SP 215 Small Group SP 215 Small Group CommunicationCommunication

Conflict and Conflict and Cohesion in GroupsCohesion in Groups

Conflict in GroupsConflict in Groups

ConflictConflict

The disagreement and disharmony The disagreement and disharmony that occurs in groups when that occurs in groups when differences are expressed differences are expressed regarding ideas, methods, and/or regarding ideas, methods, and/or membersmembers

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Transform climates leads to Transform climates leads to managing conflict.managing conflict.

• What is conflict?What is conflict?

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Conflict:Conflict:

• Conflict has been defined by Conflict has been defined by researchers Hocker and Wilmot researchers Hocker and Wilmot (1992) as:(1992) as:

• ““An expressed struggle between at An expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards and interference from the rewards and interference from the other party in achieving their goals.”other party in achieving their goals.”

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Conflict:Conflict:

• In other words, conflict is “an In other words, conflict is “an interruption in harmony.” interruption in harmony.”

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Conflicts are going to Conflicts are going to happen in all groups. happen in all groups.

• It is impossible to avoid. It is impossible to avoid. However, conflicts can and are However, conflicts can and are healthy. healthy.

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Conflicts are going to Conflicts are going to happen in all groups. happen in all groups.

• Conflicts enable groups to work Conflicts enable groups to work out difference. out difference.

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Conflicts are going to Conflicts are going to happen in all groups. happen in all groups.

• Conflict can bring validation of Conflict can bring validation of group relationships and emerges group relationships and emerges with every resolved conflict. with every resolved conflict.

Constructive and Constructive and Destructive ConflictDestructive Conflict

Constructive Constructive conflictconflict Group Group members express members express disagreement in a way disagreement in a way that values everyone’s that values everyone’s contributions and contributions and promotes the group’s promotes the group’s goal.goal.– Respect othersRespect others– Focus on issuesFocus on issues– Other: _________Other: _________

Destructive conflictDestructive conflict

Group members Group members create hostility and create hostility and prevent achievement prevent achievement of the group’s goal.of the group’s goal.– Insult othersInsult others– Inflexible and Inflexible and

uncooperativeuncooperative– Other: _________Other: _________

Five Basic Conflict StylesFive Basic Conflict Styles

Avoidance Conflict StyleAvoidance Conflict Style

• Members are unable or Members are unable or unwilling to accomplish their unwilling to accomplish their own goals or contribute to own goals or contribute to achieving the group’s goal.achieving the group’s goal.

• Avoidance fails to address the Avoidance fails to address the problem and can increase problem and can increase group tensions.group tensions.

Accommodation Conflict Accommodation Conflict StylesStyles

• Members give in to other Members give in to other members at the expense of members at the expense of their own goals.their own goals.

• Members believe that giving in Members believe that giving in helps even when the group helps even when the group would benefit from more would benefit from more analysis and discussion.analysis and discussion.

Competition Conflict Competition Conflict StyleStyle

• Group members are more concerned Group members are more concerned with their own goals than with with their own goals than with meeting the needs of the group.meeting the needs of the group.

• Competition may be characterized Competition may be characterized by hostility, ridicule, and personal by hostility, ridicule, and personal attacks.attacks.

Compromise Conflict Compromise Conflict StyleStyle

• Members give up some goals in Members give up some goals in order to achieve others.order to achieve others.

• Members accept losses in exchange Members accept losses in exchange for gaining something else.for gaining something else.

• Better options may be missed if Better options may be missed if group only uses this style.group only uses this style.

Collaboration Conflict Collaboration Conflict StyleStyle

• Members search for new solutions Members search for new solutions that will achieve both individual that will achieve both individual goals and the goals of the group.goals and the goals of the group.

• Effective collaboration requires a lot Effective collaboration requires a lot of time and energy for discussions in of time and energy for discussions in which all members fully participate.which all members fully participate.

Selecting a Conflict StyleSelecting a Conflict Style

Criteria for Selecting a Conflict Style:Criteria for Selecting a Conflict Style:• How important is the issue to you?How important is the issue to you?• ______________________________________________________________• How important is it to maintain How important is it to maintain

positive relationships in the group?positive relationships in the group?• How much time does the group How much time does the group

have?have?• ______________________________________________________________

Conflict Management Conflict Management StrategiesStrategies

The 4Rs MethodThe 4Rs Method

• RReasons. What are the reasons for or easons. What are the reasons for or causes of the conflict?causes of the conflict?

• RReactions. How are group members eactions. How are group members reacting to one another?reacting to one another?

• RResults. What are the consequences of esults. What are the consequences of the group’s current approach to the the group’s current approach to the conflict?conflict?

