Post on 25-Apr-2018
The
HELICOPTER PILOT’S
QUICK REFERENCE MANUAL
eBook Series Version 1.3
Copyright 2012 Find-it Fast Books
No part of this eBook, or in its entirety, may be reproduced or retransmitted by any
electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems for
the purpose of sharing with others without the express written consent of the author.
by
Jerry Miller
406 Henry Drive
Montoursville, PA 17754
www.finditfastbooks.com
“The writer does the most
who gives his reader the most knowledge,
and takes from him the least time.”
-Sydney Smith (1771-1845)
Table of Contents
Subject Page
ATC Shorthand .......................... 10
ATIS ................................ 15-16
Autorotation ........................... 38
Cold Weather Operations ............. 54-57
Collective Bounce ...................... 66
Common IFR Illusions ................... 82
Compressor Stall ....................... 71
Confined Area Operations ............... 50
Density Altitude .................... 31-33
Dynamic Rollover .................... 68-69
ELT .................................... 27
Fog Hazard, Night Flying ............... 61
Fuel Contamination ..................... 72
General Precautions ................. 36-37
Ground Reconnaissance, Remote Area ..... 49
Ground Resonance ....................... 70
High Recon - Remote Area ............... 46
Hot Weather Flying ..................... 53
Human Element, The ..................... 90
IFR Illusions .......................... 82
Inadvertent IFR ................. 80 and 84
Light Signals, Tower, In Flight ........ 29
Light Signals, Tower, On The Ground .... 28
Low Level Inadvertent IFR .............. 84
Low Recon - Remote Area ................ 46
Low Rotor RPM .......................... 62
Mast Bumping ........................ 63-64
Mid-Air Collision Avoidance ......... 40-41
Military Training Routes ............ 25-26
i
Table of Contents
Subject Page
Mountain Flying ..................... 44-45
Ni-Cad Battery Overheat ................ 73
Night Flying ........................ 58-60
Night Flying Fog Hazard ................ 61
Night Remote Area ...................... 48
Noise Abatement ..................... 42-43
Overcast, Trapped On Top ............... 85
Passenger Safety Briefing ........... 34-35
Phonetic Alphabet ...................... 3
Pinnacle & Ridgeline Operations ........ 51
Post Flight Inspection ................. 89
Radio Usage ......................... 12-13
Remote Area - Hi/Lo Recon/More ...... 46-49
Remote Area, Night ..................... 48
Retreating Blade Stall .............. 65-66
Safety Around Helicopters .............. 34
Search & Rescue Checklist ....... .. 86-88
Settling With Power .................... 67
Slope Operations ....................... 52
Spatial Disorientation .............. 81-83
Special Use Airspace ................ 22-24
Surface Wind Determination ............. 39
Take Off and Landing Data Card ......... 30
Temperature Conversion ................. 2
Temp Flight Restrictions (TFRs) ..... 17-21
Thunderstorms .......................... 78
Tower Light Signals, In Flight ......... 29
Tower Light Signals, On The Ground ..... 28
Transponder Suffixes ................... 6
ii
Table of Contents
Subject Page
Trapped On Top Of An Overcast .......... 85
Turbulence ............................. 74
Twenty-four Hour Clock .................. 4
Unfavorable Weather .................... 79
UNICOM ................................. 14
Vertigo – Spatial Disorientation .... 81-83
Vertigo, to Prevent .................... 83
VFR Flight Mission Profile ............ 1
VFR Flight Plan, Filing ................ 11
Wake Turbulence ..................... 75-76
Weather Briefing, Receiving ............ 8
Weather Briefing, Requesting ........... 7
Weather Shorthand ................... 9-10
Wire Strikes ........................... 77
Zulu Time, Computing (UTC) ............. 5
METAR & TAF Contractions Decoder ... Apdx A
NOTAM Contractions Decoder ......... Apdx B
iii
INTRODUCTION
This eBook is designed to serve as a checklist style quick
reference guide emphasizing the areas of knowledge needed to be a
safe and competent helicopter pilot.
Students pilots will find this eBook especially helpful by
introducing the intricacies of helicopter operations in a simple and
straight-forward manner.
For the experienced helicopter pilot this book also serves as an
excellent refresher guide, allowing for an occasional quick review.
The condensed format of this eBook is designed to aid in the
access and recall of those flight conditions that demand your
constant awareness and understanding.
In addition to the bookmarks of this eBook, you may also
access listed topics from the Table of Contents where all subject
topics are linked to their respective page numbers.
Through continuing review you can meet your responsibility as
a knowledgeable and proficient pilot who serves as an asset to the
aviation community and to those you support.
Have this guide in your eReader when you fly. It will be
helpful many times in planning and conducting your flights.
iv
VFR FLIGHT PROFILE
FLIGHT PLANNING:
Mission requirements
Weight and Balance
Route and times
Weather and NOTAMS
Performance data:
Based on hottest temperature
and highest altitude expected.
Fuel requirements
Walk-around preflight inspection:
Verify fuel load visually
Specialized equipment on board
Survival equipment on board
INFLIGHT
Record takeoff time
Perform hover check
When at level cruise altitude:
Again, check engine instruments
Check flight instruments
Confirm that the directional gyro
agrees with magnetic compass.
Perform fuel consumption check
Record cruise power settings
1
TEMPERATURES - Celsius to Fahrenheit
C F C F C F
41 - 105 22 - 71 03 - 37
40 - 104 21 - 70 02 - 36
39 - 103 21 - 69 02 - 35
39 - 102 20 - 68 01 - 34
38 - 101 19 - 67 01 - 33
38 - 100 19 - 66 00 - 32
37 - 99 18 - 65 M00 - 31
37 - 98 18 - 64 M01 - 30
36 - 97 17 - 63 M02 - 29
36 - 96 17 – 62 M02 - 28
35 - 95 16 - 61 M03 - 27
34 - 94 16 - 60 M03 - 26
34 - 93 15 - 59 M04 - 25
33 - 92 14 - 58 M04 – 24
33 - 91 14 – 57 M05 – 23
32 - 90 13 - 56 M05 - 22
32 - 89 13 - 55 M06 - 21
31 - 88 12 - 54 M06 - 20
31 - 87 12 - 53 M07 - 19
30 - 86 11 – 52 M08 - 18
29 - 85 11 - 51 M08 - 17
29 - 84 10 - 50 M09 - 16
28 - 83 09 - 49 M09 - 15
28 - 82 09 - 48 M10 - 14
28 - 81 08 – 47 M10 - 13
27 - 80 08 - 46 M11 - 12
26 - 79 07 - 45 M11 - 11
26 - 78 07 - 44 M12 - 10
25 - 77 06 - 43 M13 - 09
24 - 76 06 – 42 M13 - 08
24 - 75 05 - 41 M14 - 07
23 - 74 04 - 40 M14 - 06
23 - 73 04 - 39 M15 - 05
22 - 72 03 - 38 M16 - 04
2
PHONETIC ALPHABET
A Alpha
B Bravo
C Charlie
D Delta
E Echo
F Foxtrot
G Golf
H Hotel
I India
J Juliet
K Kilo
L Lima
M Mike
N November
O Oscar
P Papa
Q Quebec
R Romeo
S Sierra
T Tango
U Uniform
V Victor
W Whiskey
X X-ray
Y Yankee
Z Zulu
3
THE 24 HOUR CLOCK
0100 = 1 a.m.
0200 = 2 a.m.
0300 = 3 a.m.
0400 = 4 a.m.
0500 = 5 a.m.
0600 = 6 a.m.
0700 = 7 a.m.
0800 = 8 a.m.
0900 = 9 a.m.
1000 = 10 a.m.
1100 = 11 a.m.
1200 = 12 p.m.
1300 = 1 p.m.
1400 = 2 p.m.
1500 = 3 p.m.
1600 = 4 p.m.
1700 = 5 p.m.
1800 = 6 p.m.
1900 = 7 p.m.
2000 = 8 p.m.
2100 = 9 p.m.
2200 = 10 p.m.
2300 = 11 p.m.
2400 = 12 a.m.
For the current accurate time, call the U.S. Naval
Observatory Master Clock at 202-762-1401.
4
COMPUTING "ZULU" TIME(Universal Coordinated Time – UTC)
For Standard Time:
Eastern Standard Time add 5 hours
Central Standard Time add 6 hours
Mountain Standard Time add 7 hours
Pacific Standard Time add 8 hours
B.C. Standard Time add 8 hours
Yukon Standard Time add 8 hours
Alaska Standard Time add 9 hours
Bering Standard Time add 10 hours
Hawaii Standard Time add 10 hours
For Daylight Savings Time:
Eastern Daylight Savings add 4 hours
Central Daylight Savings add 5 hours
Mountain Daylight Savings add 6 hours
Pacific Daylight Savings add 7 hours
B.C. Daylight Savings add 7 hours
Yukon Daylight Savings add 7 hours
Alaska Daylight Savings add 8 hours
Bering Daylight Savings add 9 hours
Hawaii Daylight Savings add 9 hours
5
TRANSPONDER
Use one of the suffix codes listed below that describes your
transponder's features and append it to your type of aircraft when
filing a flight plan.
X - No transponder
T - Transponder with
no altitude encoding
U - Transponder with
altitude encoding
D - DME, no transponder
B - DME, transponder with
no altitude encoding
A - DME, transponder with
altitude encoding
W - RNAV, no transponder
C - RNAV, transponder with
no altitude encoding
R - RNAV, transponder with
altitude encoding
G - GPS, transponder with Global
Positioning System
F - FMS, transponder with Flight
Management System
6
WEATHER BRIEFING
When calling for a weather briefing, give the following
background information to the weather briefer at the Flight Service
Station.
Type of flight (VFR)
Aircraft identification
Aircraft type
Departure point
Route of flight
Destination
Flight altitude
Estimated time of departure
Estimated time en route
Request a standard briefing shortly before your departure
to receive all available weather data pertinent to your flight.
Request an abbreviated briefing to update the information
received from an earlier standard briefing if the weather is
changeable.
Request an outlook briefing to plan for a flight later in the
day or for the next day to see if the weather will be favorable for
your planned flight.
7
CONTENT OF ASTANDARD WEATHER BRIEFING
After you provide background information to a pilot weather
briefer and request a standard briefing, the following information
should be provided in the below order.
Adverse conditions (IFR weather,
mountain obscuration, turbulence,
icing, thunderstorms)
"VFR flight not recommended"
statement (if applicable to the
current or forecast weather)
Synopsis (position of fronts and
high and low pressure systems
Current weather conditions
En route forecast
Destination forecast
Winds aloft (temperatures
are in degrees Celsius)
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMS)
Temporary Flight Restrictions
8
WEATHER SHORTHAND
Weather briefers tend to talk fast. Learning the below contractions
will help you to keep up with the pace of the briefing when
copying weather information.
DZ - Drizzle
RA - Rain
SN - Snow
SG - Snow Grains
IC - Ice Crystals
PE - Ice Pellets
GR - Hail
GS - Small Hail or Snow Pellets
UP - Unknown Precipitation
BR - Mist
FG - Fog
FU - Smoke
DU - Dust
SA - Sand
HZ - Haze
PY - Spray
VA - Volcanic Ash
PO - Dust or Sand Swirls
SQ - Squalls
SS - Sandstorm
DS – Dust storm
FC - Funnel Cloud
+FC - Tornado or Waterspout
MI - Shallow
BC - Patches
DR - Low Drifting
BL - Blowing
SH - Showers
TS - Thunderstorm
FZ - Freezing
PR – Partial
VC - In the Vicinity
- Light Precipitation
(No Symbol) - Moderate Precipitation
+ Moderate Precipitation
9
WEATHER SHORTHAND
Wind Character Words Common to
TAFs (Forecasts)
0000 Calm
G Gust WS Wind Shear
Q Squall CHC Chance
WSHFT Wind Shift ISOLD Isolated
OCNL Occasional
BCMG Becoming
SLT Slight
VCNTY Vicinity
Sky Condition
FEW Few
SCT Scattered
BKN Broken
OVC Overcast
VV Indefinite Ceiling
ATC SHORTHAND
You can reduce your workload during flight by using the below
symbols to copy ATC instructions.
