Post on 22-Apr-2018
Highlights of Astaxanthin
The global astaxanthin market is estimated at about $257 million, with human uses market is
estimated at about $27-$40 million. Natural astaxanthin production and commercialization is
estimated to be a 1.2 billion dollar annual market. The annual worldwide aquaculture market
of this pigment is estimated at US$ 200 million with an average price of US$ 2500/kg.
Natural astaxanthin is sold for over $7000 per kg (BCC, 2009).
Table1: Market Sectors and Future Market Potential of Astaxanthin (BCC, 2009)
Market Sectors Market Size ( as
of 2009) ( Million
USD)
Potential Market(2020)
( Million USD)
Animal feed colouring agents 300 800
Antioxidant nutraceuticals 30 300
Pharmaceuticals Emerging 500
Cosmetics Emerging 30
Table 2. Major Astaxanthin production companies:
Company Location
Alga Technologies Israel
Cyanotech Hawaii
Jingzhou Natural Astaxanthin Inc China
Algaetech International Malaysia
Parry Nutraceuticals India
Mera Pharmaceuticals Inc., Hawaii
Fuji Chemicals Japan, Sweden
Valensa International Florida
Table . Astaxanthin products from various companies and its use for various purposes (Rao
et al. 2014).
Brand Name Dosage form Ingredients Company Name Purpose
Physician
Formulas
Soft gel/Tablets 2 mg/4 mg-AX Physician
formulas vitamin
company
Antioxidant
Eyesight Rx Tablet AX, vitamin-C,
plant extracts
Physician
formulas Vitamin
company
Vision function
KriaXanthin Soft gel 1.5 mg-AX,
EPA, DHA
Physician
formulas vitamin
company
Antioxidant
Astaxanthin Ultra Soft gel 4 mg-AX AOR Cardiovascular
health/gastrointestina
l
Astaxanthin
Gold™
Soft gel 4 mg-AX Nutrigold Eye/joint/skin/immu
ne health
Best Astaxanthin Soft gel 6 mg-AX, CX Bioastin Cell membrane/blood
flow
Dr.Mercola Capsules 4 mg AX, 325
mg Omega-3
ALA
Dr. Mercola
premium
supplements
Aging/muscle
Solgar Soft gel 5 mg-AX Solgar global
manufacture
Healthy skin
Astaxanthin Cream AX, herbal
extracts
True botanica Face moisturizing
astavita ex Capsules 8 mg AX, T3 Fuji Chemical
Industry
Agingcare
astavita SPORT Capsules 9 mg AX, T3 and
zinc
Fuji Chemical
Industry
Sports nutrition
AstaREAL Oil, powder,
water soluble,
biomass
AX, AX-esters Fuji Chemical
Industry
Soft gel, tablet,
beverages, animal
feed, capsules
AstaTROL Oil AX Fuji Chemical
Industry
Cosmetics
AstaFX Capsules AX Purity and
products
evidence based
nutritional
supplements
Skin/cardiovascular
function
Pure
Encapsulations
Capsules AX Synergistic
nutrition
Antioxidant
Zanthin Xp-3 Soft gel capsules 2 mg, 4 mg-AX Valensa Human body
Micro Algae
Super Food
Soft gel 4 mg AX Anumed intel
biomed company
heart/eye/joint
Astaxanthin clinical studies:
The multibillion dollar beauty industry continues to flourish, spurred by consumers' desire to
look and feel forever-young. Several categories exist within the beauty industry, but none
more vibrant than the anti-aging segment which includes products to reduce or reverse visible
signs of aging such as wrinkles, age spots, and freckles. While aging is natural and cannot be
avoided, there are factors such as solar radiation and physical and mechanical damage that
accelerate the propensity of visible aging. Today, humans face increasing exposure to
chemical pollution, ultraviolet radiation and ozone levels, all of which can damage the skin's
dermal layer causing wrinkles and enhancing the risk of malignant skin cancer. These
negative effects are compounded with increasingly poor diets and lifestyle habits which are
not conducive to maintaining the skin's natural repair process and antioxidant network.
Clearly, there is opportunity for natural ingredients to help improve long term skin health
management through topical application and nutritional supplementation.
In the past, Beta-carotene (provitamin A) and Vitamin E have been extensively studied.
