Post on 22-May-2020
R. Wade A
llen
and D
uane
T.
McR
xer
Syst
ems
Tec
hnolo
gy,
Inc.
IW
dtho
rne . C
ali
forn
ia
A
oh
ida
tio
n e
xper
iinen
t w
as
con
du
cted
to
det
erm
ine
the
eff
ec
t o
f re
du
ced
v
isib
ilit
y o
n d
riv
er
late
- (s
tee
rin
g)
co
ntr
ol.
T
he
sim
ula
tor
incl
ud
ed a
re
al
ca
r ca
b a
nd a
sin
gle
la
ne
ro
ad
imag
e p
roje
cte
d o
n a
scre
en s
ix f
ee
t in
fr
on
t of
the
dri
ve
r.
Sim
ula
ted
eq
uat
ion
s of
no
tio
n c
on
tro
lle
d a
pp
aren
t c
ar
lan
e p
osi
tio
n
in r
esp
on
se t
o d
riv
er
ste
eri
ng
ac
tio
ns,
win
d g
ust
s,
and
ma
d
curv
atu
re.
Zix
dri
ve
rs e
xp
erie
nce
d a
ran
ge
of
vis
ibil
ity
co
nd
itio
ns
at
va
ri-
ms
sp
eed
s w
ith
ass
ort
ed
road
mar
kir
g
con
fig
ura
tio
ns
(mra
and g
ap l
en
gth
s).
lkiv
er
5e
scri
bir
a ?
un
ctio
ns
wer
e ff
ieas
ure
d a
nd d
eta
ile
d p
me
wtr
ic m
odel
fi
ts w
ere
det
emin
ed.
A p
urs
uit
m
odel
em
ploy
-lng
a ro
sd c
wv
atu
re f
eed
forn
ard
w
as
ver
y e
ffe
cti
ve
in
ex
pla
inin
g d
riv
er
beh
avio
r in
fo
llo
win
g randoaly c
urv
ing
m
ads.
S
ample
d-d
atz
con
cep
ts w
ere
als
o e
ffe
cti
ve
in
ex
pla
inin
g t
he
cm
bin
ed
eff
ec
ts o
f re
du
ced
vis
ibil
ity
and
in
ten
nit
ten
t ro
sd
mar
kin
gs
on t
he
drl
ve
r's
dyna
mic
tim
e d
elay
. T
he r
esu
lts
ina
ica
te t
he
rela
tiv
e i
mport
ance
o
f v
ario
us
per
cep
tual
v
ari
ab
les
as
the
v
isu
al
inp
ut
to t
he
dri
ve
r's
ste
eri
ng
co
ntr
ol
pro
cess
i:
ci-~
ng
ed.
Au
ton
ob
ile
ste
eri
ng
co
ntr
ol
is a Q
Nlm
ic
task
th
at
is
per
form
ed
by
the
dri-
- in
ord
er
to e
sta
bli
sh a
nd
/or
aa
inta
in t
he
ve
hic
le o
n a
spe
cif
ied
pat
h-
way
in
th
e p
rese
nce
of
inpm
ts s
uch
as c
ross
win
ds
and
md
w8
y c
urv
atu
re.
The
moti
ons
of
an a
uto
mo
bil
e !n
re
spo
nse
to
ste
eri
ng
ac
tio
ns
and a
erodynam
ic d
is-
turb
ance
s cs
n be
d
escr
ibed
in
te
rns
of
dif
fere
nti
al
equ
atio
ns,
tr
an
sfe
r fu
nc-
tio
ns,
e
tc.
(~
ef
. I)
, an
d i
t i
z l
og
ica
l to
att
emp
t to
drx
rib
e t
he
dri
ve
r in
sin
ila
r +
em
s.
In t
he
res
earc
h d
escr
ibed
her
ein
th
e m
oti
vat
ion
fo
r a
Qnam
ic
de
scri
pti
on
and
mea
surm
ent
of
the
dri
ve
r w
as
two
fold
: 1
) t
o d
ster
min
e an
d q
ua
nti
fy t
he
eff
ec
t o
f ad
ver
se v
isib
ilit
y o
n d
riv
er
per
cep
tio
n o
f th
e c
ues
req
uir
ed f
or
ste
eri
ng
co
ntr
ol;
an
d 2
) to
det
erm
ine
tho
se c
han
ges
in
dri
ve
r b
ehav
ior
tha
t
co
ntr
ibu
te t
o d
egra
ded
per
form
ance
under
co
nd
itio
ns
of
red
uce
d v
isib
ilit
y.
Ar.
un
der
stan
din
g o
f th
ese
eff
ec
ts m
ay t
hen
su
gg
est
cou
nte
rmea
sure
s to
ve
hic
le
.cn
tro
l pro
ble
ms
ass
oc
iate
d w
ith
ad
ver
se v
isib
ilit
y.
Giv
en t
ha
t m
ad
de
lin
ea
tio
n f
ea
ture
s (e
.g.,
dnsh
ed l
ine
s) are
det
ecte
d,
the
dri
ve
r's
pe
rce
ptu
al
pro
cess
es
can t
hen
ex
tra
ct
info
rmet
ion
fo
r v
eh
icle
con
tro
l.
Adver
se v
isib
ilit
y c
on
dit
ion
s ca
n r
educe
v
isu
al
(Xef
. 2),
and t
he
qu
est
ior
to b
e co
nsi
der
ed h
ere
is >
aw r
ee
~c
ed
vis
ibil
ity
mig
ht
aff
ec
t d
riv
er
per
cep
tio
n o
f v
ehic
le p
ath
and s
ub
seq
uen
t c
on
tro
l a
cti
on
s.
An
ab
stra
cti
on
of
the
dri
ve
r's
p?
rce
ph
al
task
is
ill
ustr
ate
d i
n Pig.
1,
a p
ers
pe
cti
ve
viw
of a si
ng
le l
an
e b
ound
ed bj
das
hed
lin
es.
W
ith
forw
ard
moti
on i
n a
st
raig
ht
lin
e t
he
dri
ve
r's
vis
ua
l sc
ew
ap
pars
to
e-d Pran
a p
ersp
ecti
- v
anis
hin
g p
oin
t a
t in
fin
ity
. T
heo
ries
h
ve
bee
n a
dvan
ced f
or
a fo
cus
or
cen
ter
of
exp
ansi
on
per
cep
tio
n o
f m
oti
on
(Ref
. 3
).
On s
tra
igh
t
roads
the
re
nte
r of
ex
pn
sio
n i
s t
he
on
ly p
oin
t in
th
e v
isu
al
fie
ld t
ha
t is
ap
pre
ntl
y s
tati
on
ary
, an
d i
t w
ould
pro
vlc
le n
dir
ec
t cu
e fo
r th
e c
ar'
s p
ath
ang
le.
Thus,
whe
n fo
rwar
d
view
is
red
uce
d b
y ad
ver
se v
isib
ilit
y,
dir
ec
t p
er-
cep
tio
n o
f p
ath
an
gle
is
den
ied
th
e d
riv
er
acco
rdin
g t
o t
he
fo
cus
of
exp
msi
on
theo
ry.
Th
is t
heo
ry has
som
e p
ro
blw
, h
wev
er.
As
Gor
don
(Ref
. L) w
tes
,
for
curv
ed p
ath
s th
e c
en
ter
of
exp
ansi
on
lie
s a
t th
e c
en
ter
of
cu
mtu
re,
vh
ich
is
at
rig
ht
ang
les to t
he
pa
th o
f th
e v
ehic
le.
l'urt
her
mo
re,
Wlm
er
(Ref
. 5
)
Hor
izon
and
Dri
ver
Van
ishi
ng P
o~o
t E
ye H
eigh
t lf
t)
I2 tt
~a
ne
W
ith
7'
k:.‘-- '4
tm
~o
;nt:
~o
ss~
ble
i:"X
Fe
edbo
ck f
or D
river
60 f
t ---
I--
-, !