@ At / Until
X Cross Cruise
> Before Freq Frequency
< After or Past M Maintain
SQ Squawk
Climb and Maintain
Descend and Maintain
At or Below
v < Clearance Void If Not Off By...(time)
10
FILING A VFR FLIGHT PLAN
After receiving your weather briefing, you may wish to file a
VFR flight plan. Provide the below information in the following
order:
Aircraft identification
Aircraft type and transponder suffix
True airspeed
Point and time of departure
Initial cruising altitude
Route of flight and destination
Remarks, if any
Estimated time en route (ETE)
Fuel on board (in hours and minutes)
Pilot's name & phone number
Number of persons on board
Color of the aircraft
11
RADIO USAGE
Listen momentarily before transmitting so you won't override
other radio transmissions.
Plan what you will say before transmitting.
Key your microphone button, then pause a second before
speaking. This will ensure that the first words you say will be
transmitted over the radio.
Keep your transmissions as brief as possible, using terminology
listed in the Pilot/Controller Glossary contained in the Airman's
Information Manual (AIM). When you use this standardized
phraseology, broken or garbled transmission can be better
understood.
Upon initial contact with ATC use your full call sign, and then
wait. ATC may be talking to another aircraft on another frequency
and unable to respond immediately.
If radio reception is weak or garbled or you cannot establish
radio communications, you may be too low or too far away from
the ATC facility you are attempting to contact.
If airspace, traffic, weather conditions permit, climbing to a
higher altitude may allow you to establish radio contact.
12
RADIO USAGE
If radio contact is still not established, check:
Comm radio - On
Radio volume - Up
Frequency - Selected
Radio circuit breakers – In
Also, your headset may be malfunctioning or the plug may not
be seated all the way into the jack.
Check the plug to be sure it is firmly seated. The radio
frequency you are trying to transmit over may be inoperative either
in your aircraft radio or at the ground station you are calling.
Try calling on another frequency. It's also possible that your
receiver is not working, but your transmitter is functioning
normally, so make reports and advisories "in the blind."
Remember - Good radio technique involves:
Brevity - Be brief in your transmissions
to reduce radio congestion.
Understanding - Use proper phraseology
to reduce confusion.
Courtesy - Listen before transmitting to
prevent frequency override.
13
UNICOM
Unicom is a private aeronautical radio station monitored by
Fixed Base Operators. It is not an air traffic control frequency.
Common UNICOM frequencies include 122.7, 122.8, 122.975,
122.725, and 123.0, and others.
At non-tower airports, UNICOM can provide
Runway and wind conditions
Weather conditions
Fuel types and availability
Information regarding food, lodging
and ground transportation
Activation of Pilot Controlled
Lighting System (PCL)
At tower controlled or FSS served airports, use the tower or
FSS to obtain runway and wind information and weather
conditions.
Check the Airport Data on your charts or consult the
Airport/Facility Directory for UNICOM availability and
frequencies at specific airports you plan to use.
Communications cannot always be established on UNICOM
due to unattended or unmonitored radio receiver sets at airport's
Fixed Base Operator facility.
14
AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATIONSERVICE
(ATIS)
ATIS is a continuous broadcast of recorded non-control
information at high activity terminal areas.
ATIS relieves radio congestion on control frequencies by
continuously transmitting routine but essential information.
ATIS is broadcast for use by all departing and arriving IFR and
VFR aircraft.
All pilots should listen to ATIS prior to requesting taxi
clearance if departing, and prior to reporting to ATC if arriving.
ATIS information includes
A phonetic alphabet code word
identifying the broadcast
Sky condition and visibility
Winds
Altimeter setting
Instrument approach and
runways in use
Notices to airmen (NOTAMs)
Other pertinent information
15
AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATIONSERVICE
ATIS
Consult the Airport/Facility Directory or sectional charts for the
ATIS frequencies for the specific airports you plan to use. Either a
discrete VHF frequency or a VOR frequency will be listed,
identified by the word "ATIS.“
When listening to ATIS on a VOR frequency, it may be
occasionally interrupted by FSS talking over it to other aircraft.
Upon initial contact to approach control, tower or ground
control, indicate to ATC that you have the current ATIS
information by stating that you have the ATIS code letter (ie, "I
have information Bravo.").
ATIS broadcasts are generally updated hourly, but more
frequent updates are possible if a significant change in information
occurs.
With each subsequent ATIS update, the next succeeding
phonetic alphabet code letter is used to identify the current ATIS
message.
Remember
ATIS information is non-control information. It is not a
clearance to taxi for take off, or a clearance to land.
16
Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)
Example of a TFR in FDC NOTAM format:
!FDC 3/7836 ZLC MT FLIGHT RESTRICTION SEELEY LAKE,
MT EFFECTIVE IMMEDIATELY UNTIL FURTHER NOTICE.
PURSUANT TO 14 CFR SECTION 91, 137 (A) (2)
TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ARE IN EFFECT
WITHIN A 5 NAUTICAL RADIUS OF 472341N/1125856W
THE MISSOULA /MSO/ VOR/DME 040 DEGREE RADIAL AT
054 NM AT AND BELOW 10500 FT MSL TO PROVIDE A
SAFE ENVIRONMENT FOR FIRE FIGHTING AIRCRAFT
OPERATIONS. THE U.S. FOREST SERVICE, TELEPHONE
406-731-5300/ 119.825/HIGH, IS IN CHARGE OF ON SCENE
EMERGENCY RESPONSE ACTIVITIES. GREAT FALLS
/GTF/ AFSS TELEPHONE 406-268-2100, IS THE FAA
COORDINATION FACILITY.
Partial example of a presidential movement TFR in FDC NOTAM
format:
!FDC 3/7886 ZKC PART 1 OF 3 FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS ST
LOUIS, MISSOURI, AUGUST 26, 2003 LOCAL. PURSUANT
TO TITLE 14, SECTION 91.141 OF THE CODE OF FEDERAL
REGULATIONS AIRCRAFT FLIGHT OPERATIONS ARE
PROHIBITED WITHIN 30 NMR UP TO BUT NOT
INCLUDING FL180 OF...
Notice, above, the "SECTION 91.141." This is a red flag
that this FDC NOTAM is a presidential movement TFR. Read
these NOTAMs very carefully.
An FDC NOTAM is regulatory flight information
concerning IFR charts, procedures, and airspace usage.
TFRs are in FDC NOTAM format.
17
Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)
In the current security sensitive environment following the
events of "9-11", understanding TFRs has become an absolute
necessity for all pilots.
A TFR restricts or prohibits air traffic operations due to a real
or perceived hazard or condition.
A TFR temporarily restricts or prohibits flight over a specified
area, such as:
For national security purposes
Presidential or vice-presidential "no fly zones"
Sports stadiums
Disaster relief areas, such as floods & earthquakes
Fire fighting operations
Aircraft accident sites
Toxic gas leaks or spills
Nuclear accidents or incidents
The purpose in designating an area as a TFR is to:
Protect persons and property on the surface
Provide a safe environment for the operation
of disaster relief aircraft
Prevent unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft
above an event of high public interest
18
Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)
TFRs:
Are not depicted on aeronautical charts
Are usually short term in duration
Can appear, disappear, or change almost daily
Are disseminated as FDC NOTAMS, explaining:
Where the TFR is located
How big it is, usually in terms of a radius
How high it extends in altitude
How long it is expected to remain in effect
TFR information is available from:
Flight Service Station weather briefings
(1-800-WXBRIEF, up to the minute status)
Always note the date and time you
called flight service as proof you
received all available TFR information
if you experience an incursion of a TFR.
Recordings of briefings are maintained
for 15 days.
DUATS (Up to the minute status)
AOPA Online (unofficial information that may
not be up to the minute)
Other unofficial websites that may not be timely
19
Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)
It is the pilot's responsibility to avoid flight into TFRs.
Inadvertently entering a TFR may result in:
A law enforcement official greeting upon landing
Suspension of pilot certificate
Interception by military aircraft
If intercepted by military aircraft, follow the
procedures listed in the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM), Section 6,
Para 5-6-2, Tables 5-6-1 & 5-6-2
Even though a pilot may be completely familiar with all TFR
information pertinent to the route of flight, incursions can result
from:
The issuance or change of a TFR after receiving
a weather briefing.
Pilots misled by air traffic controllers:
Even though ATC helps pilots to avoid
TFRs as much as possible, VFR vectors
followed by radar service termination may
mislead a pilot into continued flight on the
last assigned vector into a TFR. Therefore,
always maintain positional awareness when
flying in the vicinity of a TFR. Do not
blindly rely on ATC to keep you out of
TFRs. Refer to your charts throughout
your flight.
20
Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR)
Certain aircraft may be authorized entry into a TFR:
Aircraft operating under an IFR flight plan
Aircraft participating in relief operations
Aircraft carrying law enforcement personnel
Aircraft carrying accredited news officials
Aircraft operating to or from airports located
within the TFR - with prior authorization
To protect yourself from inadvertent entry into a TFR:
Call Flight Service for a weather briefing and
ask for NOTAMS and TFR information.
After receiving TFR information either from
Flight Service or DUATS, refer to your
charts to determine if the plotted TFR is
pertinent to your proposed route of flight.
Discuss TFRs with Flight Service briefers and
your fellow pilots to better understand them.
If you receive a pilot weather briefing from
Flight Service, record the date, time, and
name of the Flight Service station you
received your briefing from. The recording
of your of your briefing can then be found
if you violate a TFR and you believe that
you were not informed about the TFR by
the pilot weather briefer.
21
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
Prohibited Area - Designated airspace within which the flight
of an aircraft is not allowed for security or other reasons associated
with the national welfare. Avoid these areas!
Restricted Area - Designated airspace within which flight is
subject to restrictions. They indicate the existence of unusual
hazards such as artillery firing or aerial gunnery. You must receive
permission from the using or controlling agency to enter a
restricted area between designated altitudes during specified times.
Get permission to enter these areas!
Warning Area - Designated airspace located over
international waters along ocean coastlines. U.S. military forces
conduct hazardous operations within these areas. No restriction to
flight is imposed. However, civil aircraft should be aware of
possible hazardous conditions. Be alert to see and avoid inthese areas!
Alert Area - Designated airspace containing a high volume of
pilot training activity or unusual aeronautical activity not
hazardous to aircraft. No flight restrictions apply, but pilots should
be especially alert for collision avoidance. Be alert to see andavoid in these areas!
22
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
Military Operations Area (MOA) - Designated airspace
containing military training activities depicted to alert pilots of
their location.
MOAs do not restrict VFR operations, however always exercise
extreme caution whenever training activity is in progress. Bealert to see and avoid in these areas!
Other airspace
Charted National Park Service AreasU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Areas
U.S. Forest Service Areas
Although not classified as special use airspace, these areas have
flight limitations imposed by the agencies that administer them.
See the margin of sectional charts for information concerning
flight over these areas.
Altitude restrictions are often applied to reduce the bird strike
hazard and/or to reduce noise disturbance to the area below.
23
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
Special use airspace is depicted on aeronautical charts in many
shapes and sizes.
Information is provided on the borders of these charts
concerning altitudes, times of use, contacting agency, and notice to
airmen (NOTAM) information.
