Fundamentals of Organizational Communication Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical...

Fundamentals of Organizational Communication

Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical Organizational

Communication Competencies

Chapter Eight

Participating in Organizations

• It is fair to say that decision making, problem solving, interpersonal and small-group interactions, and presentations can be described a guiding processes for all organizational functioning.

Defining Decision Making and Problem Solving

• Decision making - process of choosing from among several alternatives.

• Problem solving - multistage process of moving an issue, situation, or state from an undesirable to a more desirable condition.

• Decision making depends on individuals and groups choosing from among known alternatives.

• Problem solving is the process by which individuals and groups generate alternatives and evaluate those alternatives in light of the identified problem.

• All decision making and problem solving involve a level of risk.

• Decisions are desired courses of action before the results of the action are known.

• Unknown results represent risk.

• A good decision-making process will not guarantee success, but a poor process will almost certainly contribute to failure.

Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving• Four primary factors influence

individual and group decision making and problem solving–Organizational culture

–Decision/problem issues

–Technical competencies

–Communication competencies

Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving• Organizational culture–Organizing can be seen as a

conscious limitation of alternatives and therefore decision making.

– It is this limitation of alternatives (decisions) that becomes the shared realities of the organization or its culture

Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving• Organizational culture–Organizational cultures influence

the methods of decision making.– It is appropriate to conclude that

the methods and levels of participation desired for decision making and problem solving are reflections of organizational values and culture.

Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving

• Decision/Problem Issue–Complexity, resources,

importance, and previous experience concerning problems all influence how individuals and organizations approach decisions.

Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving• Communication Competency–Our perceptions of our

personal competencies and our predispositions for communication help determine how and when we engage in individual and group decision making.

• Communication Competency–Our interpersonal

effectiveness contributes to whether we can influence others during problem solving.

Influences for Decision Making & Problem Solving• Communication Competency–Because decision making and

problem solving occur through human communication, the ability and willingness of all involved to engage in quality participation influence the ultimate quality of decisions.

• Technical Competency–Excellence in decision making

requires a communication process that supports excellence and appropriate technical backgrounds or information.

Methods for Decision Making & Problem Solving

• Individual Approach

• Leader Mandate

• Majority Rule

• Powerful Minority

• Consensus

• It is important to note that in the twenty-first century, the emphasis on decision making and problem solving is rapidly shifting from an individual to a group or team responsibility.

• The emphasis on group/team problem solving and decision making increasingly asks those who will actually implement a decision to make that decision.

• Individual Approach–Individuals make decisions

with a range of involvement from others.–Individual decision makers

have the option to consider their alternatives alone or with others.

• Leader Mandate–Leader-made decisions - leader of

a group makes a decision and announces the decision to the group.–Leader-made decisions frequently

have less group commitment than decisions in which members are more actively involved.

• Majority Rule–When more than 50 percent of a group

agree, a decision is reached.– The majority rule may not adequately

account for the views of the minority.–Majority-rule decisions can be high in

quality, but they can also ignore central issues of concern.

• Powerful MinorityPowerful Minority–When group membership is When group membership is

characterized by unequal characterized by unequal distribution of power among distribution of power among members, those members who members, those members who have the most power (although in have the most power (although in numerical minority) are in a numerical minority) are in a position to assume decision-position to assume decision-making responsibility.making responsibility.

• Powerful MinorityPowerful Minority– This method can be effective when This method can be effective when

the minority members have the the minority members have the best information on which to base best information on which to base the decision.the decision.

• ConsensusConsensus– Results in a decision all members can Results in a decision all members can

agree is best and all can support.agree is best and all can support.– It may take more time than other It may take more time than other

methods.methods.– All will usually support the decision All will usually support the decision

even though it is not the decision some even though it is not the decision some might have preferred.might have preferred.