Ste
erin
g C
ontro
l
Cor
/Driv
er L
ine
of Sm
Plg
ure
1.
D
riv
er'
s P
ersp
ecti
ve
Vie
w
of
a S
ing
le D
elin
eate
d
htt
Il
lustr
ati
ng
an
Aim
h
in
t C
on
tro
l I
sW
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19790009322 2020-05-23T23:18:01+00:00Z
has
fo
und t
ha
t th
e c
ente
r o
f ex
pan
sio
n i
n v
ism
l fi
eld
s ex
pan
din
g a
t v
ari-
ous
con
stan
t ra
tes
of
expan
sion can o
r& be p
erce
ived
wit
hin
1
6 deg
rees
of
vis
ua
l a
~z
le, w
hich
is
mc
h t
oo
co
arse
fo
r v
ehic
ula
r co
ntr
ol.
In a
pe
rsp
ec
tiv
e m
otio
rl f
ield
che
st
rem
.ers
th
emse
lves
pla
y a
mre
im
por-
tan
t ro
le i
n t
he
vie
ws
of
Cal
ver
t (R
ef.
5),
rh
o e
mphas
ized
th
eir
mle
in
bo
th
dir
ec
tio
na
l an
d l
on
git
ud
ina
l c
on
tro
l o
f a
irc
raft
on
the
fin
al
app
roac
h,
and
Gor
don
(Ref
. 4
),
who
co
nsi
der
ed t
err
es
tria
l v
ehic
les.
T
he
stre
amer
th
eory
sta
tes i
n e
ssen
ce t
ha
t th
e d
riv
er
pe
rce
ive
gm
tio
n f
hn
obje
cts
in
th
e v
isu
al
fie
ld s
tlea
min
g a
cro
ss h
is fi
eld
of
view
. A
lth
ot~
gh
the
str
eam
ers
eman
ate fmm
the
cen
ter
of
ex
pa
sio
n, Gordon b
elie
ves
th
at it
is
th
e st
ream
ers
them
selv
es,
part
icu
larl
y t
ho
se p
rov
ided
by
road
way
bo
un
dar
ies
and l
an
e m
arkin
gs,
th
at
ud
erl
ie t
he
dir
ec
tio
na
l cu
e ra
the
r th
an t
he
ce
nte
r o
f ex
pan
sion.
He
no
tes
the
t a
ll p
art
s o
f th
e v
isu
al
fie
ld,
road
bo
rder
s,
and
lan
e nn
irlr
ers
mov
e w
!wn
the
wh
eel
is t
urn
ed b
ut
no 0
r.e
pa
rt i
s e
sse
nti
al
for
tra
ck
ing
, an
d t
ha
t th
e
?ri
ve
r re
spo
nd
s to
a t
ota
l si
tua
tio
n
(a C
iiS
talt
co
nce
pt)
, n
ot
to i
sola
ted
or
rank
ed
cues
. S
trea
mer
per
cep
tio
n
sho
uld
IE
fair
ly r
ob
ust
in
th
e f
ace
of
red
uce
d v
isib
ilit
y,
alth
ou
gh
ad-r
erse
vL
sib
llit
y (
i.e.
, ra
in,
fog
) w
ou
ld e
lim
i-
r
na
te m
ar*
sub
tle
cue3
(e
-g.,
ro
ad
mu
gh
ess
, ed
ge
tex
ture
), p
art
icu
larl
y t
ho
se
m
C
av
ail
ab
le o
uts
ide
fo
vea
l v
isio
n w
here
co
ntr
nst
se
nsi
tiv
ity
ana
ac
uit
y d
egra
de
(Ref
. 7)
.
Co
ntr
ol
theory
a
na
lysi
s az
d r
esea
rch
in
to l
and
veh
icie
ste
eri
ng
co
ntr
ol
have i
de
nti
fie
d c
ues
th
at
mus
t be
per
ceiv
ed e
ith
er
ex
pli
cit
ly o
r im
pli
cit
ly
in o
rde
r to
giv
e g
d,
sta
ble
per
form
ance
. T
he
ca
r's
po
siti
on
re
lati
ve
to
the
de
lin
ea
ted
pa
th i
s t
he
mos
t o
bv
iou
s o
f tn
ese.
V
ario
us
stu
die
s hav
e a
lso
da
ms
tra
ted
th
at
hea
din
g o
r p
ath
ar4
le i
s e
sse
nti
al
to a
chie
vin
g st
ab
le c
on-
tro
l (a
s re
vie
wed
in
Ref
. @
).
Thus,
p
rop
rly
ver
gh
ted
can
ponen
ts
pro
po
rtio
na
l
to L
ate
ral
po
siti
on
an
d hea
din
g m
ust
be
pre
se7.t
in
th
e d
riv
er'
s st
ee
rin
g w
hee
l
de
fle
cti
on
if
th
e c
ar'
s p
ath
is
to
be
reg
ult
ted
in
th
e l
ane.
One
in
tuit
ive
ly a
ms
lin
g m
odel
fo
r d
riv
er
late
ral
co
ntr
ol
inv
olv
es st
ee
r-
ing
in
pu
ts b
ased
on
ar aim p
oin
t down
the
ro
ad as
illu
str
ate
d i
n F
ig.
1.
The
aim
po
int
ang
le i
s o
ne w
ay to c
mb
ine
kte
ra
l p
osi
tio
n a
nd p
revie
w-r
ange-
wei
gh
tel
hea
din
g i
nto
a
sin
gle
con'.r
ol
qu
anti
ty.
The
dy
nam
ics
of
this
sim
ple
co
ntm
l m
odel
, am
ong
oth
ers
, ta
w
teen
an
aly
zed
pre
vio
usl
y
(Ref
. 9
).
For
an
*
aim
po
int
at
a d
ista
nc
e,
xa
, a
look-a
hee
d
or
pre
vie
w
tim
e co
nst
ant
de
pe
de
nt
on
veh
icle
sp
eed
, U
o, ca
n be
d
efin
ed a
s f
oll
ow
s:
McL
ean
(Ref
. 1
0)
has
re
vie
wed
a r
imb
er o
f d
riv
ing
va
ria
tio
ns
in r
est
ric
ted
fo
rwar
d v
iew
and v
ehic
le
tim
s (
Ta)
of
2 s
ec
or
gre
ate
r.
The
re
sult
s w
ere
and i
t w
ould
be
dif
fic
ult
to d
ecid
e on
an a
vera
ge
con
stan
t.
exp
erim
ents
involving
0
speed w
hic
h f
ound p
rerr
iev
qu
ite
va
ria
ble
, h
arev
er,
or
typ
ica
l p
rev
iw t
h
If
the
re i
s a
pre
fen
ed
lo
ok
-sh
ead
dis
tan
ce
or
tim
e co
nst
ant,
th
en
restr
icte
d v
isu
al
ran
ge
due
toa
dv
ers
e v
isib
ilit
y c
ou
ld i
nte
rfe
re w
ith
th
is
cue,
an
d v
isu
al
ran
ges
sb
ort
er
than
th
e p
refe
rre
d look-ahead d
istM
ce
vo
uld
be
exp
ecte
d t
o d
ete
rio
rate
per
form
ance
. L
ane
po
siti
on
and heading
cues
do
no
t t.
eces
sari
ly
have
to
be
per
ceiv
ed a
t a
can
bin
ed a
im p
int,
b
arev
er.