Contacting agencies
Using agency - The agency, organization, or military
command whose activity required the establishment of special use
airspace.
Contact the using agency for information on warning and alert
areas. Flight Service should have using agency phone numbers on
file for you to call.
Controlling agency - The FAA facility or military ATC
facility that may approve flight through or within a restricted area.
Request permission in flight by radio.
You may contact either the using or controlling agency for
authorization to fly through or within special use airspace.
Requesting permission from the controlling agency would be
the simplest and most expedient method to gain entry into special
use airspace.
24
MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES
Military Training Routes (MTRs) are established for low-
altitude military training operations with airspeeds exceeding 250
knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) below 10,000 feet MSL (and
sometimes higher altitudes).
The route centerline is depicted on aeronautical charts.
Normal route width is five to ten miles either side of the
centerline.
Some route segments may be as narrow as two miles or as wide
as twenty miles from the centerline.
Two types of charted military training routes:
IRs (IFR MTRs) - Operations conducted under instrument
flight rules regardless of weather conditions.
VRs (VFR MTRs) - Operations conducted under visual flight
rules during VFR weather conditions.
(Uncharted slow speed training routes also exist.)
25
MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES
When receiving your weather briefing you must specifically
request military training route information, otherwise you will not
be told about MTR activity.
While on a flight, contact the local flight service station for
military training route information along your course.
It is in your best interest to always keep alert for hi-speed
military traffic when flying in the vicinity of MTRs - even if they
are inactive.
Regardless of the times of scheduled use and the routes
depicted on charts, high performance military aircraft sometimes
fly during unscheduled times and pilots do occasionally fly off
course.
The Department of Defense publishes three Area Planning
Charts detailing the Military Training Routes covering the Eastern,
Central, and Western U.S.
Published by:
Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center
3200 South Second Street
St. Louis, MO 63118-3399
26
ELT
(EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER)
The ELT is one of your best means of being found if you
experience a crash landing.
Always know the ELT location in your aircraft, how to remove
it, and how to activate it manually.
The range of an activated ELT varies from 75 to 150 miles and
useful life is from 3 to 8 days, depending on battery condition.
Warming the ELT battery (ideally to 70 degrees) in an
emergency situation will increase ELT performance and length of
operating time.
After an accident, if your radio is working, tune your radio to
121.5 to see if the ELT is transmitting. Then transmit on 121.5 to
call for help.
If you detect an activated ELT signal during a flight,
immediately notify ATC of the ELT signal and give your aircraft
position.
After completing a flight and before shutting down your
aircraft, monitor 121.5 to ensure that your ELT did not
inadvertently activate.
27
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWERLIGHT GUN SIGNALS
AIRCRAFT ON THE GROUND
COLOR AND TYPE AIRCRAFT ON
OF SIGNAL THE GROUND
Steady green ................................. Cleared for takeoff
Flashing green ................................. Cleared for taxi
Steady red ............................................ STOP
Flashing red ..................................... Taxi clear of the
runway in use
Flashing white ................................. Return to starting
point on airport
Alternating ....................................... Exercise extreme
red and green caution
28
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWERLIGHT GUN SIGNALS
AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT
COLOR AND TYPE AIRCRAFT IN
OF SIGNAL FLIGHT
Steady green ................................... Cleared to land
Flashing green ................................. Return for landing
(to be followed by
steady green)
Steady red ........................................... Give way to
other aircraft
continue circling
Flashing red ........................................ Airport unsafe
do not land
Alternating ......................................... Exercise extreme
red and green caution
29
TAKE OFF & LANDING DATA CARD
(Make copies and fill in the data from
your aircraft's performance charts)
TAKEOFF LANDING
Pressure Altitude
Outside Air Temperature
Density Altitude
Wind
Gross Weight
Skid Height
Power Required to Hover
Power Available
Maximum Gross
Weight for Hover
Maximum Knots
Indicated Air Speed
30
DENSITY ALTITUDE COMPUTATION
Required:
1. PRESSURE ALTITUDE: Set the altimeter to 29.92
and read pressure altitude directly from altimeter.
DON'T FORGET TO RESET THE ALTIMETER!
2. Use a constant of 120.
3. ACTUAL AIR TEMPERATURE: Read this directly
from the aircraft's outside air temperature gauge.
4. STANDARD AIR TEMPERATURE: Compute this
by subtracting 2 degrees centigrade for each 1,000
feet above sea level from 15 degrees centigrade.
Sample Computation:
Field Elevation: 1,000 feet Mean Sea Level
Pressure Altitude: 2,000 feet (Altimeter set at 29.92)
Actual Temperature: 25 degrees centigrade (OAT)
Standard Temperature: 13 degrees centigrade
(15 degrees minus 2 degrees)
Density Altitude Computation:
Density Altitude = 2,000' + [120 X ( 25O
- 13O
)]
Density Altitude = 2,000' + ( 120 X 12 )
Density Altitude = 2,000' + 1,440
Density Altitude = 3,400 feet
31
EFFECTS OF DENSITY ALTITUDE
High elevations combined with high temperatures create high
density altitude which reduces helicopter performance.
During a high density altitude condition aircraft engines ingest
less air which reduces power, and rotors cannot "grab" the thin air
which reduces lift.
Attention to density altitude is especially critical if you depart a
low lying airport during the cool morning hours and then operate
from a high elevation location later in the day after temperatures
have risen.
DENSITY ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON HOVERING:
The higher the density altitude, the lower the hovering ceiling -
and more power is required to hover.
ON RATE OF CLIMB:
High density altitude reduces the rate of climb.
ON LANDING:
If density altitude is higher at the destination than at the
departure point, sufficient power to hover may not be available at
the destination point.
32
EFFECTS OF DENSITY ALTITUDE
Keep in mind that actual density altitude may be higher than
computed if the moisture content of the air (relative humidity) is
high.
One method you can use to deal with the effects of high density
altitude to accomplish your mission would be to carry less fuel to
reduce helicopter gross weight. This would improve aircraft
performance and/or increase useful load. However, endurance and
range would be reduced.
DENSITY ALTITUDE SUMMARY
MOST ADVERSE CONDITIONS:
High altitudeHigh gross weightHigh temperaturesCalm or no wind
MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS:
Low altitudeLow gross weightLow temperatures
Moderate wind
33
SAFETY AROUND HELICOPTERS
PASSENGER BOARDING AND UNBOARDINGSafety Briefing:
Never approach the helicopter until told to do so.
Approach and depart from the front or side - never be out of the
pilot's field of vision.
Crouch low before getting under the main rotor.
Never walk near the tail rotor.
Never approach from or depart onto an uphill slope.
Hold firmly onto hats and loose articles when boarding and
unboarding.
Never reach up for or dart after a hat or object that has blown
away.
Protect your eyes by shielding them or by squinting, or better yet,
wear protective eye shields.
If you are blinded by dust or a blowing object, sit down and wait
for help - never feel your way toward or away from the helicopter.
At night, never shine lights directly toward the helicopter to avoid
affecting the pilot's night vision.
34
SAFETY AROUND HELICOPTERS
Passenger Safety Briefing (con’t):
Keep safety belts securely fastened at all times.
Do not smoke during ground operations, take offs, landings,
and when directed by the pilot.
Do not use butane or plastic reservoir lighters.
IF A CRASH LANDING IS IMMINENT
Loosen tie.
Tighten safety belt.
Prior to contact with the surface, if facing forward,
fold arms and rest them on knees.
Bend body forward as far as possible and
and rest head firmly on arms. Use pillow,
blanket, or clothing as cushion, if available.
Passengers facing rearward, sit upright, back
firmly against backrest.
If it becomes necessary to evacuate the helicopter immediately
following a precautionary or emergency landing, exit through the
passenger or crew doors, if possible.
Break Plexiglas as a last resort.
Keep well below the rotor plane and assemble off the nose of
the helicopter outside of the main rotor tip area for a head count.
STAY AWAY FROM THE TAIL ROTOR!
35
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
Do not perform acrobatic flight.
Do not check magnetos in flight.
Cautiously adjust mixture in flight.
Secure all objects in cockpit to prevent fouling of controls.
Always hover for a moment before beginning a new flight.
Always taxi slowly.
Use caution when hovering on the leeward side of obstructions or
buildings.
Always clear the area prior to executing maneuvers.
Stay out of the shaded area of the height velocity chart.
Maintain proper rotor RPM, especially in rough, gusty air.
Avoid an extreme nose down attitude when executing a takeoff.
Avoid abrupt rearward cyclic movement which could cause the
main rotor blades to flex down into the tail boom.
36
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
Avoid abrupt changes of flight controls causing a negative "G"
load.
Avoid protracted rearward flight and downward hovering.
Avoid airspeeds for all maneuvers that exceed maximum level
flight velocities.
Avoid full movement of the cyclic at low RPM which may result
in damage to the short shaft.
Be absolutely certain your seat is locked into position.
Be sure your main rotor blade is not tied down prior to engine
start:
On two blade rotor systems, place the main rotor
blades perpendicular to the fuselage.
On three blade rotor systems, place one main
rotor blade directly to the front at the twelve
o'clock position.
On four and five rotor systems, place rotor
blades diagonal to the fuselage.
37
AUTOROTATION
Poor entry into autorotation after engine failure causes many
helicopter accidents.
In the event of an actual engine failure, rotor RPM drop
will be faster and lower than what you have ever experienced
in training.
This is especially true if you are in a powered climb at the time
of an engine failure.
YOU MUST KEEP THE ROTOR SPEED UP
BY
IMMEDIATELY LOWERING THE COLLECTIVE
DURING DESCENT
Bank & turn increases rotor RPM.
Out of trim glide increases descent rate.
Reducing rotor RPM stretches glide.
Reducing airspeed slows descent rate.
Be sure to maintain rotor RPM and airspeed within your
helicopter's operating limits.
38
SURFACE WIND DETERMINATION
Note during your weather briefing, the current surface winds,
the forecast surface winds, and the forecast winds aloft.
Forecast winds aloft are useful wind direction information if
you plan on operating at the higher elevations in mountainous
terrain.
INFLIGHT SOURCES
Note smoke plumes and flags.
Groups of grazing livestock generally stand facing downwind in
a relatively strong wind.
Bodies of wind whipped water show a smooth surface near the
upwind shoreline.
Broadleaf tree leaves showing their undersides indicate the
upwind direction.
Note your drift while performing a constant rate 360 degree
turn.
The most common prevailing wind for a given area can be seen
on a sectional chart by noting the airport runway alignments
depicted on the chart.
39
MID-AIR COLLISION AVOIDANCE
Scan continuously, even in good weather.
Use clearing turns, always.
During climbs and descents, execute gentle banks to the left and
right while looking for traffic.
Turn on your strobes, rotating beacon, and landing light - even
during daylight hours.
Talk and listen on your radio, even when it is not mandatory.
When in radar contact, continue to maintain your scan.
MOST INFLIGHT COLLISIONSAND NEAR MISSES OCCUR:
Within 5 miles of an airport. Especially in the airport traffic
pattern and on final approach.
Over VOR stations.
On warm weekend afternoons when more pilots are flying.
40
MID-AIR COLLISION AVOIDANCE
If an observed aircraft in flight appears stationary, it may be a
collision hazard approaching you at your altitude.
SCANNING TECHNIQUES
Attempt to develop a systematic scan pattern that is comfortable
to you.
Try a left to right scan pattern shifting your eyes in ten degree
increments.
Allow only 1/4 to 1/3 of your total scan for viewing your
instruments or for performing cockpit chores.
Inactive, relaxed eyes focus at a distance of only 10 to 30 feet in
front of you. Essentially, you are looking but not seeing.
Maintaining an active scan pattern reduces collision risks by
preventing relaxation of your eyes.