Recent focus, however, has switched to other carotenoids such as astaxanthin, (derived from
the microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis), which is shown to have potent quenching and anti-
lipid-peroxidation properties; a weakness of Beta-carotene and Vitamin E (Miki, 1991). In
human trials, astaxanthin has been shown to reduce visible signs of UV-aging through both
topical and dietary supplementation within 4 to 6 weeks of use. This data is supported by a
number of in-vitro and animal studies. Research suggests potential skin benefits from the use
of astaxanthin to maintain a youthful appearance, reverse premature signs of aging and
prevent UV induced skin cancer. Naturally, further investigation is necessary to elucidate the
mechanism of action and to replicate results using significantly larger clinical trials. To date,
the astaxanthin potential is promising.
Cosmetic benefits of Astaxanthin on humans was studied by Tominaga et al. (2012) and they
reported that Astaxanthin derived from the microalgae, Haematococcus pluvialis can
improve skin condition in all layers such as corneocyte layer, epidermis, basal layer and
dermis by combining oral supplementation and topical treatment. Moisture content and
sebum oil level at the cheek zone showed strong tendencies for improvement in their studies.
These results suggest that astaxanthin derived from Haematococcus pluvialis may improve
the skin condition in both men and women.
Rao, et al. (2013) evaluated the potential for astaxanthin to inhibit or attenuate skin cancer
development in a rat model of chemical-induced skin carcinogenesis. This study supports
astaxanthin in skin protection and chemoprevention.
The somatic effects on human skin by 4mg per day astaxanthin supplementation were
demonstrated in a single blind placebo controlled study using forty-nine US healthy middle-
aged woman. There were significant improvements in fine lines/wrinkles and elasticity by
dermatologist’s assessment and in the moisture content by instrumental assessment at week 6
compares to base-line initial values (Yamashita, 2006).
Carotenoids are used for systemic photoprotection in humans. Regarding mechanisms
underlying photoprotective effects of carotenoids, here we compared the modulation of
UVA-related injury by carotenoids. Human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) were exposed to
moderate doses of UVA, which stimulated apoptosis, increased levels of reactive oxygen
species and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, decreased antioxidant enzymes activities,
promoted membrane perturbation, and induced the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1).
The data indicate that the oxo-carotenoid AX has a superior preventive effect towards photo-
oxidative changes in cell culture Camera et al.2009).
Lyons and O’ Brien (2002) studied the ability of an algal extract to protect against UVA-
induced DNA alterations was examined in human skin fibroblasts (1BR-3), human
melanocytes (HEMAc) and human intestinal CaCo-2 cells. The protective effects of the
proprietary algal extract, which contained a high level of the carotenoid astaxanthin, were
compared with synthetic astaxanthin. This work suggests a role for the algal extract as a
potentially beneficial antioxidant.
Yamashita, 2002. Beauty From Within: A Synergistic Combination Of Astaxanthin And
Tocotrienol For Beauty Supplements. Both astaxanthin and tocotrienols are found naturally
in daily foods we consume. By concentrating these into an oral beauty supplement, it can
provide an excellent source of protection in addition to the daily skincare regime. Results in 4
weeks supplementation indicated reduction in fine wrinkles, increased skin moisture and
increased skin elasticity compared to placebo.
Thibodeau and Edouard (2003) have performed a clinical trail in which a topical cream
formulation and a dietary/nutritional supplement were concomitantly administered. The
dietary/nutritional supplement provided proteoglycans, collagen, glucosamine, carotenoid
pigment (astaxanthin esters) and omega-3 essential fatty acids (EPA and DHA). The efficacy
of this regimen was demonstrated on the visual appearance of signs of aging as well as by the
amelioration of functional properties of the skin.
Béguin, (2005) To test the efficacy and safety of a novel micronutrient supplement (Estime®
containing BioAstin Natural Astaxanthin) in skin aging. The study demonstrated that the
supplement appears to be effective and safe as an oral supplement to protect the skin and
support its repair process. Recommendations are made for further evaluations.
Yamashita (2006) review covers cosmeceutical benefits of astaxanthin that is one of the most
abundant carotenoids in nature, particularly in marine based life. The anti-oxidant properties
of astaxanthin without any pro-oxidative nature working at cell membrane and cosmeceutical
effects such as anti-hyperpigmentation, anti-photoaging, melanin inhibition and visual
wrinkle reduction by topical or internal use and one of the action mechanisms of astaxanthin
on NF-kB dependent inflammation are introduced. And current and future cosmeceutical
applications of astaxanthin particularly from a green microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis
that is the most ideal source in the earth are discussed describing actual examples of
astaxanthin containing skin care products in Japanese market.
