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FM 38-701
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL FM 38-701MARINE CORPS ORDER MCO P4030.21DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY PUBLICATION NAVSUP PUB
DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORC E PAMPHLET AFPAM(I) 2DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY INSTRUCTION DLAI 4145.2
PACKAGING OF MATERIEL
PACKING
DEPARTMENTS OF THE ARMY, THE NAVY, THE AIR FORCE,AND THE DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved f or public release; distribution is unlimited.
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*FM 38-701
MCO 4030.21D
NAVSUP PUB 503
AFP AM(I) 24-209
DLAI 4145.2
DEP ARTMENTS OF TH E ARMY,
NAVY, AND AIR FO RC E, AND TH E
DEFENSE LOGISTICS AGENCY
P ACKAGING OF MATER IEL
PACKING
CH AP TE R P AGE
INTRODUCTIONPU RPOSE .......................................................................................................................... 1
SCOP E ............................................................................................................................... 1
REFE RENCE S .................................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTE R 1 - P ACKINGGENE RAL .........................................................................................................................1-1
SEQUENCE OF PACKING OPERATION......................................................................1-1
DETE RMINATION OF PACKING REQU IREME NTS .................................................1-3
ITE M CHARACTERIS TICS .............................................................................................1-3
LOAD CHARACTERIS TICS ............................................................................................1-7
MODE S OF TRANSP ORTATION ...................................................................................1-7STORAGE CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................1-8
DESTIN ATION AND FI ELD CONDITI ONS .................................................................1-9
FU NCTION S AND SE LECTION OF SH IPP ING CONTAINE RS ................................1-9
ARRANGEMEN T OF CON TENTS .................................................................................1-9
BLOCKING AND BRACING ...........................................................................................1-11
APPLICATION OF BLOCKING AND BRACING..........................................................1-12
STRAPPIN G REIN FORCE MEN T FOR CONTAINE RS................................................1-33
CUS HI ONI NG ..................................................................................................................1-35
PACKI NG PROBLE MS ....................................................................................................1-51
PACKI NG SMALL, LIGH TWEI GHT ITEMS .................................................................1-53
CLEARANCE BETWEEN ITEM AND CONTAINER....................................................1-54
WEATH ERP ROOF ING THE PACK ................................................................................1-55
TESTIN G OF PACKS .......................................................................................................1-59MARKING OF PACKS .....................................................................................................1-68
ECONOMY IN PACKI NG ................................................................................................1-68
PARCE L POST REQU IRE MEN TS .................................................................................1-72
*This field m an ua l sup ersed es DLAM 4145.2, Vol II/TM 38-230-2/NAVSUP PU B 503, Vol
II/AFP 71-16/MCO P4030.21C, Pa ckaging of Mat eriel Pa cking (Volum e II), J un e1977
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CHAPTE R 2 - FIBE RBOARD AND PAP ER BOARD CONTAINERS
FI BERBOARD BOXES .....................................................................................................2-1
TRIPLE -WALL CORRUGATED FIBE RBOARD BOXES (ASTM D 5168) ...................2-31
CHAPTE R 3 - WOODEN CANTAINERS AND PALLETS
CONTAINE R MATERI ALS .............................................................................................3-1
NAILED AND LOCK-CORNER WOOD BOXES (PPP-B-621)......................................3-7
NAILIN G REQUI REMEN TS ...........................................................................................3-20CLE ATED-PANEL BOXES (GEN ERAL)........................................................................3-30
CLE ATED PLYWOOD BOXES (PP P-B-601).................................................................3-34
BOXES,, WOOD-CLE ATED P ANELBOARD .................................................................3-42
WOOD-CLEATED, SKIDDE D, LOAD-BEARING BASE BOXES (MIL-B-26195).......3-42
WIREBOUND WOOD BOXES (PPP-B-585)...................................................................3-50
CLASS 3 MILITARY OVERS EA......................................................................................3-53
PALLE TS (GENERAL).....................................................................................................3-59
FOUR-WAY POST CONSTRUCTION PALLETS (MIL-P-15011).................................3-62
FOU R-WAY (PARTIAL) STRINGE R CONSTRU CTION P ALLETS (NN-P-71) ..........3-62
MAINTE NANCE OF PALLE TS ......................................................................................3-62
CHAP TER 4 - BAGS AND SACKS
NE ED FO R BAGS AND SACKS ......................................................................................4-1
BAGS DEFI NE D...............................................................................................................4-1
SACKS DEFI NE D ............................................................................................................4-1
SH IP PI NG BAGS AND SACKS .......................................................................................4-1
COTTON MAILING BAGS (A-A-2714) ...........................................................................4-1
PROCUREMEN T..............................................................................................................4-3
CUSHIONED PAPER SHIPPING SACKS (A-A-160, A-A-1588)...................................4-3
A-A-160 (CUSHION ED WITH POS T CONSU MER RE COVERED MATERIAL)........4-3