Barriers to Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving

• Organizational BarriersOrganizational Barriers– Only about 50% of organizational Only about 50% of organizational

decisions are ever implemented.decisions are ever implemented.• No commitment to the decisionNo commitment to the decision• Lack of resourcesLack of resources

– Organizational SilenceOrganizational Silence– Organizational structures and policiesOrganizational structures and policies• CentralizationCentralization• Lack of formal upward feedback mechanismsLack of formal upward feedback mechanisms

• Task BarriersTask Barriers–Groups make poor decisions Groups make poor decisions

when they short-circuit problem when they short-circuit problem analysis.analysis.• Inadequate description of Inadequate description of

problemsproblems

• Procedural BarriersProcedural Barriers–Groups also make poor decisions Groups also make poor decisions

when role ambiguity contributes to when role ambiguity contributes to confusion about responsibilities, confusion about responsibilities, process, or leadership.process, or leadership.– Lack of agendas, too much or too Lack of agendas, too much or too

little time for meetings, and a variety little time for meetings, and a variety of other procedural issues are of other procedural issues are related to low-quality decisions.related to low-quality decisions.

• Interpersonal BarriersInterpersonal Barriers–We know from experience that poor We know from experience that poor

leadership or a variety of self-leadership or a variety of self-centered or ego-centered behaviors centered or ego-centered behaviors can negatively influence any group.can negatively influence any group.

–Group cohesion – too much or too Group cohesion – too much or too little - can influence the quality of little - can influence the quality of decisions (groupthink).decisions (groupthink).

Problem Solving Processes

• Processes help individuals and groups Processes help individuals and groups move from problem identification to move from problem identification to determination of action appropriate for determination of action appropriate for problem needs.problem needs.

• Processes focus on moving situations, Processes focus on moving situations, issues, or problem from undesirable to issues, or problem from undesirable to more desirable states.more desirable states.

• Although decision making occurs Although decision making occurs during problem solving, problem-during problem solving, problem-solving processes include solving processes include numerous other stages.numerous other stages.

• The goal of group-process The goal of group-process designs is creative decisions that designs is creative decisions that will contribute to organizational will contribute to organizational excellence.excellence.

• The Standard AgendaThe Standard Agenda

• BrainstormingBrainstorming

• The Delphi TechniqueThe Delphi Technique

• Nominal Group ProcessNominal Group Process

• Experientially-Based Experientially-Based ProcessesProcesses

• The Standard Agenda: A Rational The Standard Agenda: A Rational ModelModel–A group application of what John A group application of what John

Dewey (1910) identified as reflective Dewey (1910) identified as reflective thinking necessary for individual thinking necessary for individual problem solving.problem solving.• Diagnostic PhaseDiagnostic Phase• Solution PhaseSolution Phase

• The Standard Agenda: A Rational The Standard Agenda: A Rational ModelModel– Diagnostic PhaseDiagnostic Phase

1.1. Understanding the chargeUnderstanding the charge

2.2. Understanding and phrasing the Understanding and phrasing the questionquestion

3.3. Fact-findingFact-finding

4.4. Setting criteria and limitationsSetting criteria and limitations

• The Standard Agenda: A Rational The Standard Agenda: A Rational ModelModel– Solution PhaseSolution Phase

5.5. Discovering and selecting solutionsDiscovering and selecting solutions

6.6. Preparing and presenting the final Preparing and presenting the final reportreport

• BrainstormingBrainstorming– This techniques breaks away for This techniques breaks away for

linear and controlled processes and linear and controlled processes and seeks creative thinking based on seeks creative thinking based on four basic rules:four basic rules:• Criticism is withheld during generationCriticism is withheld during generation• All ideas are welcome even absurdAll ideas are welcome even absurd• Quantity is wantedQuantity is wanted• Combinations/alternations are soughtCombinations/alternations are sought

• BrainstormingBrainstorming– Brainstorming has evolved over the Brainstorming has evolved over the

years to include the use of years to include the use of metaphors and fantasy chainingmetaphors and fantasy chaining• Metaphors are used to stimulate Metaphors are used to stimulate

innovation and creativityinnovation and creativity• Fantasy chaining is a form of Fantasy chaining is a form of

brainstormingbrainstorming

• BrainstormingBrainstorming– Synectics uses both metaphors and Synectics uses both metaphors and

fantasy chainingfantasy chaining• Synectics generally refers to a Synectics generally refers to a

facilitated process through which group facilitated process through which group members explore problems in terms of members explore problems in terms of what the problem is also like and how it what the problem is also like and how it can best be described.can best be described.

