department of Earth Sciences
Establish Setting
Slide 4
Sequence StratigraphySequence Stratigraphy(a) Passive margin
Sedimentary sequences form on the edges of continents when sediment influx is modified by fluctuations in sea level.
Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1
Schematic profiles of three types of continental margins. (a) Passive margin. (b) Active margin of the
Marianas type. (c) Active margin of the Andean type.
(b) Active margin of the Marianas type (c) Active margin of the Andean type
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 5
Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1
Sequence StratigraphySequence StratigraphySedimentary sequences form on the edges of continents when sediment influx is modified by fluctuations in sea level.
(a) How a turbidity current forms in the oceans. These currents can erode and transport large quantities of sand down the continental slope. Submarine canyons are deep valleys eroded into the continental shelf and slope by turbidity currents.
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Department of Earth Sciences
(b) Sandfall at the head of a submarine canyon at the edge of the continental shelf. These falls generate sandy flows, such as turbidity currents, that lay down fans of sandy sediments at the foot of the continental slope.
Slide 6
Sokari BraideSequence StratigraphySequence Stratigraphy
East Coulee Delta (approximately 1 m wide; modified from Posamentier et al., 1992a; demonstrating the applicability of sequence stratig raphic concepts at virtually any scale. In this example, the highstan d systems tract was left behind, and it was subsequently incised as a result of the fall in the local (pond) base level during the progradation of the lower elevation lows tand delta.
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 7
Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1
Sequence StratigraphySequence Stratigraphy
Until a few decades ago, geologists had to rely on rock outcrops or by drilling to map stratigraphic successions.
Technological advancement in seismology now allow u s to see below Earth’s surface without actually going there.
From seismic data, we can construct three-dimension al images of deeply buried structures.
Basic geologic unit observed bounded by unconformit ies is a sedimentary sequence.
This type of detailed geologic mapping is called sequence stratigraphy.
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Department of Earth SciencesSlide 8
Sequence StratigraphySequence Stratigraphy
Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1
In this example, sediment is laid down in a delta. As the sediment builds up the seafloor to sea level, the delta advances toward the sea.When the sea level falls, the deltaic deposits are exposed to erosion.The shoreline shifts inland when the sea level rises again, and a new deltaic sequence begins to cover the old one, creating an unconformity.
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 9
Sequence StratigraphySequence Stratigraphy
Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1
Over millions of years, this cycle may be repeated many times, producing a complex set of sedimentary sequences.Because sea level fluctuations are worldwide, we can match sedimentary sequences of the same age overwide areas (see next slide ).
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Department of Earth SciencesSlide 10
Eustatic CyclesEustatic Cycles Sokari Braide
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 11
Sokari Braide
Walther’s LawWalther’s LawFig. 7
Facies AnalysisFacies Analysis
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Department of Earth Sciences
Walther’s Law: the principle that connects the late ral and vertical shifts of facies within a sequence (i.e., a relatively conformable successi on of genetically related strata).
Slide 12
Sokari BraideFig. 7
Sequence stratigraphic vs. lithostratigraphic frameworks, starting from th e same set of facies data.
Walther’s LawWalther’s Law
Facies AnalysisFacies Analysis
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Department of Earth Sciences
1. The reconstruction of paleodepositional environm ents via facies analysis is an important pre-requisite for sequence stratigraphic interpretations. The nature of stratigraphic contacts (scoured, conformable) also needs to be assessed via sedimentological analysis .
Slide 13
Sokari Braide
Sequence stratigraphic vs. lithostratigraphic frameworks, starting from th e same set of facies data.
Walther’s LawWalther’s LawFig. 7 continued
Facies AnalysisFacies Analysis
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Department of Earth Sciences
2. The sequence stratigraphic framework is constructed by correlating the key sequence stratigraphic surfaces . All sequence stratigraphic surfaces shown on the cross section are good chronostratigraphic markers (low diachroneity), wit h the exception of the transgressive wave -ravinement surface which is highly diachronous.
Slide 14
Sokari Braide
Sequence stratigraphic vs. lithostratigraphic frameworks, starting from th e same set of facies data.
Walther’s LawWalther’s LawFig. 7 continued
Facies AnalysisFacies Analysis
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Department of Earth Sciences
3. Sequence stratigraphic cross section, showing key surfaces, within-trend f acies contacts, and paleodepositional environments. Within-trend facies contacts, marking lateral changes of facies, are placed on the cross-section after the sequence stratigraphic framework is const ructed. Facies codes : A—meandering system; B—braided system; C—estuary-mouth complex; D—c entral estuary; E—delta plain; F—upper delta front; G—lower delta fron t—prodelta.