So, keep those eyes moving to:
SEE AND AVOID!
41
NOISE ABATEMENT
Blade slap is objectionable to some non-aviation oriented
community members.
Blade slap is generated during level, high speed flight.
Blade slap also occurs during partial power descents.
The noisiest approaches occur in the 55 and 65 knot airspeed
range, and with a 400 to 600 FPM rate of descent.
To operate more quietly near populated (noise sensitive) areas:
IN CRUISE FLIGHT
Fly as high as practical.
Reduce airspeed 10 to 20 percent below normal cruise speeds.
Overfly the noise sensitive area on the downwind side.
42
NOISE ABATEMENT
DURING APPROACH
Depart the last 1,000 feet of altitude at 10 to 15 knots higher
than normal airspeed, if practical.
Keep rotor torque as low as safely practical.
Attempt to reduce noticeable blade slap with cyclic and
collective inputs, if practical.
DURING GROUND OPERATIONS
Turn the helicopter's quietest quadrant toward the noise
sensitive area.
To determine the quietest quadrant, with another pilot at the
controls, walk around the helicopter with the rotors turning. It will
be apparent.
If parked with the rotors turning for extended periods of time,
reduce RPM consistent with minimum oil pressure values and
operator manual limits.
For published noise abatement procedures specific to your
model helicopter, consult your flight manual.
43
MOUNTAIN FLYING
Get a full weather briefing. A marginal VFR forecast usually
means IFR conditions in the mountains. Especially if the flight
precaution of "mountain obscuration" is forecast.
If forecast winds aloft exceed 25 knots below 12,000 feet MSL,
the wind velocity may be twice as strong in or near mountain
passes or canyons.
Plan your trip for early morning or evening hours. Turbulence
is usually greatest from 10:00 AM and 6:00 PM.
Keep your helicopter as light as possible to increase aircraft
performance in the high density altitude environment of
mountainous terrain.
Mountain winds follow contours like a stream of water. The air
on the downwind (leeward) side of a mountain can be extremely
turbulent. Fly on the upwind side of a canyon or mountain
whenever possible.
Make a continuous check of wind speed and direction.
Plan your approach so that an aborted landing can be made
downhill and/or into the wind without climbing.
If wind is relatively calm, try to select a hill or knoll for landing
to take advantage of any possible wind effect.
When evaluating a strange landing site, perform as many flybys
as you feel is necessary before landing.
44
MOUNTAIN FLYING
Evaluate the obstacles in the landing site and consider possible
null areas and routes of departure.
Determine the ability to hover out of ground effect prior to
attempting an approach and landing.
Fly as smoothly as possible and avoid steep turns.
Cross mountain peaks and ridges high enough to stay out of
downdrafts on the leeward side of the crest.
Avoid downdrafts prevalent on leeward (downside) slopes.
Plan your flight to take advantage of the updrafts on the
windward slopes.
Whenever possible, approaches to ridges should be along the
ridge on the upwind side rather than perpendicular to them.
Avoid high rates of descent when approaching landing sites.
Know your route and plan thoroughly for flying into
mountainous areas.
Carry a good survival kit and know how to use it.
And bring along a coat or jacket, even in the summertime, when
flying in mountainous terrain.
45
REMOTE AREA CHECKLIST
HIGH RECON
(fly at 300 feet AGL and 50 knots)
1. Before landing checklist
2. Area for suitability
3. Wind direction
4. Approach and departure routes
5. Turbulence - updrafts and downdrafts
6. Site evaluation
7. Free air temperature
8. Hover power required
9. Power available
LOW RECON
(fly at 50 feet above obstaclesand 40 knot groundspeed)
1. Approach route (fly the same route used for high recon, but offset for the best view)
2. Wind – reconfirm
3. Specific landing spot – choose
4. Departure route - select
46
REMOTE AREA CHECKLIST
LANDING
1. Survey - determine best spot for touchdown
2. If shutting down engine - make sure skids are on a firm surface
TAKE OFF
1. Hover power – recalculate, if additional weight has been added
2. Wind - recheck for speed and direction
3. Determine best departure and abort routes - always leave yourself an out!
4. Copilot - monitor gauges
5. Before take off checklist
6. Take off - use maximum power until all obstacles are cleared and climb airspeed is attained
7. Radio call (if applicable)
47
NIGHT REMOTE AREA CHECKLIST
DO NOT CONDUCT A LOW RECON
(Perform in addition to daytime HIGH RECON)
1. Lighting - use all available external lights
2. Crew briefing:
Procedures and pilot's intentions
Terrain features and crew duties
3. Cockpit lights - dimmed (Passenger lights off)
4. Site evaluation - Determine suitability
(minimum of 500 ft AGL on downwind)
5. Final approach - normal to shallow angle
(begin no lower than 300 ft AGL)
6. Copilot will call:
a. 100 ft increments until 300 ft AGL
b. 50 ft increments below 300 ft AGL
c. When pilot exceeds 300 FPM rate of descent during last 100 ft AGL of the approach
7. Take off - Pilot make instrument take off
Copilot - monitor visual cues
48
REMOTE AREA
BEFORE TAKEOFF GROUND RECON
TO DETERMINE
1. Type of takeoff to perform.
2. Take off point to maximize available area.
3. How to get the helicopter safely from the
landing point to the takeoff point.
PROCEDURE
1. Determine wind direction.
a. Friction controls if engine is running.
b. Walk away from rotor wash.
c. Drop dust or grass to check wind drift.
2. Go to downwind end of remote area and
mark a position for takeoff which allows
clearance of helicopter from all obstructions.
a. Use a heavy log or stone so rotorwash
will not disturb it.
b. If rearward hovering will be required
to reach the take off point, place
added reference markers to provide
a safe ground track while hovering.
49
CONFINED AREA
GENERAL RULES
Know the winds at all times.
Keep forced landing areas within reach, if at all possible.
Operate the helicopter as close to normal capabilities as long as
possible.
Angle of approach should be no steeper than necessary to clear
any obstacles.
Perform a normal take off from a hover and use a steeper angle
of climb only if required to clear any barriers.
If a normal take off is not possible, perform a maximum
performance takeoff.
Always land to a specific point located well forward of the area,
and keep the spot in sight during the approach.
Ensure tail rotor clearance from all obstructions on approach
and when hovering.
50
PINNACLE AND RIDGELINE OPERATIONS
Climb on the upwind side to take advantage of updrafts.
Avoid leeward side downdrafts and turbulence.
Use a steeper than normal approach when barriers or excessive
downdrafts exist.
Use a shallower than normal approach when there are no
downdrafts or barriers, or of an out of ground effect hover may not
be possible.
When landing on ridges, the safest approach path is usually
along the ridge on the upwind side.
Gaining airspeed on take off is more important than gaining
altitude.
a. Allows a more rapid departure from
unfavorable terrain.
b. Allows a more favorable glide angle,
increasing the ability to reach forced
landing areas.
c. Permits a more effective autorotative
flare.
51
SLOPE OPERATIONS
At termination of approach, hover into position to land cross
slope to avoid tail rotor strike.
Do not turn the tail upslope.
A slope of five degrees is the maximum for normal helicopter
operations.
Do not continue with a slope landing if lateral cyclic travel is
reaching its limits.
Maintain normal operating RPM to allow immediate take off if
the helicopter slides downslope.
After landing, check the security of the helicopter by gently
moving around the cyclic before reducing RPM.
During take off, remember again, do not turn the tail
upslope.
Be thoroughly familiar with dynamic rollover characteristics.
52
HOT WEATHER FLIGHT TECHNIQUE
Make full use of wind and translational lift.
Hover as low as possible and no longer than necessary.
Maintain maximum allowable rotor RPM.
Accelerate very slowly into forward flight.
Use running take offs and landings when necessary.
Use caution in maximum performance take offs and in steep
approaches.
Avoid high rates of descent during all approaches.
Always keep in mind the effects of density altitude & how it
reduces helicopter performance.
Height temperatures
High altitudes
High gross weights
– all, reduce helicopter performance.
53
COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS
PREFLIGHT INSPECTION
Preflight inspection is especially important in cold weather.
Fight the urge to hurry so you don't overlook anything during
the preflight inspection.
Dress properly for the weather. This makes you more
comfortable during preflight and, more importantly, being cold can
cause fatigue that will slow your instrument crosscheck and
decision making ability during flight.
Remove the pitot tube cover and ensure that the pitot tube and
static system sensing ports are clear.
Check for fuel contamination. If the helicopter was warm when
parked with less than full fuel tanks, cold temperatures may cause
water to condense in the fuel tanks.
Remove all frost, ice, and snow to reduce drag on airfoils, and
to prevent control binding. Any un-removed snow may melt on
control surfaces and later freeze causing control binding.
Be sure that the skids or wheels are not frozen to the
surface.
54
COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS
GROUND OPERATIONS
Perform engine start, run-up, and operational checks slowly:
a. Allows engine to warm up.
b. Clears controls and rotating parts
of residual ice and snow.
Increase RPM from ground idle to flight RPM slowly, if parked
on ice or snow, to prevent a possible sudden yaw.
Be aware that foreign object damage (FOD) may result due to
of rotor wash blowing chunks of ice into the air, leading to
possible engine ingestion.
Prior to initial liftoff to a hover, be sure the skids or wheels are
not frozen to the surface.
Keep in mind that powdery snow may cause a whiteout
condition when hovering.
55
COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS
INFLIGHT
Remember to use pitot heat when flying in visible moisture and
freezing temperatures.
Avoid flight into known or forecast icing conditions.
When flying over snow covered terrain, depth perception is
difficult - especially at night.
You may fly lower than you realize due to an illusion of height
caused by featureless snow covered terrain.
During approaches to featureless snow covered terrain
(especially at night) complete loss of depth perception may result
in unexpected contact with the ground.
In very cold temperatures, the altimeter reads higher than the
actual altitude. Keep this in mind when flying at night in areas
with high obstacles or terrain features.
56
COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS
WHITEOUT DURING TAKE OFF
To avoid a whiteout condition you can perform a maximum
performance take off:
Keep the ball centered
Use slightly forward cyclic
Reference directional gyro and attitude indicator
Maintain a positive rate of climb
WHITEOUT DURING LANDING
During approach, if the visual horizon is lost immediately
initiate a maximum performance take off (go-around) as outlined
above.
SETTING DOWN ON CRUSTED SNOW
If snow depth is unknown, do not place the full weight of the
helicopter on the snow when landing.
Dynamic rollover may result if one skid or wheel breaks
through the snow crust.
Tail rotor strike may occur if both skids or wheels break
through the snow crust.
57
NIGHT FLYING
YOU are the most important element in flying at night.
Be well rested. Fatigue resulting from your activities earlier in
the day can significantly reduce your ability to perform safely at
night.
It is difficult enough to see at night, but when fatigued your
vision is further impaired.
Regain your currency for night flying with a qualified instructor
if you are planning a night flight with no night experience in your
recent past.
Spend at least one-half hour in a dimly lit environment, if
possible, prior to flight.
Use a red-lensed flashlight during your preflight walk-around
inspection to preserve your night vision.
Take a flashlight (preferably two) and spare batteries on your
flight in case of aircraft electrical failure - check them for proper
operation prior to flight.
Make sure the navigation lights, anti-collision and landing
lights are functioning properly to allow others to see and avoid you
at night.
58
NIGHT FLYING
A thorough and complete weather briefing is especially
important for night flying. Clouds easily avoided during the day
may not even be noticed at night until you fly into them.
Plan your route carefully to allow adequate terrain clearance by
consulting the aeronautical charts.
In planning for intermediate and destination airports, be sure
they are attended at night and have the type of fuel you need.