Ref
erri
ng
ag
ain
to
F&. 1
, si
mp
le g
eom
etri
c a
na
lysi
s sh
ows
tha
t fo
r sm
nll
ang
les
the
ca
r's h
ead
ing an
gle
dev
iati
on
s w
ith
re
spe
ct
to t
he
la
ne
ap
pea
r
as
ho
riz
on
tal
tra
nsl
ati
ofi
s o
f th
e v
isu
al
scen
e.
Fur
ca
r la
tera
l p
osi
tio
n
de
via
tio
ns
wit
h r
esp
ec
t to
th
e l
ane
th,?
lpad ap
pea
rs to r
ota
te a
bo
ut
its
va
nis
hir
a p
oin
t a
t th
e h
ori
zon
. T
hus
hea
dix
g an
d l
ate
ral
po
siti
on
s are
sep
ara
tely
av
ail
ab
le hpm
the
pe
rsp
ec
tiv
e v
iew
if
a su
ffic
ien
t se
gg
ent
of
this
vie
w
is
vis
ible
.
To gain fu
rth
er
insi
gh
t in
to d
riv
er
per
cep
tual
req
uir
emm
ts,
con
sid
er
the
de
tail
ed
dri
ver
/veh
icle
sy
stem
dyn
amic
mod
el
illu
stra
ted
ln fig.
2. &rc
the
ve
hic
le n
mde
l g
ive
s hea
din
g a
ng
le a
nd l
ate
ral
lane d
evia
tio
ns
($ a
nd
y) .
in r
esp
on
se t
o d
riv
er
ste
eri
ng
oom
nand
s (b). The d
riv
er
dev
elo
ps
ste
eri
ng
c-nd
s k
se
d o
n h
is p
erce
pti
on
of
lan
e p
osi
tio
n a
nd h
ead
ing
an
gle
err
ors
,
plu
s an
ad
dit
ion
al
term
pm
po
rtio
na
l t
o p
erce
ived
mad c
urv
atu
re.
Tbc
p a
nd
* prc
ep
tio
ns are b
asi
ca
lly
in
vo
lved
in
reg
ula
tio
n-o
nly
dri
ve
r co
ntr
ol,
w
hic
h
is h
and
led
in
a c
om
pen
sato
ry f
ash
ion
. The
added
cu
rvat
ure
tern i
s a
prr
suit
or
feed
fo-
elem
ent
nee
ded
to
acco
un
t fo
r d
riv
er
beh
avio
r on c
urv
ed r
oad
s.
It b
asi
ca
lly
ass
Mes
th
e d
riv
er
il-s
ert
s an
open
-loop
ste
eri
ng
whee
l ca
man
d
pm
po
rtio
na
l to p
erce
ived
pa
th c
urv
atu
re.
:me
an
tic
ipa
tio
n or
Mv
er
lead
(TL
) is a
pp
lie
d t
o t
he
se p
erce
pti
on
s to
off
set
ve
hic
le L
ag,
and
a t
ime
del
ay
penalty (T) i
s i
ncu
rred
by
thc
dri
ve
r du
e t
o b
asi
c n
eum
mu
scu
lar
char
acte
r-
isti
cs
an
d p
erc
ep
tua
l p
roce
ssin
g l
oad
. A
fi
na
l co
mpo
nent
of
the
dri
ve
r's
ste
eri
ng
ac
tio
n i
s c
anp
ose
d o
f n
aman
t w
hich
is
bss
ica
lly
no
ise
or
rar.
dm
va
rist
ion
in
th
e d
riv
er'
s o
iltp
ut
un
co
rre
late
d with
pe
rce
ptu
al
inp
nts
.
The
re
gu
lati
on
or
err
or
co
rre
cti
ng
po
rtw
n o
f th
e F
ig.
2 r
aode
l,
inv
olr
-
in8
on
ly l
an
e p
osi
tio
n e
nd
heading e
rro
r fe
edb
nc.
a (y
e an
1 v
e,
resp
ec
tiv
ely
)
hns
bee
n s
haa t
o h
ave good,
sta
ble
co
ntm
l p
rop
ert
ies
(Ref
. 11 )
and t
o b
e
co
nsi
ste
nt
wit
h e
xp
erim
enta
l ae
asu
nm
ents
(R
efa.
$2
sad
12).
T
his
md
e o
f
co
ntr
ol
is t
em
ed
co
mp
ensa
toq
in
tk
t th
e d
riv
er
is "
can
pen
sati
ng
" fo
r d
is-
turb
nn
ca c
ause
d e
rro
rs.
In th c
ase
of
a w
ind
dis
turb
ance
th
e d
riv
er
ks
no
per
cep
tio
n o
r p
rev
iew
of
the
dis
turb
ance
, an
d m
ust
va
it f
or
the
dis
turb
ance
to a
ffe
ct
the
ve
hic
le's
m
oti
on
b
efo
re responding.
Whe
n fo
llo
win
g a
cu
rvin
g r
oad
(a
pt
h e
orm
uurd
) w
j'h
suff
icie
nt
vfs
ual
ran
ge,
th
e 3
riv
er has
the
op
po
rtu
nit
y t
o p
revi
er 1
r
arit
ic1p
nt.e
the
de
sire
d
pat
h.
Wit
h a
v
isu
al
segm
ent
larg
e e
nough to
-it
adeq
uat
e p
erce
pti
on
of
tbe
road
's c'-tun,
tbe
dri
ve
r ca
n a
chL
eve
a p
rsu
it m
ode
of
co
ntm
l
beh
avio
r an
d v
ery
n
ea
rly
du
pli
ca
te t
ba
m&
lr
d
pat
h.
This i
s s
ibp
ly a
cmm
-
pli
she
d b
y the
dri
ve
r b
ecau
ae
in s
tead
y s
tate
th
e c
urv
ed p
ath
fa
lla
nd
by
a
ca
r is
n
ea
rly
dir
ec
tly
pra
po
rtio
na
l to
irm
t w
heel
an
gle
(R
ef.
131,
an
d t
he
Veh
icle
la
gs are
wel
l-le
arn
ed
and
can
be
an
tic
ipa
ted
. T
hw
, th
e d
riv
er
wnly
st
eers
wit
h a
cti
on
s d
ire
ctl
y p
rqo
rtio
ml
to p
erce
ived
ro
ad N
N~
-
ture
, su
ffic
ien
tly
ad
van
ced
in
tim
e to
off
se
t v
eh
icle
la
g.
Dis
rup
tfa
of
the
curv
atu
re c
ue
wil
l clew
pu
su
it p
erfo
~rm
ancc
, ho
ver
er,
whi
ch is
r
po
ssib
ilit
y w
ith
nu
iud
s c
crb
ina
tio
as
of
adv
erse
vis
ibil
ity
an
d d
+li
nc
ati
an
as
dis
cuss
ed p
rev
iou
sly
.
Co
nsi
der
nar
th
e c
on
tro
l an
d p
erfo
-ce
imp
lica
tio
ns
of
con
pm
mto
ry
and
pu
it
beh
avio
r.
Giv
en
mod
el s
t~
ct
un
of
F
ig.
2 and n&&
dri
ve
r
pn
ma
ete
rs
ob
tain
ed i
n t
his
stu
Q
un
der
goo
d v
isib
ilit
y a
t 30
rrp
h,
we
hav
e
anal
yze
d t
he
by
na
dc
im
pli
ca
tio
ns
of
curt
ratu
re p
erce
pti
oa.
R
eie
rria
g to
Fig
. 2,
co
nsi
der
th
e d
riv
er/
ve
hic
le
syst
em r
eq
on
se d
ue
to
a c
cam
md path
inp
ut.
m
e c
cx
rrir
de
l p
ath
ca
ur,,?
s ax
? e
qu
ivsl
en
t h
ex
din
g r
ate
i
np
t,
r:,
to
be
ap
pli
ed
to
th
e
syst
em.