Arakane (2002) reviewed that reactive oxygen species generated by exposing the skin to
sunlight are responsible for sunburn, lipid peroxidation and degenerative changes in dermal
connective tissues. This causes premature aging of the skin. A researcher from a Japanese
company called KOSE Corporation compared astaxanthin to other commonly used
ingredients in cosmetics that are thought to protect the skin from the damaging effects of
sunlight. He found that astaxanthin potentially offers greater antioxidant protection against
premature signs of aging.
Kumi Arakane (2006) showed the possibility of astaxanthin as a cosmetic ingredient and the
useful formula for maintaining the stability of astaxanthin in the preparation.
Using hairless mice irradiated with UVB to produce photoaged skin, we investigated the
inhibitory effect of astaxanthin on wrinkle formation, decrease of skin elasticity,
ultrastructural change of dermal collagen fiber bundles and elastic fibers and the level of
matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) activity. These results indicated that the astaxanthin had
the superior protection effect on photoaging as a ROS scavenger. This research demonstrated
the superior anti-aging effects by carotenoids and this is the first time for carotenoids to be
practically applicable to cosmetic formulation (Yuki et al. 2005).
Taisuke et al . (2001) studied the ffects of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis on
human subjects were tested. No serious adverse effects were observed by patch testing and
sequencing applied test on human skin. In a pilot study, the skin repeated application test of
cream containing astaxanthin on human skin showed the visual wrinkle reduction. The
present paper described about patch testing, skin repeated application test, and a pilot study
evaluating the wrinkle reduction effect on human skin.
Kumi, (2003)demonstrate that reactive oxygen species quenchers play an important role in
reduction of UV-induced wrinkles formation using a carotenoid, astaxanthin, which has no
pro-vitamin A activity unlike .BETA.-carotene, and a new iron chelator, N-(4-
pyridoxylmethylene)-L-serine (PYSer), which consists of biomimetic molecules and
effectively suppresses production of hydroxyl radical by chelating iron in skin. The
demonstrable and potential roles of antioxidants for suppression of UV-induced wrinkles
formation effectively are summarized here.
Suganuma et al. (2010) examined the effects of a potent antioxidant, astaxanthin (AX), on the
induction of MMP-1 and SFE by UVA treatment of cultured human dermal fibroblasts. They
hypothesize that AX would have a significant benefit on protecting against UVA-induced
skin photo-aging such as sagging and wrinkles
Oxygen radicals formed from UV radiation attack skin cells in a variety of ways. As
demonstrated by O'Connor & O'Brien (1998), UVA light is capable of producing oxidative
stress in living cells in-vitro. By monitoring catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD)
levels and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), Astaxanthin is capable of
reducing oxidative stress (p<0.01, n=6) after UVA light irradiation at very low concentrations
(5-10 nM). Astaxanthin has shown to be approximately 100-200 times more effective than
other carotenoids, including lutein and beta-carotene (1.0 μM). Similar reports by Lyons et
al., (2002) demonstrate that UVA irradiated skin cells pretreated with astaxanthin (10 μM)
suffered significantly less DNA damage. Furthermore, astaxanthin protected the skin's
endogenous antioxidants SOD and glutathione (GSH) from oxygen radical attack. Topical
restoration of the skin's natural antioxidant balance is one method to maintaining healthy
skin. UV radiation and air borne pollutants tend to strip away the nutrients essential to
maintain the skin's hydrolipidic barrier. As a result, the skin will become dry and unhealthy in
appearance.
Topical Wrinkle Reduction
In a study using hairless mice, Arakane (2002) demonstrates astaxanthin's ability to suppress
the formation of UVB photoinduced wrinkles. UVB doses of 65-95 mJ/cm2 were applied five
times per week for 18 weeks on the back skin of the mice. After each UVB treatment, topical
application of astaxanthin (350 μM) was coated on the exposed areas. After only 5 weeks, the
appearance of new wrinkles were significantly reduced up until the end of the study period
(P<0.01 at 18 weeks). Concurrently, stained skin sections revealed that astaxanthin preserved
the integrity of the dermal layer by protecting the collagen network. In a preliminary human
study, Seki et al., (2001) demonstrates the same anti-wrinkle observations in female human
subjects (n=3) using a topical cream containing astaxanthin. A dermatological assessment
revealed significant reduction of wrinkles and puffiness on the lower eye and cheeks after 2
weeks of use. In a separate test using female subjects (n=11), instrument analysis recorded
significant moisture improvement (P<0.05) after 3 weeks of use (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Cheek moisture retention after 3 weeks application of astaxanthin cream (0.07% of
5% astaxanthin extract; Seki et al.,
2001). Increased
moisture content in 8 out of 11 subjects.