Calling these airports to verify hours of operation and fuel
availability is well worth your time.
During your descent and approach into an airport at night, use
all airport lighting aids available to you.
Know the CTAF frequencies of any airports you plan to use so
you can activate the Pilot Controlled Lighting (PCL) devices
during your landing.
Use the Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or the
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) to ensure adequate
terrain clearance during final approach. If no VASI or PAPI is
available, fly a steeper than normal approach to avoid unseen
terrain hazards.
And always check Notices to Airmen to be sure all airport
lighting aids will be available to you.
59
NIGHT FLYING
Also, at night do not look directly at an object you wish to see.
If you stare directly at the object, it will tend to disappear.
To preserve your night vision, keep your cockpit lights as dim
as possible.
Night approaches into unlighted areas over smooth terrain can
result in complete loss of depth perception and even lead to
inadvertent contact with the ground.
And, if flying under instrument flight rules in the clouds at
night, turn off the anti-collision lights and turn the navigation
lights to steady in order to prevent spatial disorientation.
60
NIGHT FLYING FOG HAZARD
A major concern associated with night flying for the VFR rated
pilot is fog formation.
When fog is forecast, it can begin to form anywhere from two
hours before to two hours after the time referenced in the terminal
forecasts.
When the temperature-dewpoint spread is less than five
degrees, fog formation is very likely - especially with light wind
conditions.
When fog forms, your first indication may be the twinkling of
lights on the ground caused by diffusion.
This is a good time to land at the nearest suitable airport while
you still can.
When landing, be very cautious if a thin fog layer covers your
airport of intended landing.
The fog may look deceptively thin from above where you can
see down through it.
But on final approach when you enter the fog, all visibility
looking ahead may be lost.
Be prepared to do a go-around with no hesitation if your
visibility suddenly deteriorates during landing.
61
HAZARDS
LOW ROTOR RPM
Cause
1. Too much upward collective pitch, resulting in:
a. A high angle of attack on the
main rotor blades.
b. A high amount of drag on the
main rotor blades.
2. Engine power available (or being used) is not
sufficient to maintain normal rotor RPM.
Aggressive maneuvering and flying in turbulence can
amplify the effects of low rotor RPM which may result in
main rotor contact with the airframe.
Recovery
1. Immediately lower the collective pitch and increase
the throttle.
2. Adjust the collective pitch after recovery as
needed to resume normal flight.
3. If recovery is too slow, lifting power and tail
rotor effectiveness will be lost.
62
HAZARDS
MAST BUMPING
Mast bumping may occur in helicopters configured with a
teetering, two bladed rotor system.
Mast bumping occurs when the main rotor hub assembly strikes
the main rotor mast during flight.
The result may be main rotor separation from the helicopter
airframe.
Mast bumping may occur during a low G condition caused by
an abrupt control input or by a cyclic pushover while in forward
flight.
High airspeed and turbulence increase the likelihood of mast
bumping during abrupt control inputs, cyclic pushovers, or
excessive sideslip.
To Avoid Mast Bumping
Fly within the prescribed airspeeds for safe operation of your
model of helicopter.
Avoid abrupt control inputs and fly as smoothly as possible -
especially when flying at high density altitudes.
63
HAZARDS
MAST BUMPING
To Avoid Mast Bumping (con't)
Avoid sideslip and maintain balanced flight at all times.
If flying a light gross weight helicopter, avoid flight if
turbulence is forecast to be severe, or extreme.
If you encounter severe, or extreme turbulence while flying a
light gross weight helicopter, adjust your helicopter's airspeed to
the turbulence penetration airspeed as defined in the aircraft
operator's manual, and land as soon as practical.
And the greatest and most important action you must condition
yourself to automatically respond to is this:
If the helicopter rolls right in a low G condition, gently apply
aft cyclic to restore positive G and rotor thrust - then correct for
the right roll.
(This action is appropriate for helicopters with a counter-
clockwise rotating blade.)
64
HAZARDS
RETREATING BLADE STALL
Cause
Retreating blade stall is caused by a high angle of attack of the
retreating main rotor blade.
Factors leading toRetreating blade include
High airspeeds
High gross weight
High density altitude
Low rotor RPM
Steep or abrupt turns
Turbulent air
Warning signs
Pitch-up of the nose
Rolling tendency
Cyclic feedback
Abnormal vibration
65
HAZARDS
RETREATING BLADE STALL (con’t)
Retreating blade stall may quickly advance into severe blade
stall due to:
A steep turn
Rapid pull-up
An abrupt maneuver
The stall will be rapid and violent
Corrective measures
Reduce collective pitch
Reduce forward airspeed
Minimize maneuvering
Increase rotor RPM
HAZARDS
COLLECTIVE BOUNCE
Corrective measures
Relax hand pressure on the collective
Increase collective friction
Make a positive application, either up or
down, of the collective pitch control.
66
HAZARDS
SETTLING WITH POWER
Causes
Vertical or near vertical descent rate of
at least 300 FPM
Low forward airspeed
Use of over 20% of engine power
Result
The helicopter is settling in its own turbulence
There is insufficient power to retard the sink rate
The main rotor stalls from the rotor hub outward
Recovery
Lower the collective
Gain forward airspeed
(You must have enough altitude
to perform both recovery actions)
During a steep approach, if your rate of descent
increases - even though you are applying power:
ABANDON THE APPROACH!
67
HAZARDS
DYNAMIC ROLLOVER
Condition
During liftoff or landing from a hover, the helicopter may pivot
about a skid or wheel that remains on the ground.
The helicopter may then enter an abrupt rolling motion which
full lateral cyclic input cannot correct.
The recovery angle can be exceeded in less than two seconds.
Contributing conditions
Right side skid or wheel down condition
Crosswind from the left
Right lateral offset of helicopter's center of
gravity
Main rotor thrust almost equal to helicopter
weight
(discussion continued on next page)
68
HAZARDS
DYNAMIC ROLLOVER
Causes
Slope landings or take offs
Skid or wheel caught on a fixed object
Skid or wheel stuck in ice
Skid or wheel stuck in soft asphalt
Failure to remove skid or wheel tiedown
Corrective action
If the helicopter bank angle exceeds five degrees and corrective
lateral cyclic is not effective, perform a smooth and moderate
reduction of the collective.
Do not rapidly reduce or "dump" the collective. This may
cause fuselage or rotor blade contact -- or even cause a rollover in
the opposite direction.
Pilot technique to prevent dynamic rollover
Maintain cyclic trim and avoid side drift
Avoid tailwind conditions during slope
operations
Keep roll rates small
69
HAZARDS
GROUND RESONANCE
Ground resonance occurs in helicopters with three bladed, fully
articulated rotor systems. Unless immediate corrective action is
taken, oscillations will increase rapidly and destruction of the
helicopter will result.
Cause
The landing gear unevenly strikes the surface, transmitting a
series of shocks to the main rotor head. This causes the rotor head
to become unbalanced.
Result
A severe wobbling or shaking of the fuselage develops and
rapidly occurs, similar to the oscillations of a dropped coin striking
the floor at an angle.
Corrective action
Immediately lift off into a hover, if RPM is sufficient.
-Or-
Immediately close the throttle and reduce collective pitch, if
RPM is too low for take off.
70
HAZARDS
COMPRESSOR STALL
Symptoms
Sharp rumble
Sharp loud reports
Severe engine vibration
Rapid rise in turbine outlet temperature
Actions
Reduce collective
Turn off de-ice/bleed air
Avoid rapid or maximum power applications
If compressor stall progresses
Make a normal landing to a safe area
Record the readings of the
Gas producer
Exhaust gas temperature
Torque
Duration of the stall
71
HAZARDS
FUEL CONTAMINATION
Typical contaminants include water, rust, sand, dust, microbial
growth, and certain fuel additives.
Parking the helicopter overnight with a partially filled fuel tank
may cause condensation and resulting water contamination of fuel.
Unintentional mixing of other types or grades of fuel may
reduce engine efficiency or cause engine failure.
Refueling from small tanks or drums or from improperly
filtered fuel tanks may introduce dirt, sand, rust, or water into an
aircraft fuel tank.
Precautions to Prevent Fuel Contamination
During preflight, drain several ounces of fuel from the fuel
sumps and examine it for contaminants.
Be present during refueling operations to ensure that the proper
type and grade of fuel is added.
During the final postflight at the end of the last flight for the
day, top off the fuel tank to prevent water condensation in the
aircraft fuel tank.
72
HAZARDS
NI-CAD BATTERY OVERHEAT
(NI-CAD = Nickel Cadmium)
Causes
Frequent engine starts.
Unnecessary use of the helicopter battery during ground
operations for lights, avionics, etc.
Prevention
During a series of short duration flights with consecutive engine
starts, plan the use of an external power supply, if possible.
Adhere to the helicopter operator manual's recommended rest
periods between engine starts.
During flight, frequently monitor the bus voltage or load current
for any increase, decrease, or fluctuations indicating an abnormal
condition.
73
HAZARDS
TURBULENCE
If you encounter turbulence
Maintain a level flight attitude
Stay in trim
Minimize cyclic inputs
Keep a power reserve
Maintain the proper airspeed as
recommended in the operator
manual for your helicopter.
If you encounter severe or extreme turbulence, land as soon as
practical.
Hovering in strong crosswinds
When hovering or flying low and slow, a strong quartering
crosswind may cause disturbed air generated by the main rotor to
flow across the tail rotor.
This may cause a loss of tail rotor effectiveness which results in
an uncontrollable yaw.
74
HAZARDS
WAKE TURBULENCE
Aircraft generating lift upon take off until touchdown create
invisible swirling air masses that spin downstream, horizontally, of
the aircraft wingtips.
These cylindrical counter-rotating vortices can be avoided by
learning to envision their location and adjusting your flight path.
Hazards associated with waketurbulence encounters include:
Aircraft structural damage
Inability to stop aircraft roll caused
by entering the wake vortex
To avoid wake turbulencegenerated by other aircraft:
During landing - Remain at or above the leading aircraft's
flight path and land beyond its touchdown point.
During take off - Observe the preceding aircraft's rotation
point. Take off before that point and climb above the preceding
aircraft's flight path.
75
HAZARDS
WAKE TURBULENCE
Points to remember
The heaviest aircraft generate the strongest wake turbulence
vortex and pose the greatest danger to aircraft.
Light aircraft are the most vulnerable to wake turbulence.
Encounters with wake turbulence are most dangerous close to
the ground during take off and landing when less altitude is
available for recovery.
During final approach, fly at or above and upwind of the
leading aircraft's path of flight.
On approach, use the spacing ATC advises to avoid wake
turbulence. Runway length can serve as a guide in judging
distance.
The most hazardous wake turbulence situation is during a calm
or no wind condition where wing tip vortices persist longer on the
final approach or departure path.
76
HAZARDS
WIRE STRIKES
Wire strikes commonly occur
During take off and during approach
During low flight over lakes and rivers
Flight between high terrain points, such as:
Below the crest of hilltops
Through river valleys
Down canyons
Through mountain passes
To reduce the wire strike hazard:
Don't intentionally fly at low altitudes unless absolutely
necessary due to mission requirements.
If crossing wires during low level flight, cross them at the poles
or supporting structures.
When flying near transmission towers, watch out for the guy
wires extending diagonally down from the tower.
Inform the local FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)
of any airport wire hazard you notice which is not listed as a
hazard in the Airport Directory.
77
HAZARDS
THUNDERSTORMS
Avoid all thunderstorms by at least 20 miles.
Never fly under a thunderstorm even if it's not raining and VFR
conditions exist underneath. Severe turbulence, wind shear or
microbursts could be lurking below the cloud bases.
Don't take off or land during an approaching thunderstorm.