• RResolution. What are the available esolution. What are the available methods for resolving the conflict?methods for resolving the conflict?

The A-E-I-O-U MethodThe A-E-I-O-U Method

• AA – – AAssume the other members mean ssume the other members mean well.well.

• EE – – EExpress your feelings.xpress your feelings.• I I – – I Identify what you would like to dentify what you would like to

happen.happen.• O O – – OOutcomes you expect are made utcomes you expect are made

clear.clear.• UU – A mutual – A mutual UUnderstanding is achieved.nderstanding is achieved.

NegotiationNegotiation

• A process of bargaining in order to A process of bargaining in order to settle differences or reach solutions.settle differences or reach solutions.

• Principled negotiation:Principled negotiation:– separates people from the problem.separates people from the problem.– focuses on group interests, not focuses on group interests, not

positions.positions.– generates a variety of possible generates a variety of possible

solutions.solutions.– insists on objective criteria.insists on objective criteria.

Conflict MediationConflict Mediation

Employs the services of an Employs the services of an impartial third party who impartial third party who guides, coaches, and guides, coaches, and encourages disputants through encourages disputants through negotiation to successful negotiation to successful resolution and agreementresolution and agreement

William D. Kimsey, Rex M. Fuller, and Bruce C. William D. Kimsey, Rex M. Fuller, and Bruce C. McKinney, McKinney, Mediation and Conflict Management: Mediation and Conflict Management:

General Mediation ManualGeneral Mediation Manual

Group CohesionGroup Cohesion

Cohesion is the mutual Cohesion is the mutual attraction that holds members attraction that holds members of a group togetherof a group together

Strategies for enhancing group cohesion: Strategies for enhancing group cohesion: • Establish a group identity and traditions.Establish a group identity and traditions.• Emphasize teamwork.Emphasize teamwork.• Recognize and reward contributions.Recognize and reward contributions.• Respect group members.Respect group members.

GroupthinkGroupthink

GroupthinkGroupthink

The deterioration of group The deterioration of group effectiveness that results from in-effectiveness that results from in-group pressuregroup pressure

• Highly cohesive groups are at greater Highly cohesive groups are at greater risk of succumbing to groupthink.risk of succumbing to groupthink.

• Irving Janis identifies 8 symptoms and Irving Janis identifies 8 symptoms and expressions of groupthink.expressions of groupthink.

Strategies for Avoiding Strategies for Avoiding GroupthinkGroupthink

• Ask all members to serve as critical Ask all members to serve as critical evaluators.evaluators.

• Assign several members to work on the Assign several members to work on the same problem independently.same problem independently.

• Discuss the group’s progress with Discuss the group’s progress with someone outside the group.someone outside the group.

• Invite an expert to join a meeting and Invite an expert to join a meeting and encourage constructive criticism.encourage constructive criticism.

• Before finalizing a decision, give members Before finalizing a decision, give members a second chance to express doubts.a second chance to express doubts.

Adapting to DifferencesAdapting to Differences

• CultureCulture: Members from cultures : Members from cultures that value conformity are less likely that value conformity are less likely to express disagreement than those to express disagreement than those from cultures that place a higher from cultures that place a higher value on individualism.value on individualism.

• GenderGender: Women tend to avoid : Women tend to avoid conflict; men and women differ in conflict; men and women differ in what is expected of them in conflicts.what is expected of them in conflicts.

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• If in a group with Conflict, it’s a Bad If in a group with Conflict, it’s a Bad

group.group.

• Conflict Damages GroupsConflict Damages Groups

• Conflict is BadConflict is Bad

Myths About ConflictMyths About ConflictMyths About ConflictMyths About Conflict

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• PhysicalPhysical

• PsychologicalPsychological

• TemporalTemporal

• CulturalCultural

Context of Conflict:Context of Conflict:Context of Conflict:Context of Conflict:

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• Depletion of EnergyDepletion of Energy

• Close Self Off from OtherClose Self Off from Other

Negatives Effects of Negatives Effects of Conflict:Conflict:Negatives Effects of Negatives Effects of Conflict:Conflict:

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• Better UnderstandingBetter Understanding

• Prevent Festering HostilitiesPrevent Festering Hostilities

• Reinforces Worth of GroupReinforces Worth of Group

Positives Effects of Positives Effects of Conflict:Conflict:Positives Effects of Positives Effects of Conflict:Conflict:

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Group ConflictGroup Conflict

• ContentContent

– ObjectsObjects

– EventsEvents

– PersonsPersons

• Relationship – Power or StatusRelationship – Power or Status

Things we fight Things we fight over:over:Things we fight Things we fight over:over:

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Preparing for Conflict - BeforePreparing for Conflict - Before

• Try to Fight in PrivateTry to Fight in Private

• Be Sure Everyone is Ready to FightBe Sure Everyone is Ready to Fight

• Know What You’re Fighting AboutKnow What You’re Fighting About

• Fight about Solvable ProblemsFight about Solvable Problems

• Consider Reexamining BeliefsConsider Reexamining Beliefs

Small Group Small Group ConflictConflict

Small Group Small Group ConflictConflict

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Preparing for Conflict - AfterPreparing for Conflict - After

• Learn from ConflictLearn from Conflict

• Keep Conflict in PerspectiveKeep Conflict in Perspective

• Discuss Feelings with Other(s)Discuss Feelings with Other(s)

• Demonstrate Positive FeelingsDemonstrate Positive Feelings

Small Group Small Group ConflictConflict

Small Group Small Group ConflictConflict

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Conflicts can be Conflicts can be healthy:healthy:

Conflicts:Conflicts:

Are NeededAre Needed

Can Be ProductiveCan Be Productive

Can Be RewardingCan Be Rewarding

Can Be BeneficialCan Be Beneficial

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• Preserve Dignity and Respect of Preserve Dignity and Respect of

MembersMembers

• Listen with EmpathyListen with Empathy

• Seek and Emphasize Common GroundSeek and Emphasize Common Ground

• Value Diversity and DifferencesValue Diversity and Differences

Coping Principles of Coping Principles of Workplace Conflict:Workplace Conflict:Coping Principles of Coping Principles of Workplace Conflict:Workplace Conflict:

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Conflict Management SkillsConflict Management Skills

• Win-Lose StrategiesWin-Lose Strategies

• Lose-Lose StrategiesLose-Lose Strategies

• Win-Win StrategiesWin-Win Strategies

Small Group Small Group ConflictConflict

Small Group Small Group ConflictConflict

Argumentation in Argumentation in GroupsGroups

Argument and Argument and ArgumentationArgumentation

ArgumentArgument

A claim supported by evidence or A claim supported by evidence or reasons for accepting itreasons for accepting it

ArgumentationArgumentation

The process of advocating a The process of advocating a position, analyzing competing ideas, position, analyzing competing ideas, and influencing othersand influencing others

Why Argue?Why Argue?

Argumentation in GroupsArgumentation in Groups

•Promotes UnderstandingPromotes Understanding•Promotes Critical ThinkingPromotes Critical Thinking•Enhances PersuasionEnhances Persuasion•Avoids GroupthinkAvoids Groupthink•Improves Group Decision MakingImproves Group Decision Making

ArgumentativenessArgumentativeness

• Argumentativeness is a willingness Argumentativeness is a willingness to argue controversial issues with to argue controversial issues with others.others.

• Argumentativeness does not Argumentativeness does not necessarily promote hostility.necessarily promote hostility.

• The argumentative person focuses The argumentative person focuses on discussing issues, not attacking on discussing issues, not attacking others. others.

How Argumentative Are How Argumentative Are You?You?

• Do you avoid arguments?Do you avoid arguments?• Are you energetic and enthusiastic when Are you energetic and enthusiastic when

you argue?you argue?• Does arguing often create more problems Does arguing often create more problems

for you than it solves?for you than it solves?• Do feel pleased when you win an Do feel pleased when you win an

argument?argument?• When you finish arguing, do you feel When you finish arguing, do you feel

nervous or upset?nervous or upset?• Do you enjoy a good argument?Do you enjoy a good argument?

Dominic Infante and Andrew Rancer’s Argumentativeness Dominic Infante and Andrew Rancer’s Argumentativeness ScaleScale

Components of the Components of the Toulmin Model of Toulmin Model of

ArgumentArgumentThree Basic ElementsThree Basic Elements

• ClaimClaim – the conclusion or position – the conclusion or position you are advocatingyou are advocating

• DataData – the evidence you use to – the evidence you use to support the claimsupport the claim

• WarrantWarrant – your explanation of how – your explanation of how the data support and prove the claimthe data support and prove the claim

Toulmin’s “Basic T” of Toulmin’s “Basic T” of ArgumentArgument

Components of the Components of the Toulmin Model of Toulmin Model of

ArgumentArgument Three Additional ElementsThree Additional Elements

• BackingBacking – provides support for the – provides support for the argument’s warrantargument’s warrant

• ReservationReservation –recognizes exceptions to an –recognizes exceptions to an argument; indicates that a claim may not argument; indicates that a claim may not be true under certain circumstancesbe true under certain circumstances