Slide 15
Sokari BraideFig. 7 continued
Sequence stratigraphic vs. lithostratigraphic frameworks, starting from th e same set of facies data.
Walther’s LawWalther’s Law
Facies AnalysisFacies Analysis
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Department of Earth Sciences
4. Lithostratigraphic cross-section. Three main lit hostratigraphic units (e.g., formations) may be defined: A—a sandstone-dominated unit; B and C – m udstone-dominated units, with silty and sandy interbeds. Formations B and C are separat ed by Formation A. Additional lithostratigraphic units (e.g., members—subdivisions of units A, B, C) may be defined as a function of variations in lithology and colour.
Slide 16
Sokari BraideFacies AnalysisFacies Analysis
MAIN FEATURES of sedimentary rocks that can be observed directly in the field are:
�Bedding – including thickness, geometry, nature of bed boundaries, dip and strike of the beds, and way-up criteria.
�Sedimentary structures – including erosional, depositional, deformational, biogenic and chemogenic.
�Textures – including grain size, sorting, grading, porosity-
SummarySummary
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Department of Earth Sciences
�Textures – including grain size, sorting, grading, porosity-permeability, grain morphology, grain surface texture, and sediment fabric.
�Composition – including clast types, mineralogy and fossil content.�Colour – distinguishing between weathered and fresh surfaces.
Collectively, these attributes are used to define a sediment facies or lithofacies (lithotype) or, simply, facies .
Slide 17
Sokari BraideFacies AnalysisFacies Analysis
A sediment facies is defined as (or sedimentary rock) that displays distinctive physical, chemical and / or biological characteristics (of the sort listed above) that make it readily distinguish ed from the associated facies.
These are the primary building blocks of all sedime ntological studies.
They are used as a means of recording data, for describing sediment
SummarySummary
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Department of Earth Sciences
They are used as a means of recording data, for describing sediment outcrops and successions and, subsequently, for making interpretations concerning, for example, depositional processes, environmental conditions or economic significance.
In ancient deposits the vertical sequence of facies is generally much easier to observe than the lateral sequence, a circumstance that is the exact opposite of the situation in modern sediments.
Slide 18
Sokari BraideFacies AnalysisFacies AnalysisIn attempting to reconstruct environments from facies, therefore, geologists have often been guided by Johannes Walter’s Law of Succession of Facies = “facies sequences observed vertically are also found laterally”
SummarySummary
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Department of Earth Sciences
Cross-section of a sedimentary basin to show the relationship
between facies, environment and time.
Highly simplified application of Walther’s
Law of Succession of Facies
Sedimentary facies is defined as any areally restricted part of a designated stratigraphic unit which exhibits characters significantly different from those of other parts of the unit.
Slide 19
Sokari Braide
Facies : the total textural, compositional and structural characteristics of a sedimentary deposit resulting from accumulation and modification in a particular setting.
Sedimentary FaciesSedimentary Facies
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 20
Sokari Braide
Facies : the total textural, compositional and structuraltotal textural, compositional and structuralcharacteristics of a sedimentary deposit resulting from accumulation and modification in a particular setting.
Sedimentary FaciesSedimentary Facies
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Department of Earth Sciences
•• grain size, sorting, roundinggrain size, sorting, rounding
•• lithologylithology
•• sedimentary structuressedimentary structures
•• bedding typebedding type
•• fossil assemblagesfossil assemblages
Slide 21
Sokari Braide
Facies: the total textural, compositional and structural
characteristics of a sedimentary deposit resulting from
accumulation and modification in a particular setting.
EX: well-sorted, moderately rounded, trough cross-stratified, horizontally
burrowed & normally graded arkosic coarse sandstone
Sedimentary FaciesSedimentary Facies
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Department of Earth SciencesSlide 22
Sokari Braide
Lithofacies & Lithofacies CodesLithofacies & Lithofacies Codes
Sedimentary facies often get reduced to lithofacieswhich detail grain-size, composition, and dominant sedimentary structures only
� EX: planar cross-stratified gravel, inversely graded massive
Sedimentary Facies Sedimentary Facies
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Department of Earth Sciences
� EX: planar cross-stratified gravel, inversely graded massive sandstone
This has led to lithofacies codes (after Miall, 1978).