Dri
ve
r it
ee
rir*
x
ti
on
sh
ou
ld t
he
n
cre
ate
ves-
?le
)%w
ra
tes
, r.
wti
cn
are
ne
nrl
y
2~
~x
1
to
th
e
.am
&?.
ded
he
ad
ing
ra
te so
a;
to ~
iv
e
a
sd
l t~
ea
dir
y, r
ate
err
or,
r,
, w
hic
h
is
th
e d
iffe
ren
ce
bet
wee
n
tho
xm
na
r~
~
inp
ut
and
th
z v
eh
irle
's
no
tio
n.
% il
lus
trn
te t
he
r.o
ten
tio
1
imp
m~
rne
nt i
n p
rfo
rma
nc
e b
etw
een
p
urs
uit
xnd
ccm
pens
ator
:.p
Iriv
ing
we
csn
c
as
ide
r t
he
de
scri
b!r
e
Pm
cti
on
re
lati
ng
he
din
g r
ate
er
mr
, r,
, t
o h
ead
ing
=
tz
inru
t co
m?l
an.l
, rc
. F
igw
e
sho
rs
b1
e p
lots
o
f th
is i
riv
er,
've
hir
lo
syst
em
mt
io
a: th
e c
urv
atu
re p
?rc
ep
tio
n
pa
rme
ter
(dri
ve
r's
"p
urs
uit
ga
inn
), f
*,
is ir
.:re
ased
. T
he
com
pen
sato
ry
~m
ss
lin
r cr
.~
(KR~ = 0) i
s h
azed
o
n a
re
pre
sen
tati
ve
se
t o
f d
riv
er/
ve
hic
le
lata
, 113.
the
oth
er
cu
rve
s s
imp
ly
ind
ica
te t
he
eff
ec
t o
f lr
e/r
c( w
hen
the
ad
dit
ion
al
dri
ve
r c
on
tro
l p
ath
way
re
pre
en
ted
by
F*C
iz
add
efeC
. A
t l
m f
re-
au
en
cie
s th
e i
es
-rib
ing
fu
nc
tio
n a
qli
tud
r s
how
s th
at
er
mr
s are
les
s t
ha
n
the
or'
.1
in
pit
, w
hil
e a
t v
ery
hi&
fr
eji
len
cie
s th
ey
?,a
y be
saw
wh
at
gr,
' . .
Ro
t?
in p
art
icu
lar
tha
t fo
r th
e j
rle
al
no
-lag
v
eh
icle
s
li op
tim
um
fig
me
:.
Eff
ec
ts o
f V
ari
ati
on
s in
th
e C
urv
atu
re P
erc
ep
tio
n G
ain
on
th
e H
ea
dir
a E
rrn
r R
ate
to
He
ali
ng
Fa
te I
np
ut
Tn
rs
fe
r m
ct
io
n
vz
lue
' o
f IQ
C/f
- 1, e
rm
rs
in
th
e f
req
ue
nc
y
reg
ion
of
0.5-
1.0
rad
/se
c
giv
e
a
red
uc
tio
n
AC
~
err
or : f
ab
ut
15
dB o
r a
fa
cto
r cf g
rea
ter
than
5
tim
es:
At
any
giv
en
fr
eq
ue
nc
y,
lan
e d
iqe
rsio
ns
are
dir
ec
tly
pro
po
rtio
na
l to
hea
din
g
rate
err
ors
and t
hu
s th
e c
drv
atu
re p
rce
pti
on
in
th
e a
bo
ve
fre
qu
en
cy
re
gio
n
vo
uld
re
3u
ce
la
ne
dis
pe
rsio
ns
by
mor
e th
an
a f
ac
tor
of
5.
The
F
ig.
. m
ade1
can
se
rve
as
th
e b
esi
s fo
r sa
ce
ob
serv
ati
on
s a
bo
ut
driver
vis
ua
l p
erc
ep
tio
n r
eq
uir
em
mts
an
d p
ote
nti
al
eff
ec
ts o
f d
eg
rad
ed
vis
ibil
ity
.
Zo
nsi
de
r f
irs
t th
e d
riv
er'
s
use
of
the
ah
po
int
co
nc
ep
t il
lus
tnte
d i
n E
lg.
1.
Her
* re
dw
tio
ns
in
vis
ua
l ra
nge
un
de
r a
dv
ers
e
vis
ibil
ity
co
nd
itio
ns
.an
eli
mi-
na
te
the
cu
es
req
uir
ed
to
dir
ec
tly
pe
rce
ive
th
e a
im p
oin
t.
In t
his
ch
se t
he
dri
ve
r ca
n
ex
tra
po
late
frao
the
av
aii
ab
le c
ue
s o
r,
alt
ern
ati
ve
ly,
sep
ars
tely
pe
rce
ive
la
ter
al
and
h
ea
din
g
err
or
de
via
tio
ns.
In
e
ith
er
cs
se
, h
awev
er,
the
dri
ve
r is
fa
ce
d w
ith
an
in
rre
ase
d p
erc
ep
tua
l lo
ad
. P
nst
re
sea
rch
has
sho
vn
tha
t in
cre
ase
d p
erc
ep
tua
l lc
ad
le
ad
s t
o i
nc
rea
ses
in ti*
d
ela
y (
7)
an
d n
ois
e
or
re
mr~
an
t (R
efa.
1'
and
I:
). T
hes
e e
ffe
cts
sh
ou
ld
inc
rea
se w
ith
de
cre
ase
d
vis
ua
l ra
ng
e.
Whe
n re
du
ce
d v
isu
al
ran
ge
in
terf
ere
s w
ith
dir
ec
t p
erce
pth
a o
f tk
aim
po
int,
th
e l
an
e d
el.
ine
ati
on
co
nfi
gu
rati
on
th
en
sb
ou
ld b
ecom
e an
irp
ort
ant
fac
tor.
C
on
sid
er
fig
. 1
wit
h r
es
tric
ted
pre
rleu
. The d
river
needs a
dt
pt
e
info
mu
tio
n t
o p
rc
riv
e e
e, y
e,
and
ra
rd c
urv
atu
re.
If
se-+
em1 de
lin
ea
' 'on
ele
me
nts
arr
vis
ible
, o
r s
ing
le e
lcre
nts
are o
f s
uff
icie
nt
len
gth
, C
hc
e v
ari-
ab
les
sho
uld
be
dir
ectl
y p
erc
eiv
ab
le.
If e
lem
en
t le
ng
th i
s reduced,
ba
riv
er,
so
th
at
pa
th d
ire
cti
on
is n
&
rea
dil
y in
dic
ate
d b
y a s
ing
le e
lem
en
t,
tben
tw
o
ca
ap
on
rnts
a
re n
eed
ed t
o d
efi
ne
dr
ec
tio
n and th
ree t
o i
nd
ica
te c
urv
ature
. In
te
rms
of
the
Fig
. 2 model,
a via-
seg
men
t w
hir&
c
on
tsln
s a
t le
ast
thre
e
ele
me
nts
is
nee
ded
fo
r d
ev
elo
ple
nt
of
the
Xpq
fe
ed
fon
mrd
, u
hil
e a
t la
st
two
el-
en
ts
are
nee
ded
fo
r g
e to
be
est
ima
ted
. T
tns
the
dri
ve
r/v
eh
lcle
sy
stem
dm
am
irs
wil
l d
epen
d s
trongly
ar
the
dia
en
sio
ns
of
the
visual
se
mn
t.