A-A-1588 (CUSH IONE D WITH CLOSE D CE LL P LASTIC F ILM) ..............................4-5
BURLAP SH IP PI NG BAGS (A-A-881)............................................................................4-7
CHAPTE R 5 - PAILS AND DRUMS
DESCRI PTION , CLASSIF ICATIONS, AND SELE CTION F ACTORS ........................5-1METAL SHIPPING AND STORAGE DRUMS (MIL-D-6054).......................................5-3
METAL DRUMS (STANDARD) (MISCELLANEOUS)..................................................5-9
FI BER DRUMS .................................................................................................................5-12
CHAPTE R 6 - CRATES
INTRODU CTION TO CRATES .......................................................................................6-1
CRATE MATERIALS........................................................................................................6-18
WOOD CRE ATES, OP EN AND COVERE D, MIL-C-52950 (GEN ERAL).....................6-29
TYPE I, STYLE A --HE AVY DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950)..........................................6-34
TYPE I, STYLE B--LIGHT DU TY CRATE (MIL-C-52950)............................................6-35
TYPE II, STYLE A--HEAVY DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950) .........................................6-37
TYPE III , STYLE B--LIGH T DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950).........................................6-40
TYPE IV, STYLE A--HEAVY DUTY CRATE (MIL-C-52950) ........................................6-43TYPE V, STYLE A--HE AVY DU TY (MIL-C-52950) .......................................................6-43
TYPE V, STYLE B--LIGH T DU TY CRATE (MIL-C-529502).........................................6-48
ASSEMBLY INSTRU CTION S (MIL-C-52950) ...............................................................6-58
OPE N WOOD CRATE S, MIL-C-3774 (GE NE RAL)........................................................6-60
OPEN BOLTE D CRATE S (MIL-C-3774) ........................................................................6-60
OPEN NAILE D CRATES (MIL-C-3774) .........................................................................6-72
SHEATHED WOOD CRATES, MIL-C-104 (GENERAL)...............................................6-84
ASSEMBLY (CLASS 1 CRATES ) ....................................................................................6-115
CRATE, SLOTTE D ANGLE, STEE L O R ALUMIN UM (MIL-C-9897) .........................6-141
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CHAPTE R 7 - CONSOLIDATION AND UNITIZATION FO R SH IP MENT
AND USE OF CARGO CONTAINERS
CONSOLID ATION AND UN ITIZATION FOR SHI PME NT .........................................7-1
PALLE TIZING UNI T LOADS (MIL-HD BK-774) ...........................................................7-2
SHRI NK FILM AND S TRETCH FILM PALLETIZATION ...........................................7-6
CONSOLIDATION CONTAINERS (GENERAL)...........................................................7-6
BOXES, SHIPPING INSERT CONSOLIDATION, MIL-B-43666 (GENERAL)...........7-6
TYPE I, WOOD CLEATED PLYWOOD CONSOLIDATION INSERT BOX(MIL-B-43666)................................................................................................................7-8
TYPE II, PLYWOOD WIREBOUND CONSOLIDATION INSE RT BOX
(MIL-B-43666)................................................................................................................7-11
TYPE III, F IBERBOARD CON SOLIDATION INSE RT BOX (MIL-B-43666)..............7-11
PACKING CONSOLIDATION CONTAINER.................................................................7-13
PACKING SE MI-PERISH ABLE S UBSIS TEN CE ITEMS ............................................7-14
CARGO CONTAINE RS (GEN ERAL)..............................................................................7-16
USE OF MILVANS AND SE AVANS ...............................................................................7-18
SHIPMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS.................................................................7-21
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INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND SCOPEP U R P O S E
This publication contains information on the fundamental principles and
appr oved meth ods and t echn iques used in t he pr otection of militar y supplies
and equipment against deterioration and damage during shipment and
stora ge. It is publish ed as an officialdocument for use in operations and in
the training of military and civilian personnel from all segments of the
Department of Defense (DOD) and supporting agencies, as well as for
interested indust rial personnel. It conta ins inform ation based on
specifications, standards, and other pertinent documents, current as of the
date of prepar ation a nd coordination of the pu blication.
NOTE
For Air Force use, the pu blicat ion is n on-directive in na tur e.
S C OP EThis manual emphasizes the importance of packing of military supplies and
equipment. It contains detailed informa tion concerning the requirement s to
accomplish packing operat ions. The requirem ent s include use of exter ior
shipping containers; the assembling of items or packs into the container;
anchoring, blocking, bracing, and cushioning of items or packages within the
container; weatherproofing; strapping of containers; the testing of exterior
packs; palletization and unitization of loads; parcel post; and related subject
mat ter. Genera l exterior mar king in accordance with MIL-STD-129 is
discussed.
C HANGES AND P ROVISIONS
Changes or revisions to this manual are due to major changes in packing
concepts, policies and doctrine, and revision of specifications and other
official publications, will be made on a continuing basis, as required.
Informa tion contained h erein is curr ent a s of J un e 1996.
Users are encouraged to submit recommended changes or comments to
improve th is man ua l. Commen ts should be keyed to the specific page,
paragraph, and line of the text in which the change is recommended.
Reasons should be provided for each comment to insure understanding and
complete evaluation. Commen ts should be prepared using DA Form 2028
(Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) or appropriate
service form and forwarded direct to Dean, U.S. Army Ordnance School of
Military Packaging Technology, ATTN: ATSL-MPT, 360 Lanyard Road,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21005-5003.