� EX: Gmm, St, Fsl
Slide 23
Sokari BraideSedimentary Facies Sedimentary Facies
Facies : the total textural, compositional and structural characteristics of a sedimentary deposit resulting from accumulation and modification in a particular setting.
Facies associations : collection of multiple facies (often in a vertical cycle) resulting from genetically related accumulation and modification.
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Department of Earth Sciences
accumulation and modification.
� EX: lenticular bedded stratified pebble conglomerate with subordinate planar cross-stratified sandstone
� OR: fluvial channel lithofacies assemblage
Slide 24
Sokari Braide
Facies : the total textural, compositional and structural characteristics of a sedimentary deposit resulting from accumulation and modification in a particular setting.
Facies associations : collection of multiple facies (often in a vertical cycle) resulting from genetically related
Sedimentary Facies Sedimentary Facies
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Department of Earth Sciences
in a vertical cycle) resulting from genetically related accumulation and modification.
Facies successions : collection of multiple stacked vertically facies associations resulting from genetically related accumulation and modification.
Slide 25
Sokari BraideFacies SuccessionsFacies Successions
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 26
Sokari Braide
Relationship between:Relationship between:
FaciesFacies
SedimentarySedimentary
GeologyGeology
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
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Department of Earth Sciences
FaciesFaciesArchitectural elementsArchitectural elementsDepositional settingsDepositional settingsSystemsSystemsSystems tractsSystems tracts
Scheme used to characterize Scheme used to characterize each depositional each depositional system.system.
Slide 27
Sokari Braide
marine � ocean, sea
terrestrial land
Types of Depositional SystemsTypes of Depositional Systems
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
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terrestrial � land
transitional � part land, part ocean
Slide 28
Sokari Braide
Shallow/nearshore� Tide-dominated� Wave-dominated� Reef
Marine Depositional SystemsMarine Depositional Systems
Shelf/platformShelf/platform
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
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Department of Earth Sciences
� ReefShelf/platform
� Carbonate� Clastic
Deep marine� Deep sea fans� Pelagic
Slide 29
Sokari Braide
Terrestrial Depositional SystemsTerrestrial Depositional Systems
Fluvial-alluvial fanGlacial
FluvialFluvial--Alluvial FanAlluvial Fan
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
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Department of Earth Sciences
GlacialAeolianLacustrinePlaya
AeolianAeolian
Slide 30
Sokari Braide
Transitional Depositional SystemsTransitional Depositional Systems
DeltasEstuaries
DeltaDelta
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
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Department of Earth Sciences
Estuaries
Slide 31
Sokari Braide
Clastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional Systems
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 32
Sokari Braide
Clastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional Systems
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 33
Sokari Braide
Clastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional Systems
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 34
Sokari Braide
Clastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional SystemsClastic Depositional Systems
Depositional SystemsDepositional Systems
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Department of Earth SciencesSlide 35
Clastic Depositional Simulation
by
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth Sciences
by
Professor Christopher G. St. C. Kendal
University of South Carolina
Slide 36
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 37
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 38
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 39
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 40
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 41
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 42
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 43
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 44
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 45
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 46
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 47
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 48
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 49
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 50
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 51
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 52
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 53
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 54
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 55
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 56
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 57
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 58
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 59
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 60
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 61
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 62
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 63
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 64
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 65
Clastic Depositional SimulationClastic Depositional Simulation
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 66
Geometric Effects of Sea Level ChangeGeometric Effects of Sea Level Change
On-lap with rising sea level.
Off-lap with falling sea level.
By-pass at low stands of sea level.
Erosion at low stands of sea level.
Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1
Erosion at low stands of sea level.
Ravinement with sea level transgressions.
Landward continental clastics at high stands.
Seaward carbonates at high stands.
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 67
Chronostratigraphic ChartChronostratigraphic Chart
Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1
GaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival LimitedGaryPercival Limited©CopyrightUniversity University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth SciencesSlide 68
Chronostratigraphic ChartChronostratigraphic Chart
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Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1And how it all can be viewed in outcrop:
Karoo Basin, South Africa
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Department of Earth Scienceshttp://www.liv.ac.uk/-rwild/index.htm
From Karoo Basin Slope Project (University of Liverpool, UK)
Slide 99
Sokari BraidePetroleum Geology 1Petroleum Geology 1
University University of the of the of the of the of the of the of the of the Western CapeWestern Cape
Department of Earth Sciences
Sokari Braide
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