As
'For
the
es
se
nti
all
y n
eu
tra
l st
efu
ca
r of this s
tud
y t!k
s
L~
-s
t.a
te
tu
rn radius
is
eq
ua
l ta
the
wh
ee
lba
se d
ivid
ed
by
the
ht
-e
l angle
(Ref
. lJ
), so
th
e c
urv
atu
re p
erc
ep
tio
n g
ain
sh
od
be
eq
un
l t
o +.he
Uu
'S
wh
eelb
ase,
in
th
is c
ase
9.25
feet.
fieu
rn '..
Sh
rrL
ato
r T
est
Cu
nd
itio
r.
Wt
rh
9 ft
mu
ks
and
a R cycle
(Ref
. 1
7).
th
e n
ati
on
al standard r
ec-n
dat
ions
of 15
ft
aa
rks
and
b ft
cy
cle
s (R
ef.
18
).
and a
very
sh
ort
ele
men
t speced
at k0 fi
mea
nt
to
sh
la
te
re
tro
refl
ec
tors
whic
h
rnd
ivid
ua
lly
off
er
no
dir
ec
-
tic
na
l cu
es.
A
-her
v
ari
att
on
was
ap
p1ie
.l to the
ria
t b
orn
dsr
y of t
he
retr
orc
fle
cto
r d
eli
wa
tin
whic
h
inc
luie
d e
ith
er
a s
oli
d,
dot
(re
fle
cto
r) or
bla
nk
(n
o r
igh
t ed
ge
1ir
.s)
co
n*
fglr
ati
on
. A
so
lid
ed
ge
lin
e would p
resu
rab
ly
imp
rove
pe
rfo
n n
nce
w
er
that
vit
h d
ott
ed
ele
me
nts
, w
hil
e t
he
lack of any
edge
lie
e a
t a
ll v
mld
d
egra
de
per
form
an-?
m
de
r ad
ver
ve
vis
ibil
ity
. It
was
imp
rac
tic
al
to rur!
nll
rm
bin
ati
on
s o
f th
e f
ac
tors
sho
wn
in Fig.
5,
so +
h-
cu
nb
inati
on
s ll
ste
d .n T
able
1 wore
se
lec
ted
to
span
th
e W
or
diw
n;i
on
s,
vit
h e
mp
has
is on
c
an
bin
ati
on
s li
%c
kj t
o s
how
ti
egra
ded
pe
rfo
mri
ce
(i
.e.,
hi6
:ier
s
pe
ds
, sh
ort
er
<is
ibil
ity
ra
ng
es,
an
d s
ho
rte
r d
eli
ne
ati
on
cle
ae
ntz
).
Tjr
yi?
al examples o
f v
5ii
bil
i;:
and
c
mfi
gu
rati
on
ccm
dit
ion
s a
re i
lks-
tmt,
?d
i? P
iis
. +;
and 7.
Ir, Pi&. 0
it
is
a
rpa
ren
t h
a,
red
u-e
d visual r
nw
e a
ffe
cts
l
~t
rr
ll
p
osit
ion
, h
ead
%,-
s. an
d
I-u
r'n
ture
cu
es
. In
Fig.
'/ th
e r
ffc
cts
for
each
co
nd
itio
n a
cco
rdin
g t
o t
he
fo
llo
win
g p
roce
du
re.
The
ex
per
imen
ter
wou
la
init
ial&
s
et
the
vis
ibil
ity
ran
ge,
th
en a
sk t
he
su
bje
ct
to p
osi
tio
n
a li
ne
, w
hic
h a
pp
eare
d a
cro
ss t
he
roa
dway
, to
th
e p
oin
t a
t w
hich
th
e d
elin
ea-
tian
dis
app
eare
d.
The
lin
e p
osi
t;o
n
was
c
on
tra
lle
d w
ith
a t
en-t
.-n
po
ten
-
tio
me
ter a?&
was
re
turn
ed
to
ze
ro b
etw
een
esti
mat
es.
The
ex
per
imen
ter
wou
ld
rep
eat
this
pro
ced
ure
se
ve
ral
tim
es,
rea
dju
stin
g t
he
vis
ibil
ity
ran
ge
betw
een
est
ima
tes
in a
n
ite
rati
ve
pro
ced
ure
un
til
the
de
sire
d v
isib
ilit
y r
ang
e,
as
incL
icat
ed b
y th
e
sub
jec
t, w
as
ach
iev
ed.
Des
crib
ing
fu
nct
ion
an
d p
erfo
rman
ce m
easu
rem
ents
w
ere
ob
tain
ed s
unde
r tw
o
task
co
nd
itio
ns
for
each
ex
per
imen
tal
con
dit
ion
. O
ne
task
req
uir
ed
reg
ula
tin
g
ag
ain
st a
ran
dom
win
d g
ust
-lik
e
dis
turb
ance
ad
ded
in
at
the
ste
eri
ng
sig
na
l
inp
ut
to t
he
veh
icle
eq
uat
ion
s o
f w
tio
n a
s il
lus
tra
ted
in
Fig
. 2.
T
his
ta
sk
req
uir
e6
co
mp
ensa
tory
co
ntr
ol
beh
evio
r a
s t
he
roa
rbra
y w
as
stra
igh
t an
d t
he
dis
turb
ance
co
uld
no
t be
o
bse
rved
oth
er
than
in
its
eff
ec
t on
ve
hic
le m
oti
on
s.
A
seco
nd
ta
sk i
nv
olv
ed f
oll
ow
ing
a w
ind
ing
ro
ad w
hich
all
ow
ed f
or
pu
rsu
it c
on-
c.
m
tro
l b
ehav
ior
if t
he
viz
ua
l sc
ene
pro
vid
ed f
or
adeq
uat
e cu
rvat
ure
per
cep
tio
n.
m
Cm
tu
re
c-n
ds
for
this
ta
sk w
ere
add
ed i
nto
th
e e
qu
atio
ns
as
sh
orn
in
Mg.
2 in
ad
dit
ion
to
cu
rvin
g t
he
dis
pla
yed
roa
dway
.
The
rre
thod
fo
r o
bta
inin
g d
riv
er
des
crib
ing
fu
nct
ion
da
ta i
s s
how
n in
Kg.
9.
A
Fo
uri
er a
na
wz
er
(Ref
. 19
) g
ener
ated
a su
n o
f si
ne
wav
es
inp
ut
(Tab
le
3)
tha
t w
as
inje
cte
d i
nto
th
e s
yst
em a
s e
ith
er
a co
mm
and
or
a d
istu
r-
ban
ce,
and
rec
eiv
ed b
ack
ano
ther
sy
stem
qu
an
tity
whi
ch w
as
sub
seq
uen
tly
Mu
rie
r
on
sly
zed
at
each
of
the
i
np
t f
req
~e
nc
ies
cry.
As
no
ted
in
Fig
. 8 t
he
ac
tua
l q
ua
nti
tie
s u
sed
to c
ompu
te t
he
eq
uiv
alen
t
dri
vc
r/v
eh
icle
o
pen
-lao
p
des
crib
ing
m
nc
tio
n d
epen
d on
t.h
e ta
sk i
np
ut.
o
r th
e w
ind
ing
ra
ad
cam
and
iz
pu
t ca
se,
whe
re p
urs
uit
beh
avio
r is
po
ssib
le,
the
em
r (
re)
to i
np
ut (rc) d
escr
ib-n
g
fun
ctio
n
is
com
pute
d an
d t
hen
tra
nsf
orm
ed
to g
ive
an
equ
ival
ent.
op
en-l
oo
p
tra
nsf
er
fhn
ctio
n r
/re
. F
or t
he
co
mp
ensa
toy
,
win
d ~
~u
zt
d
istu
rban
ce
in
pt
th
e e
qu
ival
ent
op
en-l
oo
p
tra
nsf
er
fun
ctio
n
is
foun
d :'ran
op
erat
ion
s on
tn
e 6
,/tid
ra
tio
, a
s d
escr
ibed
in
Ref
. 9.