Low level wind shear or a sudden wind shift may be encountered.
Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter:
Establish the reduced airspeed power setting for turbulence
penetration recommended by your aircraft manual to lessen
structural aircraft stresses.
Maintain a constant attitude and let your altitude vary with the
up and down drafts to reduce structural stresses on your aircraft.
Set cockpit lights to high intensity to reduce temporary
blindness from lightening flashes.
Once in a thunderstorm, don't turn back. Aircraft structural
stresses are increased by turning. The preferred way out of a
thunderstorm is straight ahead.
78
HAZARDS
UNFAVORABLE WEATHER
A major cause of VFR fatal accidents is continued flight into
unfavorable weather.
When making a go-no-go preflight decision in evaluating
marginal weather, keep in mind that conditions between weather
reporting stations may be lower than reported at those stations.
You may encounter areas of reduced ceilings and visibilities
because weather is seldom uniform - even over short distances.
This is especially true in remote locations with longer distances
between weather reporting stations.
And be aware that a forecast may be quite inaccurate and it is
wise to compare current weather trends with forecast information
to determine the validity of the forecast.
Cockpit visibility may be lower than reported visibility due to
glazing of the windscreen as well as the slant range effect of
looking down at the ground at an angle. And, cockpit visibility is
further reduced by rain, drizzle or snow obscuring the windscreen.
Also, flying toward the sun in haze or dust conditions severely
reduces flight visibility.
79
HAZARDS
INADVERTENT IFR
The best possible thing you can do to be prepared for the
eventuality of inadvertent IFR is to get some "hood time."
Learn to fly your helicopter by reference to the instruments
only, and practice basic instrument flight maneuvers to maintain
proficiency in aircraft control.
If you suddenly go inadvertent IFR, your main objective is to
fly the helicopter!
Do not let any other actions or distractions prevent you from
keeping the helicopter in stable, "wings-level" flight.
If you immediately and inadvertently lose visual reference with
the ground and you are IFR qualified and equipped:
Control the aircraft - Transition to the flight instruments.
Climb - Climb to an altitude to clear all terrain and obstacles.
Call - Call for ATC assistance on 121.5 Emergency Frequency and
squawk 7700 on your transponder, if so equipped.
80
HAZARDS
VERTIGO
(SPATIAL DISORIENTATION)
Which way is up?
When flying in low visibility with poor surface reference, a
pilot is vulnerable to vertigo.
Poor surface reference occurs
When the horizon is obscured
At night - especially over rural areas where
ground lights and stars can blend together
On over-water flights
During a whiteout condition caused by snow
The spatially disoriented pilot may place the helicopter in a
dangerous attitude. If this occurs, follow the recovery sequence
listed below:
Unusual attitude recovery sequence
Center ball (step on the ball)
Level the helicopter attitude
Adjust the power setting
Adjust the airspeed
81
HAZARDS
COMMON IFR ILLUSIONS:
This disorientation is caused by a number of illusions sending
false signals to the brain, such as:
A sensation of banking when your helicopter is level.
A desire to bank your helicopter in the opposite direction
upon leveling, after banking.
A perception of straight and level flight or of climbing
when in a turn.
Upon recovery from a steep climbing turn, a feeling of
turning in the opposite direction.
A sensation of diving during recovery from a turn.
Confusion in attempting to mix visual cues and aircraft
instrument cues.
Other subtle causes of vertigo are
Reflections from outside lights.
Reflected light from the anti-collision rotating beacon.
(discussion continued on next page)
82
HAZARDS
TO PREVENT VERTIGO:
Do not continue VFR flight into deteriorating weather
conditions.
Be trained and proficient in aircraft control by reference to
instruments only.
Use flight instruments in association with visual references
when flying at night or in reduced visibilities.
Maintain night currency.
Obtain a complete weather briefing and watch for deteriorating
weather conditions.
Do not swivel your head to look around any more than
absolutely necessary in low weather conditions. Do not tune
radios during turns.
Believe your instrument indications. They are more reliable
than your sensations.
The importance of the effects of vertigo cannot be over-
emphasized.
Spatial disorientation can be so overpowering that even
instrument rated pilots may sometimes have difficulty controlling
their aircraft even when they know vertigo is affecting them.
83
HAZARDS
LOW LEVELINADVERTENT IFR
If you immediately and inadvertently lose visual ground
reference during low level flight and you are only VFR qualified
and/or equipped:
Enter autorotation with slight forward cyclic to re-establish
visual contact with the ground, if sufficient altitude and terrain
clearance permit.
Do not perform a 180 degree turn withoutvisual ground reference when at low altitude.
Do not slow your airspeed to the point where the pitot system
no longer registers your airspeed.
Other problems associated with low level VFR flight in poor
weather conditions include the inability to see and avoid other
aircraft and radio towers.
Although not at all recommended, if you must follow a road for
navigation in low weather, fly on the right side of the road.
Hopefully, any other aircraft following the road coming the
other way will be on his right side, as well.
84
HAZARDS
TRAPPED ON TOPOF AN OVERCAST
If you are VFR rated do not fly over a widespread overcast or
broken layer of clouds (more than five-tenths coverage).
However, flying over a scattered cloud layer may be practical at
times to take advantage of more favorable winds, smoother air,
improved visibility, or for terrain clearance.
Flight above scattered clouds is recommended only if weather
conditions are improving or stable.
If the clouds below you increase in coverage immediately
descend below the cloud deck (remain VFR) or turn around.
If you find yourself stuck on top of an overcast, call ATC or
flight service and explain your situation.
Delay in requesting assistance reduces the amount of fuel
available for regaining visual ground contact.
Use your helicopter's maximum endurance power setting to
conserve fuel.
ATC will help you find an area of improved weather to allow
safe descent below the cloud deck.
85
SEARCH AND RESCUE
PRE-DEPARTURE CHECKLIST
Mission objective __________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Requesting agency __________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Key rescue personnel _______________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Type of downed aircraft or situation
requiring aid
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Number of victims involved _________________
____________________________________________
Condition of victims _______________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Type of clothing worn by victims, or other
identifying characteristics ________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
86
SEARCH AND RESCUE
PRE-DEPARTURE CHECKLIST
Assumed location of accident _______________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Course and distance to rescue site _________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
ETD ________________________________________
ETE ________________________________________
ETA ________________________________________
Terrain and elevations along the route
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
En route hazards - towers, wires, etc.
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Fuel requirements, refuel location _________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
87
SEARCH AND RESCUE
PRE-DEPARTURE CHECKLIST
Obtain a detailed weather briefing for
Departure point
Enroute flight
Rescue site
Drop-off point
Receive as a minimum
Adverse Conditions and Synopsis
Current Weather for departure, enroute and
destination
Forecast Weather for departure enroute and
destination
Winds Aloft and any Pilot Reports
Other information pertinent to the mission____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
88
POST FLIGHT INSPECTION
Left side skid, skid shoe, crosstubes and saddle
Left side engine deck
Tail rotor drive shaft, tail rotor and gearboxes
Right side engine deck
Engine oil level
Transmission oil level
Hydraulic fluid level
Right side skid, skid shoe, crosstubes and saddle
Main rotor system and blades - condition, and main rotor blades tied down
Main rotor oil levels
Short shaft assembly
General aircraft condition
Aircraft publication completed - flight signed off
Hours logged
Discrepancies noted
89
THE HUMAN ELEMENT
A PEP TALK
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) reports that
nearly 80 percent of all general aviation accidents are related to or
caused by pilot error. The same basic mistakes are made year after
year.
Accident causes include
Flying technique errors
Thinking errors
Decision errors
Attitude errors
According to one study, 68 percent of these accidents are
caused by carelessness and recklessness.
You, as a general aviation pilot, represent a significant part of
the aviation community. And it is important to remember that the
vast majority of aviation accidents are attributable to lapses in
human performance.
How can you maintain a high level of performance?
By maintaining the proper attitude.
90
THE HUMAN ELEMENT
Attitude is all important in the process of practicing safe
operating procedures.
Avoid complacency - a major cause of accidents. Resist &
fight it.
Stay alert when things are going well. Remember, something
can always go wrong.
Avoid shortcuts in procedures.
Do not fly with minimal information or inadequate preflight
planning.
Understand that your proficiency level varies from one flight
task to another.
Recognize your strengths and your weaknesses.
Maintain open communications with your flying partners to
prevent misunderstandings in the cockpit.
Be willing to accept criticism and give it, constructively, so that
you and others can mutually benefit and continuously learn.
Do not allow peer pressure to push you into doing things that
you would not ordinarily do.
91
THE HUMAN ELEMENT
You can maintain your flying proficiency and mental skills in a
number of ways:
Keep your emergency training up to date to enable you to
overcome an emergency you otherwise would not be able to
handle.
Stay ahead of your aircraft and anticipate problems.
Always have more than one alternative course of action when
planning and conducting a flight.
Periodically review your aircraft operator's manual.
Read accident reports, safety bulletins. and pilot magazines, and
apply those lessons learned by other's experiences.
Maintain currency & flying proficiency.
Always use precision and care with the proper flying technique.
Keep safety paramount in mind.
And -- Always leave yourself an out!
92
THE HUMAN ELEMENT
Know your aircraft and its:
Limitations
Performance
Systems
Switches
Endurance
Loading
Emergency procedures
Know YOUR limitations and adhere to them.
Don't hesitate to ask questions about things you do not
understand.
Above all, constantly practice professionalism, maintain the
proper attitude, and strive for excellence during each and every
flight.
Regardless of whether you fly for hire, for business purposes, or
just for pleasure, always fly like a true professional.
93
Explanatory note of the list of
METAR & TAF abbreviations
on the following pages:
METAR: Routine Weather Report
TAF: Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast
This decoder allows you to translate METAR & TAF terms.
The abbreviations defined by quotation marks are examples of how
an element is spoken. The numerical values are an arbitrary choice
in creating the example. Simply substitute the numbers contained
in the METAR or TAF element you are translating and use the
same words contained in the example.
Following each definition you will notice page references. In
the book entitled, The METAR & TAF Quick Reference Manual,
these page references will lead you to much more in-depth
information by providing examples or a further explanation of the
term.
The METAR & TAF Quick Reference Manual is published by
Find-it Fast Books.
List of METAR Abbreviations
$ indicates maintenance needed on ASOS system, 44
- light intensity, 25
+ heavy intensity, 25
/ indicator that visual data follows;
/ separator between temperature and dew point data, 14, 32
00000KT calm wind [wind speed less than one knot], 19, 51
A2985 "altimeter two niner eight five", 34
ACC altocumulus castellanus, 30, 42
ACFT MSHP aircraft mishap, 16, 42
ACSL altocumulus standing lenticular cloud, 30, 42
AO1 automated station without precipitation discriminator, 18, 37
AO2 automated station with precipitation discriminator, 18, 37
ALP airport location point, 39
AMD TAF AMD - Amended forecast, 48
APRNT apparent
APRX approximately
ASOS automated surface observing system
AUTO fully automated report, no human backup, 8
B began, 39, 40
BC patches [spoken as "patchy", a descriptor], 25
BCFG patchy fog [patches of fog], 25
BECMG "a gradual change" [in forecast conditions, see page 54, 55
for a complete explanation]
BKN broken [5/8 to 7/8 sky cover], 29, 31
BKN000 between 5/8 to 7/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as
"broken clouds less than five zero"]10, 28, 41
BKN030 "ceiling three thousand broken", 29, 31
BKN040CB "ceiling four thousand broken, cumulonimbus", 29, 30
BKN050TCU "ceiling five thousand broken, towering cumulus", 29, 30
BKN030 V OVC "broken layer at three thousand variable to overcast", (V) 31, 41
BL blowing [a descriptor], 25, 27
BLDU blowing dust, 25
BLPY blowing spray, 25
BLSA blowing sand, 25
BLSN blowing snow, 25, 27
BR mist [visibility 5/8SM to 6SM], 10, 25, 27
BR HZ mist haze [visibility is 5/8 SM or more], 9, 10, 25, 27
C center [referring to runway designation]
CA cloud to air lightning, 38, 39
CAVOK ceiling and visibility OK [not used in U.S.]