Skin Health that can be Swallowed
"Beauty from within" or improved skin condition through nutrition and supplementation is a
worldwide trend that is on the increase. The market for beauty supplements is currently worth
800 million dollars, and rapid growth in this segment is expected over the next 10 years. Two
human clinical trials established the use of astaxanthin to improve visible signs of premature
aging and general skin health. The first, a double-blind placebo controlled study (Yamashita
2002), showed that astaxanthin in combination with tocotrienol, (a superior form of vitamin
E), improved several aspects of overall skin condition. Eight female subjects with dry skin
conditions (mean age 40 yrs) received daily doses containing 2 mg astaxanthin and 40 mg
natural tocotrienols. Several types of data were collected at 2 and 4 weeks and compared to
the initial baseline readings. Measurable differences were observed starting just 2 weeks after
supplementation. By the 4th week, the treated subjects with dry skin characteristics exhibited
the following: increased moisture levels (P<0.05), (Figure 2); consistent natural oils;
reduction of fine wrinkles, (Figure 3); and a reduction in pimples (P<0.01).
Figure 2. Beauty supplement results for the cheek and eye region (Yamashita,
2002) Moisture levels
increased in treated groups at 2 and 4 weeks. Control groups got worse.
In the second study by Yamashita (2006), female subjects with a variety of skin types (n=49,
mean age 47 yrs) were given either 4 mg (2 x 2 mg) astaxanthin or placebo in a single-blind,
randomized, controlled study. After six weeks of consuming 4mg astaxanthin per day, the
results of a standard questionnaire showed that the treated group of women all felt that their
skin condition had improved significantly
Astaxanthin and Skin Cancer
The risk of skin cancer is increased in skin which is frequently damaged by the sun. Although
skin cancer is almost 99% curable if detected early, 1 out of 90 people in the US or 1 out of
150 people in the UK will develop melanomas. Those in the highest risk category are people
exposed to frequent short bursts of strong sunlight. Sun screens can block the UV rays, but
dietary carotenoids such as astaxanthin can be vital for skin protection as well.
In another study on hairless mice, Black (1998) demonstrates that astaxanthin significantly
delays the UV ray formation of skin lesions and tumors (p<0.05). A possible explanation is
that astaxanthin is preferentially accumulated over beta-carotene and lycopene. Epidermal
analysis determined that the quantity of astaxanthin was 133 times that of lycopene and 28
times that of Beta-carotene.
Further support comes from Savoure et al., (1995) which shows that hairless mice (SKH1)
deficient in vitamin A, fed 10 mg/kg/feed astaxanthin alone or in combination with retinol,
show enhanced skin protection after UVA and UVB irradiation. Astaxanthin significantly
inhibited accumulation of putrescine (p<0.05) more than retinol and lowered spermidine and
spermine.
Astaxanthin defends against Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
Oxygen present in our cells can form harmful radicals known as ROS or active oxygen when
sufficient energy from UV rays is applied. ROS include singlet oxygen, superoxides and
hydroxyl radicals (leading to peroxyl radicals) and they attempt to steal electrons from
neighboring molecules such as DNA, phospholipids, enzymes and protein in order to
stabilize. Fortunately, astaxanthin is able to quench singlet oxygen reactions and supress lipid
peroxidation much more effectively than other well known antioxidants and thus control the
presence of ROS. In vitro singlet oxygen quenching activity of Astaxanthin was found to be
superior when compared to Catechin, Vitamin C, Alpha Lipoic Acid, Coenzyme Q10,
Tocopherol, Lutein and Beta Carotene (Nishida et al., 2007).