, D
rive
r S
teer
ing
Act
ion
,
5
Ano
ly z
er
a 1
Win
d G
ust
Dis
turb
once
Inp
ut
Dyn
amic
s
h D
ispl
ayed
Sp
eed-
- C
urva
ture
S
I/c
= x
~~
si
n(
w~
t+
+~
) Fo
uri
er
6.1
Ana
lyze
r
6 /
Win
ding
Roo
d C
omm
and
/muf
Fig
ure
8.
D
riv
er D
escr
ibin
g h
ct
io
n M
easu
rem
ent
Tec
hn
iqu
e
TABL
E 3.
IRPVP
AM
PLIT
UD
ES m
Im
QU
mcI
ES
Aft
er
the
a-s
cri
bin
g
ibn
ctio
n d
ata
are
dev
elo
ped
, an
op
tim
al i
de
nti
fi-
ca
tio
n r
ou
tin
e i
s u
sed
to
fin
d d
riv
er
par
amet
ers
for
the
Fig
. 2
syst
em m
odel
tha
t w
ill
giv
e a good m
atch
to
th
e m
easu
red
de
scri
bin
g f
un
ctio
n d
ata
. - m
\O
A
s an
exa
mpl
e co
nsi
der
th
e d
ata
ill
us
tra
ted
in
Fig
. g
for
the
tw
o b
ase-
li
ne
vis
ibil
ity
co
nd
itio
ns.
T
he m
easu
red
de
scri
bin
g f
un
ctio
ns
wer
e av
erag
ed
ac
ross
s-h
su
bje
cts
, an
d t
he
de
scri
bin
g f
un
ctio
n f
its
mat
ch t
he
da
ta r
ath
er
wel
l.
The
ch
an
ctc
ris
tic
eff
ec
t o
f th
e c
urv
e p
erce
pti
on
par
amet
er K*
is
app
aren
t in
bo
th c
ase
s in
com
pari
ng t
he
cu
apen
sato
ry
(win
d g
ust
dis
turb
an
ce
)
and
~m
rsu
it, (
win
din
g r
oad
com
aand
) ta
sks.
WIND
G-&
'I A
MPL
Il'mES
(WU
IV
AL
~~
ER
OKE
W
HEE
L A
EU
, d
eg)
Mod
el p
aram
eter
s fo
r b
oth
st
ee
rin
g t
ask
s o
ver
a
num
ber
of
vis
ibil
ity
and
de
lin
ea
tio
n c
on
fig
um
tio
n c
on
cttt
ion
s a
re c
ou
pre
d i
n T
able
1;.
The
mos
t
am
re
nt
co
nsi
ste
nt
eff
ec
t in
th
e c
om
ple
te m
odel
par
amet
ers
seem
s to
be
the
red
uct
ion
in
cu
rvat
ure
per
cep
tio
n (KR~) wit
h i
ncr
ease
d c
on
fig
ura
tio
n
vis
i-
bil
ity
pa
me
ter
Cv.
T
his
re
lati
on
ship
is p
lott
ed
in
Fig
. 10.
Alt
ho
ug
h t
he
eff
ec
ts a
re n
ot
as
ne
at
as
we
mig
ht
ho
pe,
th
e t
end
enci
es a
n q
uit
e c
lea
r:
c~~
p
erc2
pti
on
ga
in d
ecre
ases
wit
h i
ncr
easi
ng
co
nfi
gu
rati
on
vis
ibil
ity
par
amet
er,
and
dec
reas
ing
sp
eed
. C
hang
es d
ue
to
Cv
are
un
do
ub
ted
ly a
sso
cia
ted
wit
h t
he
am
ount
of
curv
atu
re i
nfo
rmat
ion
pro
vid
ed b
y th
e v
isu
al
sep
ien
t o
n a
ROA
D C
'URV
Al"J
RE AMP'.ITUDES
(IN
VE
RSE
RA
DIV
S OF
CV
RV
ATI
XZ,
ft-'
)
1%
(=dl sec ) - 1.462
1.297
2.167
1.147
2.060
1-57
2.21
0.76
1.302
2.w
0-5b 0.762
0.6b3
1.117
1.347
1.2JI3
0.681 1.355 -
m/ CYCLE mGTH
(ft) - 15/40
15/40
1 S/LO
2/40 2/40
SP5 9/25 9/23
15/40
15/40
15/40
2/40
?!LO
2/40
2/40 2/40
2/40
19/40 15/40
CONF'rn- SATION rE nILITY PARAMETER,
Cv
delineat ion (roe Table 1).
al
Hea
ding
Gai
n
6) E
quiv
alen
t D
ynam
ic L
wk
-Ah
ead
Dis
lonc
e
C/ E
qu
ival
ent
Sys
tem
Lot
cncy
Figure
12.
Ilri
ve
r/~
eh
icle
Sys
tem
me
nd
ed
Cro
sso
ver
Me
1
Par
smet
ers
for
Cau
pm
sato
ry T
ask
the
ve
hic
le lag
inc
rea
ses
wit
h s
pee
d w
her
eas
the
eff
ec
tiv
e t
ine
delay
dec
reas
es w
ith
sp
eed
, s
o th
is
"erp
lan
stfo
nw
ia
in t
he unmg &
tree
tio
n.
The
sam
pli
ng
in
terv
al
of
the
das
hed
lin
es
Fs
giv
en bg
whe
re x,
ir t
he
de
lin
ea
tio
n c
ycl
v l
eng
th.
Cba
Fgc
in z
e is p
rap
ort
bb
d to
sam
pli
ng
in
terv
al
(Ref
. 15
),
so t
he
win
tio
n o
f re
wit
h b
oth
.peed a
nd
Cv
is i
n t
he
rig
ht
dir
ec
tim
. A
cco
rdin
gly
, w
e a
ttri
bu
k t
& z
e -s
pi-
marily
to s
amp
lin
g p
roce
sses
a
sso
cia
ted
wit
h t
he
de
lin
ea
tio
n W
he
d l
ine
s
and
sp
eed
.
The
sam
pli
ng
pro
cess
whi
ch a
ffe
cta
th
e M
ve
r's
t
he
del
ay S
kX
dd
'A
0
hav
e so
me
infl
uen
ce o
n th
e n
ois
e o
r st
oc
ha
stic
cQ
lpo
nm
t O
f hi.
8-
ac
tio
ns.
In
Fig
. 13
we
sb
w th
e p
rop
ort
ion
of
mis
e o
r re
maa
nt t
hat i.
un
co
rre
late
d w
ith
th
e d
riv
er'
s a
cti
on
s in
co
un
tera
ctin
g r
iad g
ust
s o
r S
ktr
-
ing
alo
ng
a w
ind
ing
road
. There
is a
te
nd
ency
for M
ve
r n
ois
e to
in-lr
e
bo
th v
ith
co
nfi
g!y
etio
n p
utm
ete
r nn
d sp
eed
.
The
in
trm
ltte
nc
y o
f a
eli
ne
ati
on
ap
pn
ren
tly
aff
ec
ts d
river
rwm
bn
t;
how
ever
, th
i3 e
ffe
ct
is i
ncr
ease
d a
t h
igh
er 8
peed
a (i
.e.,
hi
gtu?
r delirwa-
tio
n s
ampl
e ra
tes
) in
co
ntr
ast
to
th
e
th
e d
elay p
na
lty
(Pi&
12
) w
hic
h
dec
reas
ed v
ith
in
cn
aa
ing
speed.