• The Delphi TechniqueThe Delphi Technique– Designed to balance the influence of Designed to balance the influence of

strong personalities on the problem-strong personalities on the problem-solving process.solving process.

– This techniques is group problem This techniques is group problem solving conducted through written solving conducted through written response and critique of situations response and critique of situations and the responses to those and the responses to those situationssituations

• The Delphi TechniqueThe Delphi Technique– A group leader, referred to as a A group leader, referred to as a

charging authoritycharging authority, forms the group , forms the group and directs its activities through and directs its activities through written correspondence.written correspondence.

– The technique works through the The technique works through the centralized direction of the charging centralized direction of the charging authority.authority.

• The Delphi TechniqueThe Delphi Technique– The effectiveness of the Delphi The effectiveness of the Delphi

technique rests largely with the technique rests largely with the leader’s understanding of the issues, leader’s understanding of the issues, ability to communicate those issues ability to communicate those issues to others, and capability in selecting to others, and capability in selecting competent group members.competent group members.

• The Delphi TechniqueThe Delphi Technique– The Delphi Technique is designed to The Delphi Technique is designed to

equalize power among group equalize power among group members and minimize the members and minimize the importance of oral communication importance of oral communication skills.skills.

– Written communication skills, Written communication skills, however, replace oral skills in however, replace oral skills in importance and influence.importance and influence.

• Nominal Group ProcessNominal Group Process– A combination of individual and A combination of individual and

group idea generation.group idea generation.

– The process begins with individuals The process begins with individuals silently writing down their ideas and silently writing down their ideas and then reporting them back to the then reporting them back to the group for discussion and decision.group for discussion and decision.

• Experientially-Based ProcessesExperientially-Based Processes– ““Bounded Rationality” (Simon)Bounded Rationality” (Simon)• Individuals often make organizational Individuals often make organizational

decisions even though realizing that decisions even though realizing that their decisions are based on partial their decisions are based on partial information.information.– ““satisficing” – good enough if not the bestsatisficing” – good enough if not the best

• We know that the fully rational or ideal We know that the fully rational or ideal solutions often is simply not available solutions often is simply not available or possible.or possible.

End of Chapter 8a

Increasing Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Effectiveness

• Two types of skills are necessary Two types of skills are necessary for problem solving:for problem solving:– Interaction process skillsInteraction process skills

– Fact-finding and evaluation skillsFact-finding and evaluation skills

• Interaction process skillsInteraction process skills– Based on an understanding of the Based on an understanding of the

communication process; an communication process; an awareness of individual awareness of individual predispositions, strategies, and predispositions, strategies, and tactics in a variety of circumstances; tactics in a variety of circumstances; and knowledge and sensitivity for and knowledge and sensitivity for decision-making and problem-decision-making and problem-solving processes.solving processes.

• Interaction process skillsInteraction process skills– Interaction process skills help Interaction process skills help

individuals and groups structure individuals and groups structure problem-solving discussions, exhibit problem-solving discussions, exhibit productive individual behaviors, and productive individual behaviors, and avoid behaviors destructive to avoid behaviors destructive to effective decision making and effective decision making and problem solving.problem solving.

• Interaction process skillsInteraction process skills– Seven General Principles (Brilhart)Seven General Principles (Brilhart)

1.1. Focus on the problem before talkingFocus on the problem before talking2.2. Begin with a single questionBegin with a single question3.3. Develop a thorough statement of the problem Develop a thorough statement of the problem

analysisanalysis4.4. Group agrees on criteria for evaluationGroup agrees on criteria for evaluation5.5. Resist evaluation when generating ideasResist evaluation when generating ideas6.6. Avoid groupthinkAvoid groupthink7.7. Verbally plan for implementationVerbally plan for implementation

• Interaction Interaction process skillsprocess skills– Mind Locks Mind Locks (Oech)(Oech)

1.1. The right answerThe right answer

2.2. That’s not logicalThat’s not logical

3.3. Follow the rulesFollow the rules

4.4. Be practicalBe practical

5.5. Avoid ambiguityAvoid ambiguity

• Interaction Interaction process skillsprocess skills– Mind Locks Mind Locks (Oech)(Oech)