Astaxanthin Dominance against Singlet-Oxygen compared to other antioxidants
Singlet oxygen depletes the antioxidant defense system of fibroblasts, especially CAT and
SOD. Fibroblasts secrete collagen, a main component of extracellular matrix which provides
structural support to the cells. Exposing fibroblasts to singlet oxygen is a widely used
technique to model ageing and UV oxidative stress. Furthermore, viability of the fibroblasts
remains vital to the maintenance of healthy skin appearance. Tominaga et al (2009a) showed
evidence on the ability of Astaxanthin to protect human dermal fibroblasts through in-vitro
study. Human dermal fibroblasts were pre-incubated with Astaxanthin and other antioxidants
and then exposed to singlet oxygen (Figure 8). Cell viability was restored to more than 80%
when the cells were treated with Astaxanthin.
In another study, Camera et al. (2008) compared the photoprotective properties of astaxanthin
to other antioxidants on human dermal fibroblasts. After a physiological dose of UVA was
applied, roughly equal to a UV dose accumulated within 1-2 hours on a sunny day.
Astaxanthin was considerably superior at preventing cell death (reduction of caspase-3
activity at protein level) compared to Canthaxanthin and Beta Carotene.
Gaining Customers' Hearts with Tangible Results - Astaxanthin Inner and Outer
Treatment
Complementing astaxanthin oral administration with astaxanthin topical treatment (dual
treatment) can have enhanced synergistic effects against premature skin aging since
astaxanthin is effective at all layers of skin, the skin surface, epidermis and dermis.
According to studies conducted by Tominaga et al. (2009b), astaxanthin "dual treatment" was
found to be effective in all layers of skin. In a study with 28 subjects aged 20-55 years,
astaxanthin effectively reduced wrinkles as well as improved skin elasticity. Replica analysis
after 6 mg of astaxanthin supplementation combined with topical application for 8 weeks
showed a reduction in the overall average wrinkle depth.
Anti-inflammatory Action
Inflammation that normally follows sun exposure can be modulated by a powerful
antioxidant. Yamashita (1995) shows in healthy male subjects (n=7), that topical natural
astaxanthin significantly reduces burn level (erythema) by 60% at 98 hours after UVB
exposure. We now know that astaxanthin works by suppressing the proinflammatory
mediators and cytokines via the IκB kinase dependant NF-κB activation pathway (Lee et al.,
2003).
Safety for Topical & Nutritional Use
Natural astaxanthin is determined safe for topical and nutritional use. A total of forty-five
subjects (males and females) were exposed to the Standard Japanese Patch test and results
were reported 24 and 48 hours after application. Dermatitis was only induced by the adhesive
plaster and not astaxanthin itself (Seki et al., 2002). Furthermore, Koura (2005) reports no
adverse topical reactions in animal sensitization models. Astaxanthin is listed in the JP
Cosmetics and INCI name as astaxanthin.
Scientific research has shown that astaxanthin protects against collagen degradation, i.e.
wrinkles, sunburn and general skin health. It is a true anti-aging and anti-wrinkling wonder.
Unlike Vitamin E, whose over-dosage could lead to negative side-effects, there has been
known known adverse side-effects found in taking astaxanthin.
Seki et al. (2001) showed in one study that astaxanthin can increase in moisture level as
well as visual wrinkle reduction after four weeks of application.
A preliminary clinical trial of 25 individuals by Lorenz (2002) indicated Cyanotech’s
BioAstin supplement, which is an oil-based extract of the carotenoid of the microalgae
Haeamatococcus pluvialis, can significantly increase in the amount of irradiation needed to
cause reddening of the skin. Based on the results of 21 subjects, BioAstin significantly altered
the minimal erythemal dose (MED) following daily ingestion for a period of two weeks.
Spec-Chem Industry, Inc. manufactures specialty chemicals for Personal Care and Cosmetics.
One of the products include astaxanthin emulsion. 0.5% Astaxanthin Emulsion is a grade of
Astaxanthin, which is regarded as the strongest antioxidant vitamin in nature. It is well
known for its “super vitamin E content. The antioxidant content is 550 times more effective
than vitamin E, and it prevents UA induced skin cancer. Furthermore, astaxanthin protects the
skin from dangerous free radicals and reduce wrinkle & freckles. This product is used in
cosmetic applications and it performs the function of skin care, emulsion and so on.
Retrieved from: http://www.ulprospector.com/en/la/PersonalCare/Detail/5737/204612/05-
Astaxanthin-Emulsion
In 2006, the global producer of cameras and film Fujifilm entered the cosmetics field, in the
following year launching its Astalift series of skin-care products. Since then the company has
stretched its product line up beyond the skin-care series to also include base makeup. Astalift
continues to develop as a global brand sold in China, Southeast Asia, and European countries
as well as in Fujifilm’s home market of Japan.