Lhe
se t
wo
co
ntr
a~
tin
g eff
ce
t. on d
river
beh
avio
r ex
pla
in t
he
re
lati
ve
ly c
on
sist
an
t e
ffe
ct
of
sp
ed
on
perf
o-ce
u
nd
er a
dv
erse
v
isib
ilit
y s
how
n in
Fig
. 14
. A
t lo
w speeds, t
h s
lar inter-
mit
ten
cy o
f d
eli
ne
ati
on
cau
ses
app
reci
able
in
cre
ase
s in
dri
rcr
tim
e d
ela
y
whi
ch d
egra
des
per
form
snce
; w
hil
e a
t h
igh
speeds, d
riv
er
no
ise
in
cle
ase
s,
whi
ch a
gai
n d
egra
des
per
form
ance
. A
lso
no
te t
ha
t fo
r the curve-following
data d
riv
er
no
ise
incr
ease
s ap
pre
ciab
ly u
nd
er th s
smc
co
nd
itim
s tb
at
led
t:,
red
uce
d c
urv
atu
re p
erce
pti
on
(F
ig.
10).
F
urt
kra
~re
, the
cm
-f
ol
la
fn
g
data
show
a p
rop
ort
iom
tely
gre
ate
r c
on
fig
ura
tio
n v
isib
ilit
y p
a-te
r sm
- s
itiv
ity
, c
on
sist
en
t w
ith
th
e F
ig.
14 p
erf-
nee
data.
A fin
d c
bs
vra
tio
a
is t
ha
t tn
. so
lid
ed
ge
lin
e r
edu
ces
dri
ve
r n
ois
e o
ver
tb
e d
ashe
d o
r no
rigbt
lane
lin
e c
ases
, w
hich
(a
s w
ith
pre
vio
usl
y d
iscu
ssed
data) i
s c
on
sist
en
t vlth
a lo
wer
eq
uiv
ale
nt
Cv.
1 u from ANOV
Figure 15. Driver Remnant as a mnction of Spced and Configuration Visibility Parameter
0 20 40 50 80 Speed, U,(fllsec)
b l Pursuit control Ipotn lol~owinp o/ong o wtnding mud)
Lone Dispersion, cry (11) - - N
Probability o) Lam Eseedoms (Percent 1
Lone Dispersion, cry (ft) - - N
b o in b I I I I
Probab~lity of Lono Eacwdonce I Percent 1
Adv
erse
v
isib
ilit
y r
es
tric
ts t
he
dri
ve
r's
per
cep
tio
n o
f au
tom
ob
ile
pt
h
and
mo
tio
n i
nfo
rmat
ion
re
qu
ire
d f
or
ste
eri
ng
co
ntr
ol.
T
hes
e p
erc
ep
tua
l
rest
ric
tio
ns
can
be
qu
an
tifi
ed
in
te
rns
of
the
dri
ve
r's
dy
nan
ic s
tee
rin
g
beh
avio
r in
res
po
nse
t.
ran
dan
dis
turb
ance
s an
d p
ath
csa
a~an
ds.
C
om
bin
atio
ns
of
red
uce
d v
isib
ilit
y a
n2
ie
lin
en
tio
n c
on
fig
ura
tio
n
(i.e
.,
inte
rmit
ten
t d
ash
ed
or
do
tte
d l
ine
s)
ten
d t
o i
-. $
we
in
crea
sed
tra
ns
prt
del
ay i
n t
he
dri
ve
r an
d
imp
Rir
his
per
cep
tio
n o
f ro
ad c
urv
atu
re.
Red
uced
vis
ibil
ity
als
o i
nd
uce
s a
red
uct
ion
in
eq
~iv
ale
nt d
ynam
ic l
oo
k-a
hea
d
dis
tan
ce
(th
e i
nv
erse
of
late
ral
po
siti
on
err
or
ga
in)
bu
t d
oes
no
t ap
pea
r to
in
flu
ence
th
e w
eig
hti
ng
or
gai
n
the
dri
ve
r a
pp
lie
s to
hea
din
g e
rro
rs.
The a
bo
ve
eff
ec
ts a
pp
ear
to b
e re
late
d t
o t
he
ap
par
ent
inte
mlt
ten
t o
r
san
ple
d n
atu
re o
f d
eli
ne
ati
on
un
der
red
lrce
d v
kib
ilit
y c
on
dit
ion
s.
Dri
ver
tim
e cl
elay
, re
, in
crea
ses
at
slo
wer
sp
eed
s,
due
to
dec
reas
ed s
amp
lin
g f
re-
qu
ency
, ev
en t
ho
@
veh
icle
dyn
amic
la
gs
dec
reas
e w
ith
sp
eed
. T
his
eff
ec
t
ind
uce
d a
so
mew
hat
ca
ep
ell
ing
urg
e in
som
e su
bje
cts
to
sp
eed
up
in o
rder
to
inc
rea
se t
he
ir i
nfo
rmat
ion
ra
te,
wh
ich
is a
ra
the
r in
sid
iou
s ph
enom
enon
if
Y
) u
tr
ue
fo
r re
al-w
orl
d
dri
vin
g,
sin
ce
it
mi&
t en
cou
rag
e dri
vers
to m
ain
tain
spee
ds
wit
h a
sso
cia
ted
sto
pp
ing
dis
tan
ce
s ex
ceed
ing
th
eir
vis
ua
l ra
ng
e.
Cha
nges
in
cu
rve
per
cep
tio
n g
ain
als
o a
pp
ear
to
be
rela
ted
to i
nfo
rma-
tio
n s
amp
lin
g,
wit
h K
~.c
dec
reas
ing
wit
t d
ecre
ased
sp
eed
an
d/o
r re
du
ctio
n
in the a
mou
nt o
f p
erc
ep
tua
l in
form
atio
n
(i.e
.,
incr
ease
d C
v).
In t
his
cas
e
curv
atu
re p
erce
pti
on
is
en
han
ced
wit
h s
pee
d,
whi
ch may
als
o b
e re
late
d t
o
"str
eam
er"
the
ori
es
of
drt
ve
r p
erce
pti
on
whe
re
the
curv
ed p
ath
nat
ion
o
f th
e
ca
r i
s i
nd
ica
ted
by
the
cu
rved
mo
tio
n o
f v
isu
al
fie
ld e
lem
ents
.
Th
is r
ese
arr
h h
ai
glv
en s
me
in
sig
ht
into
dyn
amic
s o
f d
riv
er
per
cep
tio
n,
and
th
e r
ole
pla
yed
by
road
mar
kin
gs
use
d t
o d
eli
ne
ate
th
e c
-nde
d pathway.
The
tec
hn
iqu
es d
evel
op
ed h
ere
shcu
ld b
e .
11 fo
r fu
rth
er
rese
arc
h i
n t
his
are
a a
nd
alloy v
ario
us
qu
esti
on
s t
o b
e a
n
:red
ab
ou
t th
e r
eq
~ir
ed
or
op
tW
-on
fig
ura
tio
ns
of
ro
a~
sy
d
eli
ne
ati
on
.
1.
Seg
el.
L.,
'?h
eo
reti
ca
l P
red
icti
on
an
d E
qe
~4
ne
nta
l Su
bst
an
tia
tio
n o
f th
e ~
es
po
ke
of
the
Au
tom
ob
ile
to s
tee
rin
g C
~n
tr
ol
,~
in R
esea
rch
in
Au
tam
bil
e S
tab
ilit
y a
nd
Co
ntr
ol
and
ir.
Ty
re P
erfo
rman
ce,
bn
dm
, Insti-
tute
ofM
ech
anic
8l
En
gin
eers
, 19
57.
2.
All
en,
R.