• QualifierQualifier – states the degree to which the – states the degree to which the claim appears to be trueclaim appears to be true

The Toulmin ModelThe Toulmin Model

Data Claim

Warrant

Backing

Reservation

Qualifier

Types of Supporting Types of Supporting EvidenceEvidence

• Fact: Fact: Verifiable observations, Verifiable observations, experiences, or events known to be trueexperiences, or events known to be true

• Opinions:Opinions: Personal conclusions Personal conclusions regarding the meaning or interpretation regarding the meaning or interpretation of factsof facts

• Definitions: Definitions: Clarify the meaning of a Clarify the meaning of a word, phrase, or conceptword, phrase, or concept

• Descriptions: Descriptions: Create a mental image of a Create a mental image of a person, event, place, or objectperson, event, place, or object

Supporting EvidenceSupporting Evidence

• Examples: Examples: Refer to specific cases or Refer to specific cases or instancesinstances

• Illustrations:Illustrations: Longer, extended Longer, extended example example

• Statistics: Statistics: Present information in Present information in numerical formnumerical form

PowerPoint QuizPowerPoint Quiz

“ “This critically acclaimed novel spans six This critically acclaimed novel spans six decades in the life of one man.” What decades in the life of one man.” What kind of supporting material is used in kind of supporting material is used in this statement?this statement?

a)a) FactFact

b)b) OpinionOpinion

c)c) DescriptionDescription

d)d) ExampleExample

e)e) IllustrationIllustration

PowerPoint QuizPowerPoint Quiz

“ “I loved this unique, beautifully written I loved this unique, beautifully written novel. It is a remarkable work marked by novel. It is a remarkable work marked by startling plot twists and amazing startling plot twists and amazing characters.” What kind of supporting characters.” What kind of supporting material is used in this statement?material is used in this statement?

a)a) FactFactb)b) OpinionOpinionc)c) StatisticStatisticd)d) ExampleExamplee)e) IllustrationIllustration

Presenting Your Presenting Your ArgumentsArguments

Four-step ProcessFour-step Process

1.1. State your claim.State your claim.

2.2. Present evidence.Present evidence.

3.3. Provide reasoning.Provide reasoning.

4.4. Summarize the argument.Summarize the argument.

Types of ClaimsTypes of Claims

Claims of factClaims of fact – attempts to prove – attempts to prove a truth or to identify a causea truth or to identify a cause

Claim of conjectureClaim of conjecture- suggests - suggests that something will or will not that something will or will not happenhappen

Claims of valueClaims of value – evaluates – evaluates something’s quality or worthsomething’s quality or worth

Claims of policyClaims of policy – recommend a – recommend a course of actioncourse of action

Match the Type of ClaimsMatch the Type of Claims

A.A. Claims of Claims of factfact

B.B. Claim of Claim of conjectureconjectureC. Claim of C. Claim of

valuevalueD. Claim of D. Claim of

policypolicy

___ Private schools provide ___ Private schools provide a better education a better education than public schools.than public schools.

___ Earthquakes will ___ Earthquakes will destroy California destroy California coastal cities.coastal cities.

___ School uniforms ___ School uniforms should be required in should be required in the local elementary the local elementary schools.schools.

___ Generic drugs are the ___ Generic drugs are the same as brand-name same as brand-name drugs.drugs.

Refuting ArgumentsRefuting Arguments

Refutation Refutation

The process of proving that an The process of proving that an argument is false and/or lacks argument is false and/or lacks sufficient support to justify a sufficient support to justify a conclusionconclusion

Steps in a RefutationSteps in a Refutation

• Listen to the argument.Listen to the argument.• State the claim you oppose.State the claim you oppose.• Overview your objections.Overview your objections.• Assess the evidence.Assess the evidence.• Assess the reasoning.Assess the reasoning.• Summarize your refutation.Summarize your refutation.

Common Fallacies of Common Fallacies of ArgumentsArguments

FallacyFallacyAn argument based on false or invalid An argument based on false or invalid

reasoningreasoning

• Ad HominemAd Hominem – irrelevant attacks against a – irrelevant attacks against a person’s characterperson’s character

• Appeal to AuthorityAppeal to Authority – the supposed expert – the supposed expert has no relevant expertise on the issuehas no relevant expertise on the issue

• Appeal to PopularityAppeal to Popularity – an action is – an action is acceptable or excusable because others do itacceptable or excusable because others do it

Common Fallacies of Common Fallacies of ArgumentsArguments

• Appeal to TraditionAppeal to Tradition – continuing – continuing a certain course of action because a certain course of action because it has always been done that way it has always been done that way in the pastin the past