This antioxidant can be used for both film and skincare because the same oxidation from
ultraviolet rays that causes color photographs to fade also leads to the aging of a person’s
skin. Ultraviolet rays increase melanin in the skin, producing spots, and cleave the fibrous
proteins collagen and elastin that serve to maintain skin tautness, thereby causing wrinkles
and sagging.
Retrieved from: http://www.nippon.com/en/features/c00511/
Savoure et al. (1995) fed various combinations of astaxanthin, beta-carotene and retinol to
hirless mice for four months. After irradiation, astaxanthin alone or in combination with
retinol was substantially effective in preventing skin damage.
Astaxanthin is a more powerful antioxidant than other carotenoids and vitamin E and may
confer numerous health benefits. A clinical study was conducted by Gene at al. (2004) to
investigate human safety study with a Haematococcus pluvialis algal extract with high levels
of astaxanthin. Thirty-five healthy adults age 35-69 years were enrolled in a randomized,
double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 8 weeks' duration. All participants took three gelcaps
per day, one at each meal. Nineteen participants received gelcaps with an algal extract in
safflower oil, containing 2 mg of astaxanthin each (treatment); 16 participants received
gelcaps containing safflower oil only (placebo). Blood pressure and blood chemistry tests,
including a comprehensive metabolic panel and cell blood count, were conducted at the
beginning of the trial and after 4 and 8 weeks of supplementation. These results reveal that 6
mg of astaxanthin per day from a H. pluvialis algal extract can be safely consumed by healthy
adults.
Gene A. Spiller and Antonella Dewell. (2004) Safety of an Astaxanthin-Rich Haematococcus
pluvialis Algal Extract: A Randomized Clinical Trial Journal of Medicinal Food. March
2003, 6(1): 51-56. doi:10.1089/109662003765184741.
Savoure, N., Briand, G., Amory-Touz, M., Combre, A., Maudet, M. (1995). "Vitamin A
status and metabolism of cutaneous polyamines in the hairless mouse after UV irradiation:
action of beta-carotene and astaxanthin." International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition
Research. 65(2):79-86.]
www.skincancer.org
www.skincancerfacts.org.uk/facts.asp
Yamashita(2006). The Effects of a Dietary Supplement Containing Astaxanthin on Skin
Condition. Carotenoid Science, 10:91-95.
Koura(2005). Skin sensitization study of Astaxanthin in Guinea Pigs. Study No. 05035. New
Drug Research Center Inc., Hokkaido Japan.
Lee et al., (2003). Astaxanthin Inhibits Nitric Oxide Production and Inflammatory Gene
Expression by Suppressing IκB Kinase-dependent NF-κB Activation. Molecules and Cells,
16(1):97-105.
Arakane (2002), Superior Skin Protection via Astaxanthin. Carotenoid Sci., 5:21-24.
Lyons & O'Brien et al., (2002). Modulatory effects of an algal extract containing astaxanthin
on UVA-irradiated cells in culture. Journal of Derma. Sci., 30(1):73-84.
Yamashita (2002). Cosmetic benefit of the supplement health food combined astaxanthin and
tocotrienol on human skin. Food Style 21, 6(6):112-117.
Seki et al., (2001). Effects of astaxanthin from haematococcus pluvialis on human skin.
Fragrance J., 12:98-103.
Black (1998). Radical Interception by carotenoids and effects on UV carcinogenesis.
Nutrition Cancer., 31(3):212-217.
O'Connor & O'Brien (1998). Modulation of UVA light induced oxidative stress by beta-
carotene, lutein and astaxanthin in cultured fibroblasts. J. Derma. Sci., 16(3):226-230.
Savoure et al., (1995). Vitamin A status and metabolism of cutaneous polyamines in the
hairless mouse after UV irradiation: action of beta-carotene and astaxanthin. International J
Vit. and Nutr. Res., 65(2):79-86.
Yamashita (1995). Suppression of post UVB hyperpigmentation by topical astaxanthin from
krill. Fragrance J., 14:180-185.
Miki (1991). Biological functions and activities of animal carotenoids. Pure & Appl. Chem.,
63(1):141-146.
Camera et al., (2009). Astaxanthin, canthaxanthin and beta carotene differently affect UVA-
induced oxidative damage and expression of oxidative stress-responsive enzymes.
Experimental Dermatology. Vol. 18 (3), Pages 222 - 231 .
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