X.,
an
d D
. T
. k
Ru
er,
'T
he
Eff
ec
t o
f A
dv
erse
Vis
ibil
ity
on
D
riv
er S
tee
rin
g F
'erf
orm
ance
in
an
Au
km
ob
ile
Sim
ula
tor,
" p
rese
nte
d a
t th
e 1
977
SAE
Inte
rna
tio
na
l A
utom
obil
e E
ng
inee
rin
g C
on
gre
ss a
nd
Fa
ps
i-
tio
n,
De
tro
it, 28
'8b
.A
Mar
. lw
.
3.
Gib
son
, J.
J.,
"Uhat
G
ives
Ris
e to t
he
Per
cep
tio
n
of
Mti
on
," P
sych
. R
evie
w,
Vol
. E, 19
69,
pp
. 33
5-34
6.
-
4.
Gor
don,
D
. A
., "P
erce
ptu
al B
asis
of
Veh
icu
lar
Gu
idan
ce,"
P
~b
lic
Rad
s,
VO
L
34
, no
. 3,
A%
. i%
6,
pp
. 53
-68.
5.
Pal
mer
, E
. A.
, "E
xp
erim
enta
l D
eter
min
atio
n
of
Huc
an A
bil
ity
to
Per
ceiv
e A
irc
raft
Aim
poin
t f .om
Exp
andi
ng G
rad
ien
t C
ues,
" A
ero
spac
e M
edic
al
Mee
ti?:
San
Fra
nci
sco
, P
rep
rin
t o
f S
cie
nti
fic
Pro
epsm
, My 1
969,
PP.
17
In
.
6.
Calvert, E.
S.,
V
isu
al
Ju-n
ts
in h
bti
on
," J.
Inst
. N
avig
atio
n,
Vol
. 7
, 19
57.
7.
Hai
nes
, R.
F
., "A
R
evie
w o
f P
eri
ph
era
l V
isio
n C
ap
ab
ilit
ies
for
Msp
.?ay
W
yo
ut
Des
ign
ers,
" F
'roc.
S
.I.D
., V
o1. 16/4,
Mh
Qyarter,
lZ5
, pp
. 3
8-2
49
.
8.
McF
mer
, D
. T
., R.
W
. W
en
, D
. H.
W
eir,
an
d R.
H. Klein,
"Aew
Res
ult
s in
Dri
ver
Ste
eri
ng
Co
ntr
ol
Ho
del
s,"
Him
ran
Fac
tors
, d
pe
cia
l Is
suc,
fo
rth
com
ing
.
9.
McR
uer,
D.
T.,
D. H.
Wei
r,
H.
R. Je
x,
R.
E.
hb
gd
alen
o, and R
. W
. K
Ue-
, "h
ka;u
rem
ent
of
~r
ive
r/~
eh
icle
W
fiti
loo
p I
iesp
onse
P
rop
ert
ies
wit
h a
S
ing
le D
istu
rban
ce I
np
ut ,"
IEE
E T
ran
s.,
Vol
. SM
C-5
, R
o.
5,
Sep
t.
1975
, PP.
490-
497.
10.
McL
ean,
J.
R.,
and
E.
R.
tio
ffb
arin
, T
he
Eff
ec
ts o
f R
est
ric
ted
Prcvicv
on
Dri
ver
Ste
eri
ng
Co
ntr
ol and
Per
form
anc?
,"
Hm
m
Fac
tors
, V
ol.
15,
No.
4,
Aug
. 19
73, pp.
42
1Ji
30
.
11.
Wei
r,
D.
H.,
and
D.
T.
McR
uer,
"Dyn
amic
s o
f D
riv
er/V
ehic
le
Ste
eri
ng
C
on
tro
l,"
Au
tom
atic
s,
Vol
. 6,
no
. 1
, Ja
r..
197'
3,
pp.
87-9
8.
12.
McR
uer,
I).
T.,
R.
H.
Kle
in,
et
al.
, A
uto
mo
bil
e C
on
tro
lla
bil
ity
-
Dri
ver
/Veh
icle
R
espo
nse
for
Ste
eri
ng
Co
ntr
ol.
V
ol.
I:
S- R
eport.
Vol
. T
I:
Su
pp
ort
ing
IS
rper
imen
tal
Res
ult
s,
DO
T H
S-B
Ol 4C7
end
IE
5-80
1 b5, F
eb.
197'
5.
13.
&h
er
, D.
T..
"Sim
pli
fied
A
uta
mo
bil
e S
tee
rin
g D
ynam
ics
for
Dri
ve
r C
on
tro
l,"
pre
sen
ted
to
th
e S
AE A
ero
spac
e C
on
tro
l an&
Gui
dnnc
e d
yste
m8
!:m
. Mtg.
No.
35
, P
alo
Alto, C
ali
f.,
19
-21
#rr
. 19
75.
1L.
HcR
uer,
f.
T.,
an
d E.
3.
Kre
nd
el,
Ma
the
mti
ca
l k
&l
s
of Huasn
Pil
ot
Behavior, A
CA
RD
-AG
-1P
B.
:an.
1n
i.
1"
All
en,
R. W.,
W.
F.
Cle
men
t,
and
H.
R.
Jex
, R
esea
rch
OP
Cis
pls
y S
cann
i- S
ax
pli
ra,
and
Rec
on
stru
ctio
n Using
Se
pa
rate
Win
an
d S
eco
nd
ary
Tra
cki-
T
a.;k
s, H
ASA
CR
-156
9, July
1970
.
15
. A
lle
n. R,
W.,
J.
R.
Hog
ge,
ord
S.
if. Schwartz,
"A
Sim
htc
r f
or
Res
earc
h
in D
riv
er,
V
ehic
le a
nd
Env
iron
men
t In
tera
cti
on
,"
pre
sen
ted
at
th
e 5
6th
M
eeti
ng
of
the
TRB,
Jan
. 19
77.
17,
Tra
ffic
M
anua
l,
Sta
te o
f C
ali
forn
ia,
bs
ine
ss
an
d T
ran
spo
rta
tio
n Q
ency
, D
ept.
o
f h
blc
c W
orks
, 1
91
.
18.
Fb
nu
al
on U
nif
on
n T
raff
ic C
on
tro
l D
evic
es
for
Str
ee
ts a
nd H
igh
U4
~,
Ad
er
d H
ighw
ay A
Mn
.,
19
1.
19.
All
en
, R
. W
., nn
d H.
R
. Je
x,
"A
Slm
ple
Fo
uri
er
An
nly
sis
Tec
hn
iqu
e fo
r .%
asur
lng
the
Dyn
amic
R
e-po
nse
of
lBnu
Fbl
Car
t13
1 S
y~
ten
IS,"
bans.,
Val
. S
X-2
, N
o. 2, N
o. 19
72,
pp
. 6-
3.
. M
cRue
r,
D.,
D. Crahsn,
E.
Km
nd
el,
and
Y.
Re
ise
ne
r, Jr.
, H
ua
n P
ilo
t C
.a
-3m
ics
in C
orep
ensa
toxy
Sy
scea
s -Theory.
HD
dels
, an
d E
~~
er
iPm
ts
with
m
%
roll
ed
E
lem
ent
and
Wrc
ing
Fu
nct
ion
V
ari
ab
les,
A
FR
>GT
R-7
5-15
, July
1%5-
Th
is work was
sup
po
rted
by the
Fe
de
ral Highway A
dm
inis
trat
ion
u
nd
er
Con
- tr
ac
t D
UI'
-nl-
l1-8
8.%
. D
r. Donald A
. O
ordo
n o
f th
e T
raff
ic S
ys
tas
Div
isio
n
serv
ed
as
th
e C
on
tra
ct
Te
ch
nic
al
Wn
ager
.