• Faulty AnalogyFaulty Analogy – claiming that – claiming that two things are similar when they two things are similar when they differ on relevant characteristics differ on relevant characteristics (comparing apples and oranges)(comparing apples and oranges)

Common Fallacies of Common Fallacies of ArgumentsArguments

• Faulty CauseFaulty Cause – claiming that a – claiming that a particular event caused another particular event caused another event before ruling out other event before ruling out other possible causespossible causes

• Hasty GeneralizationHasty Generalization – Using too – Using too few examples or experiences to few examples or experiences to support a conclusionsupport a conclusion

PowerPoint QuizPowerPoint Quiz

What fallacy is evident in the following What fallacy is evident in the following argument: “I knew I wouldn’t get the job argument: “I knew I wouldn’t get the job because I broke a mirror the morning of because I broke a mirror the morning of the interview.” the interview.”

a)a) ad hominemad hominem

b)b) appeal to authorityappeal to authority

c)c) appeal to traditionappeal to tradition

d)d) faulty analogyfaulty analogy

e)e) faulty causefaulty cause

PowerPoint QuizPowerPoint Quiz Several group members suggest that the Several group members suggest that the

community sponsor a winter potluck dinner community sponsor a winter potluck dinner rather than a summer picnic. Jodi objects rather than a summer picnic. Jodi objects because the community has been sponsoring because the community has been sponsoring the summer picnic for ten years and should the summer picnic for ten years and should continue to do so. Which fallacy of argument continue to do so. Which fallacy of argument could be attributed to Jodi’s comment?could be attributed to Jodi’s comment?

a)a) Hasty generalizationHasty generalizationb)b) Appeal to authorityAppeal to authorityc)c) Appeal to popularityAppeal to popularityd)d) Appeal to traditionAppeal to traditione)e) Faulty cause Faulty cause

Ethical Arguments in Ethical Arguments in GroupsGroups

• Research ResponsibilityResearch Responsibility– Be prepared to share valid information.Be prepared to share valid information.

• Common Good ResponsibilityCommon Good Responsibility– Put the group’s goal ahead of winning an Put the group’s goal ahead of winning an

argument.argument.

• Reasoning ResponsibilityReasoning Responsibility– Identify and avoid fallacies.Identify and avoid fallacies.

• Social Code ResponsibilitySocial Code Responsibility– Promote an open and supportive Promote an open and supportive

argumentative climate.argumentative climate.

Match the Ethical Match the Ethical ResponsibilitiesResponsibilities

Ethical Ethical ResponsibilitiResponsibiliti

eses

• ResearchResearch• Common GoodCommon Good• ReasoningReasoning• Social CodesSocial Codes

__ Support claims with __ Support claims with good evidence.good evidence.

__ Consider the interests __ Consider the interests of other group of other group members. members.

__ Do not distort __ Do not distort information.information.

__ Respect established __ Respect established group norms. group norms.

Gender and Gender and ArgumentationArgumentation

• Men tend to be competitive arguers; Men tend to be competitive arguers; women are more likely to seek women are more likely to seek consensus.consensus.

• Men tend to view issues as two-Men tend to view issues as two-sided; women are more likely to sided; women are more likely to search out different perspectives search out different perspectives and options.and options.

Culture and Culture and ArgumentationArgumentation

• Cultural differences affect:Cultural differences affect:– levels of argumentativenesslevels of argumentativeness– values that justify claimsvalues that justify claims– validity of evidence and reasoningvalidity of evidence and reasoning

• Asians may try to preserve group Asians may try to preserve group harmony.harmony.

• American Indian and African cultures may American Indian and African cultures may view arguing with elders as disrespectful.view arguing with elders as disrespectful.

Argumentation and Argumentation and Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence

Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence

The “capacity for recognizing our own The “capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.”relationships.”

Daniel Goleman, Daniel Goleman, Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence regulates the Emotional intelligence regulates the expression of emotions in arguments.expression of emotions in arguments.

PowerPoint QuizPowerPoint Quiz

Emotional intelligence can benefit a group’s Emotional intelligence can benefit a group’s argumentation because members strive argumentation because members strive to . . .to . . .

a)a) state arguments in a neutral rather than state arguments in a neutral rather than combative tone.combative tone.

b)b) show they are willing to work things out by show they are willing to work things out by talking over the issue rather than escalating it.talking over the issue rather than escalating it.

c)c) calm down, tune in to their feelings, and be calm down, tune in to their feelings, and be willing to share them with group members.willing to share them with group members.

d)d) look for an equitable way to resolve the dispute.look for an equitable way to resolve the dispute.e)e) do all of the above.do all of the above.