6.6. To err is wrongTo err is wrong

7.7. Play is frivolousPlay is frivolous

8.8. That’s not my areaThat’s not my area

9.9. Don’t be foolishDon’t be foolish

10.10. I’m not creativeI’m not creative

• Interaction process skillsInteraction process skills– Lumsden and Lumsden recommend that Lumsden and Lumsden recommend that

group interactions be characterized by group interactions be characterized by encouraging playfulness; by agreeing not encouraging playfulness; by agreeing not to judge people or ideas; by engaging in a to judge people or ideas; by engaging in a search for different, even bizarre, idea search for different, even bizarre, idea relationships; and by consciously relationships; and by consciously breaking down barriers.breaking down barriers.

• Fact-Finding and Evaluation SkillsFact-Finding and Evaluation Skills– The quality of information we bring The quality of information we bring

to decision-making and problem-to decision-making and problem-solving processes directly solving processes directly influences the quality of our influences the quality of our decisions and solutions.decisions and solutions.

• Fact-Finding and Evaluation SkillsFact-Finding and Evaluation Skills– Lumsden and Lumsden identify four Lumsden and Lumsden identify four

general categories of question we can ask general categories of question we can ask as we fact-find and evaluate information as we fact-find and evaluate information for problem solving and decision making.for problem solving and decision making.• FactFact• ValueValue• PolicyPolicy• PredictionPrediction

• Information CriteriaInformation Criteria– Three characteristics of informaiton Three characteristics of informaiton

should be considered in forming our should be considered in forming our decision-making rules decision-making rules (Gouran, 1979)(Gouran, 1979)

• RelevancyRelevancy• SufficiencySufficiency• PlausibilityPlausibility

• Information CriteriaInformation Criteria– Relevancy, sufficiency, and plausibility of Relevancy, sufficiency, and plausibility of

information affect not only individual information affect not only individual decisions but also the quality of group decisions but also the quality of group efforts.efforts.

– The sheer volume of information available The sheer volume of information available complicates the fact-finding process and complicates the fact-finding process and makes our ability to locate and evaluate makes our ability to locate and evaluate data of increasing importance.data of increasing importance.

Interviews in Organizations

• Informational InterviewInformational Interview– Interviews are a primary source of Interviews are a primary source of

information.information.

– Informational interviews begin with Informational interviews begin with careful planning.careful planning.

– What we need to know is influenced What we need to know is influenced by our ability to define the limits of by our ability to define the limits of what we do not know.what we do not know.

• Informational InterviewInformational Interview– When conducting an informational When conducting an informational

interview with another person, the interview with another person, the interviewer must establish rapport and interviewer must establish rapport and explain the purpose of data collection explain the purpose of data collection activities.activities.

– Respondents are more likely to be Respondents are more likely to be cooperative if fact-finders introduce cooperative if fact-finders introduce themselves with credentials and establish themselves with credentials and establish a need for the type of questions to be a need for the type of questions to be asked.asked.

• Informational InterviewInformational Interview– Five principles that contribute to success Five principles that contribute to success

during the questioning phase during the questioning phase Kahn & Cannell)Kahn & Cannell)

1.1. Use language appropriate to the respondent.Use language appropriate to the respondent.2.2. Be sure the questions are clearly related to the Be sure the questions are clearly related to the

purpose of the interview.purpose of the interview.3.3. Be certain the informant has the information Be certain the informant has the information

you want.you want.4.4. Avoid questions that are overly complex.Avoid questions that are overly complex.5.5. Avoid questions that ask the respondent to Avoid questions that ask the respondent to

violate a social normviolate a social norm

• Informational InterviewInformational Interview– Effective fact-finders frequently Effective fact-finders frequently

close informational interviews by close informational interviews by asking for any additional information asking for any additional information the respondent would care to offer.the respondent would care to offer.

• The Employment InterviewThe Employment Interview– Provides an opportunity to Provides an opportunity to

determine if the match between you determine if the match between you and a particular job is right.and a particular job is right.