CB cumulonimbus cloud, 29-30, 42, 52
CBMAM cumulonimbus mammatus cloud, 30, 42
CB S MOV E "cumulonimbus south moving east", 29, 30, 42
A-1
List of METAR Abbreviations
CC cloud to cloud lightning, 38, 39
CCSL cirrocumulus standing lenticular cloud, 30, 42
CCSL OVR MT E “standing lenticular cirrocumulus over the mountain[s] East”
30, 42
CG cloud to ground lightning, 38, 39
CHI cloud height indicator
CHINO sky condition at secondary location not available, 43, 44
CIG ceiling, 8, 29
CIG 004V008 "ceiling variable between four hundred and eight hundred", 8, 29
CIG 010 RY20 "ceiling one thousand at runway two zero", 38
CLR clear [0 or 0 below 12,000 feet sky cover], 29
CONS continuous [lightning-more than 6 flashes/minute], 38, 39
COR correction to a previously disseminated observation/forecast, 18, 48
DR low drifting [a descriptor], 10, 25
DRDU low drifting dust less than 6 ft high, 10, 25
DRSA low drifting sand less than 6 ft high, 10, 25
DRSN low drifting snow less than 6 ft high, 10, 25
DS dust storm, 25
DSIPTG dissipating
DSNT distant, 36
DU widespread dust, 13, 25
DVR dispatch visual range
DZ drizzle, 8, 25, 27
DZB drizzle began, (B) 39, 40
DZE drizzle ended, (E) 39, 40
E east or ended, 39, 40
FC funnel cloud, 9, 25, 37
+FC tornado or waterspout, 13, 25, 37
FEW few clouds [> 0 but £ 2/8 sky cover], 9, 29
FEW000 from 0 to 2/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as "few clouds less than
five zero"], 10, 28, 41
FEW040 "few clouds at four thousand", 29
FEW050CB "few clouds at five thousand, cumulonimbus", (CB) 29, 30
FEW060TCU "few clouds at six thousand. towering cumulus", (TCU) 29, 30
FG fog [visibility less than 5/8 statute mile], 9, 25, 29
FG BKN000 "fog obscuring five to seven-eights of the sky", 28
FG FEW000 "fog obscuring zero to two-eights of the sky", 28
FG SCT000 "fog obscuring three to four-eights of the sky", 28
FIBI filed but impractical to transmit
FM "after" - [a rapid change in forecast conditions see page 54 for a
complete explanation]
FRQ frequent [lightning-about 1 to 6 flashes/minute], 38, 39
A-2
List of METAR Abbreviations
FROPA frontal passage, 20, 37, 38
FT feet
FU smoke, 12, 25
FU SCT010 "scattered layer of smoke aloft at one thousand", 25, 41
FZ freezing [a descriptor], 25
FZDZ freezing drizzle, 9, 25, 27
FZDZB freezing drizzle began, 25, (B) 39, 40
FZDZE freezing drizzle ended, 25, (E) 39, 40
FZFG freezing fog [ice fog], 9, 25
FZRA freezing rain, 9, 25
FZRAB freezing rain began, 25, (B) 39, 40
FZRAE freezing rain ended, 25, (E) 39, 40
FZRANO freezing rain sensor not available, 43
G gust, 9, 19, 50, 51
GR hail, 9, 25, 40
GRB hail began, (B) 39, 40
GRE hail ended, (E) 39, 40
GR 1 1/2 "hailstones one and one-half inches in diameter", 40
GS small hail and/or snow pellets, 12, 25, 40
GSB small hail or snow pellets began, (B) 39, 40
GSE small hail or snow pellets ended, (E) 39, 40
HLSTO hailstone
HZ haze, 9, 25, 27
IC ice crystals or in-cloud lightning, 10, 38, 39
INCRG increasing
INTMT intermittent
KT knot[s], 19, 50, 51
L left [referring to runway designation]
LTG lightning, 38, 39
LWR lower
M minus, less than, 23, 24, 32
M1/4SM "visibility less than one quarter", 22
M10/M12 "temperature minus one zero, dew point minus one two", 32
M15/ "temperature minus one five, dew point missing", 32
M1000FT "R-V-R less than one thousand", 23
MAX maximum
METAR routine weather report provided at fixed intervals, 14-16
MI shallow [a descriptor], 11, 25
MIFG shallow fog, 12, 27
MIN minimum
MOV moved/moving/movement, 40
MT mountains
A-3
List of METAR Abbreviations
N north
N/A not applicable
NCDC National Climatic Data Center
NE northeast
NIL part-time TAF not issued yet, See 49 for a complete explanation
NIL AMD SKED AFT [closing time]Z appears at end of part-time TAF
See 49 for a complete explanation
NOSPECI no SPECI reports are taken at this station, 43
NSW no significant weather [be sure to read about this!], 45, 51
NW northwest
00000KT "wind calm", 19, 50, 51
OCNL occasional [lightning-less than 1 flash/minute], 38, 39
OHD overhead, 30, 40
OVC overcast [8/8 sky cover], 10, 29, 31
OVC008 "ceiling eight hundred overcast", 29, 31
OVC020CB "ceiling two thousand overcast, cumulonimbus", (CB) 29, 30
OVC010TCU "ceiling one thousand overcast, towering cumulus", (TCU) 29, 30
P "more than" indicated greater than the highest reportable value, 23, 24
P6SM "visibility more than six" [statute miles], 51
P6000FT "more than six thousand" [RVR], 23, 24
PCPN precipitation
PK WND peak wind, 11, 20
PK WND 27050/25 "peak wind two seven zero at five zero occurred at two five
past the hour", 20
PK WND 32045/1735 "peak wind three two zero at four five occurred at one
seven three five", 20
PL ice pellets, 10, 25
PLB ice pellets began, (B) 39, 40
PLE ice pellets ended, (E) 39, 40
PNO precipitation amount not available, 43
PO dust/sand whirls [dust devils], 25
PR partial [a descriptor], 10, 25
PRFG partial fog, 10, 25
PRES pressure
PRESFR pressure falling rapidly, 11, 34, 42
PRESRR pressure rising rapidly, 11, 34, 42
PROB30 "slight chance" [10% to 29% probability], 53
PROB40 "chance" [30% to 50% probability, see page 53 for a full explanation]
PWINO precipitation identifier sensor not available, 43
PY spray, 12, 25
R right [referring to runway designation]
RA rain, 25, 26, 27
+RA heavy rain, 26, 27
A-4
List of METAR Abbreviations
-RA light rain, 25, 26, 27
RAB rain began, (B) 39, 40
RAE rain ended, (E) 39, 40
RA FG rain, fog, (RA FG) 25, 27, (FG) 9
RAPL rain, ice pellets, 10, 25
RASNDZ rain, snow, drizzle, 25, 26, 27
RTD Routine Delayed [late] forecast, 48
RV reportable value
RVR Runway Visual Range, 11, 23, 24
RVRNO RVR system values not available, 23, 43
RY runway
S south
SA sand, 11, 25
SCSL stratocumulus standing lenticular cloud, 12
SCT scattered [3/8 to 4/8 sky cover], 11, 29, 30
SCT000 between 3/8 & 4/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as "scattered clouds
less than five zero"], 10, 28, 41
SCT V BKN "scattered layer variable to broken", 41
SCT010 V BKN "scattered layer at one thousand variable to broken", (V) 31, 41
SCT035 "three thousand five hundred scattered", 11, 29, 30
SE southeast
SFC surface
SFC VIS 1 "surface visibility one", 21, 38
SG snow grains, 12, 25
SGB snow grains began, (B) 39, 40
SGE snow grains ended, (E) 39, 40
SH shower[s][a descriptor], 12, 25
SHGR hail showers, (SH) 12, 15, (GR) 9
SHGS small hail shower or snow pellet showers, (SH) 12, 25, (GS) 12
SHPL ice pellet showers, (SH) 12, 25, (PE) 10
SHRA rain showers, (SH) 12, 25, (RA) 25, 26
SHSN snow showers, (SH) 12, 25, (SN) 12, 25
SKC sky clear [reported by manual stations], 29
SLP sea-level pressure, 11, 34, 42
SLP142 "sea-level pressure one zero one four point two hectopascals",
(SLP) 11, 34
SLPNO sea-level pressure not available, 34, 42
SM statute miles, 21, 51
SN snow, 12, 25, 27
+SN heavy snow, 12, 25, 27
-SN light snow, 12, 25, 27
SNB snow began, (B) 39,40
SNE snow ended, (E) 39, 40
A-5
List of METAR Abbreviations
SNGS snow, snow pellets (SN) 12, 25, (GS) 12, 40
SNINCR snow increasing rapidly, 25
SPECI an unscheduled weather report when certain criteria have
been met, 15, 16, 22, 24, 31
SQ squall[s], 12, 25, 26
SS sandstorm, 11, 25
STN station
SW southwest
TAF Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast, 45, 47, 48
TCU towering cumulus, 29, 30, 42
TCU OHD "towering cumulus overhead", 29, 30, 42
TEMPO an "occasional" condition in a forecast [see page 55 for a
complete explanation]
TS thunderstorm [implies showery precipitation, if occurring,
a descriptor]12, 25, 26, 27
TSB thunderstorm began, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (B) 39, 40
TSE thunderstorm ended, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (E) 39, 40
TSGR thunderstorm, hail, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (GR) 9, 25 ,40
TSGS thunderstorm, small hail/ice pellets, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27,
(GS) 12, 25, 40
TSNO thunderstorm information not available, 43
TSPL thunderstorm, ice pellets, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (PE) 10, 25
TSRA thunderstorm, rain, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (RA) 25, 26, 27
TSSN thunderstorm, snow, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, (SN) 25, 26, 27
TWR tower
TWR VIS 2 "tower visibility two", 21, 38
UNKN unknown
UP unknown precipitation, 13, 25, 26, 51
UPB unknown precipitation began, (B) 39,40
UPE unknown precipitation ended, (E) 39, 40
UTC Coordinated Universal Time, 18, 49
V variable, 19, 24, 31, 38, 41
VA volcanic ash, 25, 37
VC in the vicinity, 13
VCBLDU blowing dust in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (BLDU) 8, 25
VCBLSA blowing sand in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (BLSA) 8, 25
VCBLSN blowing snow in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (BLSN) 8, 25, 27
VCDS dust storm in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (DS) 25
VCFC funnel cloud in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (FC) 9, 25
VCFG fog in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (FG) 9, 25
VCPO dust devils in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (PO) 25
VCSH showers in the vicinity, (VCSH) 13, (SH) 12, 25, 26, 27
VCSS sandstorm in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (SS) 11, 25
VCTS thunderstorms in the vicinity, (VC) 13, (TS) 12, 25, 26, 27, 40
A-6
List of METAR Abbreviations
VIRGA precipitation that is observed but not reaching
the ground, 13, 41
VIS visibility, 21, 22, 38
VIS2V3 "visibility variable between two and three", 21, 38
VIS E 2 "visibility east two", 22, 38
VIS N 1 "visibility north one", 22, 38
VIS S 3 "visibility south three", 22, 38
VIS W 4 "visibility west four", 22, 38
VISNO visibility at secondary location not available, 43, 44
VIS 1 RY22 "visibility one, at Runway two two", 22, 38
VR visual range
VRB variable, 13,20, 21, 50, 51
VRB03KT "wind variable at three", 20
VV indefinite ceiling [vertical visibility], 29, 52
VV003 "indefinite ceiling 300" [vertical visibility 300 feet], 29, 52
VV/// indefinite ceiling height not available
W west
WS windshear, 52
WS020/17040KT "Low level wind shear at two thousand, wind
one seven zero at four zero", 52
WND wind, 19, 20
WSHFT windshift, 13, 20, 37, 38
WSHFT 35 "windshift at three five", 13, 20, 37, 38