• The Performance-Appraisal The Performance-Appraisal InterviewInterview– This interview becomes one of the This interview becomes one of the

most important communication most important communication events that contribute to individual events that contribute to individual development and overall development and overall organizational performance.organizational performance.

• The Performance-Appraisal InterviewThe Performance-Appraisal Interview– The general purpose of the performance-The general purpose of the performance-

appraisal interview is to exchange appraisal interview is to exchange between a supervisor/manager and an between a supervisor/manager and an individual contributor information about individual contributor information about the adequacy of performance and to the adequacy of performance and to establish needs for development.establish needs for development.

– The effective performance-appraisal The effective performance-appraisal interview is essential to competency interview is essential to competency development.development.

• The Performance-Appraisal The Performance-Appraisal InterviewInterview– When we avoid feedback because of When we avoid feedback because of

our apprehension or lack of our apprehension or lack of communication skills, we are limiting communication skills, we are limiting individual development and individual development and contributing to overall organizational contributing to overall organizational ineffectiveness.ineffectiveness.

• The Complaint InterviewThe Complaint Interview– Two general types:Two general types:• Grievance interviewGrievance interview• Disciplinary interviewDisciplinary interview

– Although difficult in nature, grievance Although difficult in nature, grievance interviews can support productive interviews can support productive problem solving, especially when they are problem solving, especially when they are conducted shortly after a problem conducted shortly after a problem becomes troublesome.becomes troublesome.

• The Complaint InterviewThe Complaint Interview– The disciplinary interview confronts a The disciplinary interview confronts a

violation of organizational rules, norms, violation of organizational rules, norms, and performance expectations.and performance expectations.

– When conducted effectively, the When conducted effectively, the disciplinary interview can improve disciplinary interview can improve individual performance and in many cases individual performance and in many cases prevent more serious action.prevent more serious action.

• The Counseling InterviewThe Counseling Interview– Involves and individual seeking Involves and individual seeking

advice and assistance from another advice and assistance from another organizational member or members.organizational member or members.

– People seeking counseling are People seeking counseling are asking others to provide support and asking others to provide support and assistance with problems.assistance with problems.

• The Media InterviewThe Media Interview– This involves representing the This involves representing the

organization or department with organization or department with statements to the press.statements to the press.

– Media interviews are most successful Media interviews are most successful when you can formulate a clear objective when you can formulate a clear objective for your statements with a limited number for your statements with a limited number of key assertions.of key assertions.

• Increasing Interview EffectivenessIncreasing Interview Effectiveness– Preparation is the key to Preparation is the key to

effectiveness for all type of effectiveness for all type of interviews.interviews.

– Focus on the Employment InterviewFocus on the Employment Interview

• Presentations in OrganizationsPresentations in Organizations– Organizations in our information society Organizations in our information society

depend more than ever before on depend more than ever before on individuals transferring information individuals transferring information through through presentational speakingpresentational speaking..

– Surveys of top management in major Surveys of top management in major organizations consistently suggest that organizations consistently suggest that employees have deficiencies in employees have deficiencies in presentation skills.presentation skills.

• Presentations in OrganizationsPresentations in Organizations– Organizational presentations are Organizational presentations are

characterized by a high degree of characterized by a high degree of audience involvement.audience involvement.

– Most organizational presenters must Most organizational presenters must respond to questions and answers respond to questions and answers during and following presentations.during and following presentations.

• Types of Organizational Types of Organizational PresentationsPresentations– Training/Educational PresentationsTraining/Educational Presentations

– Informational PresentationsInformational Presentations

– Persuasive PresentationsPersuasive Presentations

• Increasing Presentation Increasing Presentation EffectivenessEffectiveness– Increasing credibilityIncreasing credibility

– Audience and context analysisAudience and context analysis

– Preparation of materialPreparation of material

– Preparation for presentingPreparation for presenting

– Handling ParticipationHandling Participation

• Communications Technology in Communications Technology in OrganizationsOrganizations– Preparation for communications Preparation for communications

technologytechnology

Fundamentals of Organizational Communication

Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical Organizational

Communication Competencies

Chapter Eight

Fundamentals of Organizational Communication Participating in Organizations: Developing Critical...

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