WSHFT 20 FROPA "windshift at two zero due to frontal passage",
13, 20, 37, 38
Z zulu [Coordinated Universal Time], 18
A-7
NOTAM CONTRACTIONS
AAWF Auxiliary Aviation Weather Facility
ABN airport beacon
ABV above
ACC area control center (ARTCC)
ACCUM accumulate
ACFT aircraft
ACR air carrier
ACT active
AD aerodrome (airport) (also a Notam keyword)
ADJ adjacent
ADZD advised
AFD airport facility directory
AGL above ground level
AIRSPACE airspace (also a Notam keyword)
ALS approach lighting system
ALT altitude
ALTM altimeter
ALTN alternate
ALTNLY alternately
ALSTG altimeter setting
AMDT amendment
AMGR airport manager
AMOS Automatic Meteorological Observing System
AP airport – replaced by AD on 1-28-08
APCH approach
AP LGT airport lighting
APP approach control
APRON apron – paved strip in front of and around airport hangars (also a Notam keyword)
ARFF aircraft rescue and fire fighting
ARR arrive, arrival
ASOS Automatic Surface Observing System
ASPH asphalt
ATC air traffic control
ATCCC Air Traffic Control Command Center
ATIS automatic terminal information service
AUTH authority
AUTOB Automatic Weather Reporting System
AVBL available
AWOS Automatic Weather Observing/Reporting System
AWY airway
AZM azimuth
BA FAIR braking action fair
BA NIL braking action nil
BA POOR braking action poor
BC back course
BCN beacon
BERM snowbank/s containing earth/gravel
B-1
NOTAM CONTRACTIONS
BLW below
BOW Bowmonk Decelerometer
BRD Brakemeter-Dynometer
BND bound
BRG bearing
BYD beyond
C center
CAAS Class A Airspace
CARF central altitude reservation function
CAT category
CBAS Class B Airspace
CBSA Class B Surface Area
CCAS Class C Airspace
CCLKWS counterclockwise
CCSA Class C Surface Area
CD clearance delivery
CDAS Class D Airspace
CDSA Class D Surface Area
CEAS Class E Airspace
CESA Class E Surface Area
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CGAS Class G Airspace
CHAN channel
CHART Chart (FDC NOTAM keyword)
CHG change or modification
CIG ceiling
CK check
CL center line
CLKWS clockwise
CLR clearance, clear/s, cleared to
CLSD closed
CMB climb
CMSND commissioned
CNL cancel
CNTRLN centerline
COM communications (also a Notam keyword)
CONC concrete
CPD coupled
CRS course
CTAF common traffic advisory frequency
CTC contact
CTL control
DALGT daylight
DATA Data (FDC NOTAM keyword)
DCMSN decommission
DCMSND decommissioned
DCT direct
DEGS degrees
DEP depart, departure
DEP PROC departure procedure
DH decision height
DISABLD disabled
DIST distance
B-2
NOTAM CONTRACTIONS
DLA delay or delayed
DLT delete
DLY daily
DME distance measuring equipment
DMSTN demonstration
DP departure procedure
DP dew point temperature
DRFT snowbank/s caused by wind action
DSPLCD displaced
DTW dual tandem wheels – on aircraft
DW dual wheel – on aircraft
E east
EB eastbound
EFAS en route flight advisory service
ELEV elevation
ENG engine
ENRT en route
ENTR entire
ERD Electronic Recording Decelerometer
EXC except
FAC facility or facilities
FAF final approach fix
FAN MKR fan marker
FDC flight data center
FICON field condition
FI/P flight inspection permanent
FI/T flight inspection temporary
FL flight level
FM from
FNA final approach
FPM feet per minute
FREQ frequency
FRH fly runway heading
FRI Friday
FRZ flight restricted zone
FRZN frozen
FSS (automated) flight service station
FT foot or feet
GC ground control
GCA ground control approach
GCO ground communication outlet
GCP ground check point
GOVT government
GP glide path
GPS Global Position System
GRVL gravel
HAA height above airport
HAT height above touchdown
HDG heading
HEL helicopter
HELI heliport
HIRL high intensity runway lights
HIWAS hazardous inflight weather advisory service
HLDG holding
HOL holiday
B-3
NOTAM CONTRACTIONS
HP holding pattern
HR hour
IAF initial approach fix
IAP instrument approach procedure (FDC NOTAM keyword)
ID identification
IDENT identify, identifier, identification
IF intermediate fix
ILS instrument landing system
IM inner marker
IMC instrument meteorological conditions
IN inch, inches
INBD inbound
INDEFLY indefinitely
INFO information
INOP inoperative
INSTR instrument
INT intersection
INTL international
INTST intensity
IR ice on runway/s
KT knots
L left
LAA local airport advisory
LAT latitude
LAWRS Limited Aviation Weather Reporting Station
LB pound/s
LC local control
LOC local, locally, location
LCTD located
LDA landing distance available
LDA localizer type directional aid
LGT light or lighting
LGTD lighted
LIRL low intensity runway lights
LLWAS low level wind shear alert system
LM compass locator at ILS middle marker
LDG landing
LLZ localizer
LNAV Lateral Navigation – WAAS
LO compass locator at ILS outer marker
LONG longitude
LORAN Long Range Navigation
LPV vertical approach minima – WAAS
LRN Long Range Navigation
LSR loose snow on runway/s
LT left turn
MAG magnetic
MAINT maintain, maintenance
MALS medium intensity approach light system
B-4
NOTAM CONTRACTIONS
MALSF medium intensity approach light system with
sequenced flasher indicator lights
MALSR medium intensity approach light system with
runway alignment
MAPT missed approach point
MCA minimum crossing altitude
MDA minimum descent altitude
MEA minimum en route altitude
MED medium
MIN minute/s
MIRL medium intensity runway lights
MKR marker
MLS microwave landing system
MM middle marker
MNM minimum
MNT monitor, monitoring, monitored
MOC minimum obstruction clearance
MON Monday
MRA minimum reception altitude
MSA minimum safe altitude or minimum sector altitude
MSAW minimum safe altitude warning
MSG message
MSL mean sea level
MU mu meters
MUM Mark 4 Mu Meter
MUD mud
MUNI municipal
N north
NA not authorized
NAV navigation/navigation aids (also a Notam keyword)
NB northbound
NDB non-directional radio beacon
NE northeast
NGT night
NM nautical miles
NMR nautical mile radius
NONSTD nonstandard
NOPT no procedure turn required
NR number
NTAP notice to airmen publication
NVG night vision goggles
NW northwest
O other aeronautical information (a Notam keyword)
OBSC obscured, obscure, obscuring
OBST obstruction, obstacle (also a Notam keyword)
ODP Obstacle Departure Procedure (FDC NOTAM keyword)
OM outer marker
OPR operate, operator, operative
B-5
NOTAM CONTRACTIONS
OPS operation/s
ORIG original
OTS out of service
OVR over
PAEW personnel and equipment working
PAX passenger/s
PAPI precision approach path indicator
PAR precision approach radar
PARL parallel
PAT pattern
PCL pilot controlled lighting
PERM permanent
PJE parachute jumping exercise
PLA practice low approach
PLW plow, plowed
PN prior notice required
PPR prior permission required
PRN psuedo random noise
PROC procedure
PROC NA procedure not authorized
PROP propeller
PSR packed snow on runway/s
PTCHY patchy
PTN procedure turn
PVT private
RAA Remote Airport Advisory
RAIL runway alignment indicator lights
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
RAMOS Remote Automatic Meteorological Observing System
RAMP ramp – The paved area of an airport between the terminal building and the taxiways,
used to park aircraft loading and unloading (also a NOTAM keyword)
RCAG remote communications air to ground facility
RCL runway center line
RCLL runway center line lights
RCO remote communications outlet
REC receive or receiver
REIL runway end lights
RELCTD relocated
REP report
RLLS runway lead-in light system
RMNDR remainder
RMK remark/s
RNAV area navigation
ROUTE Route (FDC NOTAM keyword)
RPLC replace
RQRD required
RRL runway remaining lights
RSR en route surveillance radar
RSVN reservation
RT right turn
RTE route
B-6
NOTAM CONTRACTIONS
RTR remote transmitter/receiver
RTS return to service
RUF rough
RVR runway visual range
RVRM runway visual range midpoint
RVRR runway visual range rollout
RVRT runway visual range touchdown
RWY runway (also a Notam keyword)
S south
SA sand, sanded
SAT Saturday
SAWRS Supplementary Aviation Weather Reporting Station
SB Southbound
SDF simplified directional facility
SE southeast
SFC surface
SFH Surface Friction Tester-hi pressure tire
SFL Surface Friction Tester-lo pressure tire
SFL sequence flashing lights
SIMUL simultaneous or simultaneously
SIR packed or compacted snow and ice on runway/s
SKED scheduled or schedule
SKH Skiddometer-hi pressure tire
SKL Skiddometer-lo pressure tire
SLR slush on runway/s
SN snow
SNBNK snowbank/s caused by plowing (windrow/s)
SNGL single
SPD speed
SSALF simplified short approach lighting with
sequence flashers
SSALR simplified short approach lighting with
runway alignment indicator lights
SSALS simplified short approach lighting system
SSR secondary surveillance radar
STA straight-in approach
STAR Standard Terminal Arrival
SUN Sunday
SVC/S service/services (also a Notam keyword)
SVN satellite vehicle number
SW southwest
SWEPT swept or broom/ed
T temperature
TACAN tactical air navigation aid (both azimuth and DME)
TAR terminal area surveillance radar
TDWR Terminal Doppler Weather RADAR
TDZ touchdown zone
TDZ LGT touchdown zone lights
TEMPO temporary or temporarily
TFC traffic
TFR temporary flight restriction
TGL touch and go landings
THU Thursday
B-7
NOTAM CONTRACTIONS
TIL until
THN thin
THR threshold
THRU through
TKOF takeoff
TM Traffic Management
TMPA Traffic Management Program Alert
TODA take-off distance available
TORA take-off run available
TRMNL terminal
TRNG training
TRSN transition
TSNT transient
TUE Tuesday
TVOR Terminal VOR
TWR airport control tower
TWY/S taxiway/s (also a Notam keyword)
U unverified aeronautical information (a Notam keyword)
UAS unmanned air vehicles
UAV unmanned air vehicle
UFN until further notice
UNAVBL unavailable
UNLGTD unlighted
UNMKD unmarked
UNMNT unmonitored
UNREL unreliable
UNUSBL unusable
VASI visual approach slope indicator system
VDP visual descent point
VER Vericom (VC3000)
VFP Visual Flight Procedure (FDC NOTAM Keyword)
VIA by way of
VICE instead/versus
VIS visibility
VMC visual meteorological conditions
VNAV Vertical Navigation – WAAS
VOL volume
VOR VHF omni-directional radio range
VORTAC VOR and TACAN (collocated)
W west
WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
WB westbound
WED Wednesday
WEF with effect from or effective from
WI within
WIE with immediate effect
WKDAYS Monday through Friday
WKEND Saturday and Sunday
WND wind
work... work in progress
WPT waypoint
WSR wet snow on runway/s
WTR water on runway/s
WX weather
B-8
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