OBJ ECTIVES OF M ILITARY P ACKAGING
The objectives for a chieving un iform pa cking of items of militar y sup plyare
to--
Insure optimum life, utility and performance of materiel through
prevention of deterioration or dam age.
Support t he ma teriel readiness posture of DOD.
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Provide for efficient receipt, storage, inventory, transfer and issue of
materiel.
Assure that marking requirements are kept at the minimum
necessary for effective identification, handling, shipment and storage.
Effect economies by requiring the use of packs which yield lowest
overall cost to the total DOD distribution system consistent with
known or anticipated shipment handling and storage conditions.Considera tions will include--
Minimization of mater ials, methods of preservation, a nd
documentation.
Accomplishm ent with optimum a mount of au tomated
operations.
Minimum weight an d cube.
Use of modular conta iners.
Ha ndling by u nitized load configur ation.
Use of containerization.
Exploitation of new ma terials, meth ods, an d techniques.
Disposability of packaging materials.
H AZARDS E NCOUNTERED IN TRANSPORTATION, H ANDLING, AN D STORAGE
Military supplies and equipment must be protected against pilferage and
damage due to force and exposure, not only until they reach their ultimate
destinat ion, but un til the items are placed int o actual use or service. Force
an d exposur e will reduce the u seful lifespan of the item or cause th e item to be
dam aged beyond rep air. The objective of packing is to exten d the lifespa n of
the item so that depreciation starts, not when it leaves the manufacturing
plant , but wh en it is placed into service.
F o r c e
Damage may result from hazardous forces encountered in transportation,
ha ndling, an d stora ge (figur e 1). Tran sportat ion ha zards involve forces
encoun tered thr ough rail, tru ck, boat, or air shipments. The dama ge caused
can result from abru pt st art s, stops, vibrat ion, an d jolting.
Ha ndling ha zards involve th ose dama ging forces received th rough loading,
un loading, and han dling dur ing stora ge opera tions. Exam ples of ha ndling
where dama ge often occurs ar e--
Manual handling--dropping and puncture.
Forklift truck handhng--dropping and puncture.
Cargo nets--dropping, cru shing, an d wr acking.
Grab h ooks--cru shing an d pun ctu re.
Slings--cru shing, dr opping, a nd wracking.
Conveyers--jarring, sm ash ing, and dropping.Storage hazards involve those forces resulting from the crushing effect of
superimposed loads th rough sta cking.
E x p o s u r e
Exposure to the different climatic conditions and weather hazards, such as
high hu midity, rain, salt spra y, extreme cold, dry inten se heat , and t he cycling
of these weather conditions, will tend to accelerate the breakdown or
deterioration of unprotected items.
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Figure 1. Ha zardous forces encountered in tra nsporta tion handling, an d storage.
Pi l f e r age
Theft of military supplies and equipment while in transit or storage is a significant
problem for the military. Small items of high value are especially vulnerable to pilferage
and should be protected as much as possible through packing techniques.
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C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s To H a z a r d s O f P a c k
Items which are packed properly will resist the damaging effects of force and
exposure. Force is coun ter acted by--
Using r igid shipping conta iners.
Immobilizing the item with in the conta iner th rough an choring,
blocking, and bracing. Damping forces th rough t he u se of cushioning m ater ials an d devices.
Reinforcing shipping containers with metal and nonmetallic
stra pping or reinforcement ta pe as appropriate.
Exposure is coun tera cted by the use of--
Weather-resistant shipping containers.
Waterpr oof bar rier ma terials in various applications.
NECESSITY FOR A P ACKAGING P OLICY
To attain economy, efficiency, and uniformity in packing, and to provide a
un iform pr ocedure in conn ection with procur ement , the services an d a gencies
of th e Depart men t of Defense must h ave a common packing policy. This isprovided by the Department of Defense (DOD) 4140.1-R, Materiel
Management Regulation.
M ILITARY R EGULATIONS
The Joint Regulation AR 700-15/NAVSUPINST 4030.28C/AFJMAN 24-204/
MCO 4030.33D/DLAD4145.7, applies to all Department of Defense compo-
nents (Army, Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps, and the Defense Logistics
Agency) respons ible for packa ging an item t hr oughout it s life cycle.
This regulation on th e packaging of ma teriel implements DOD 4140. 1-R an d
covers packaging requirements, American Society for Testing and Materials
Standards (ASTM) specifications, levels of protection along with policies and
procedures for Performan ce Oriented Pa ckaging (POP) an d th e protection of
electrostatic discharge sensitive items.
M ILITARY P ACKAGING LEVELS OF P ROTECTION
Concep t o f Mi li t a r y Leve l s o f P r o t ec t i on
In regard to requirements for packing, the military services for many years
relied heavily on the term s "domestic" an d "overseas". Exper ience proved
that for military purposes, these words were vague generalities with no
clear-cut mean ing to them. Suppliers were often per plexed when confronted
with overseas r equirement s for items destined for domestic installations. It
was not apparent to them that the domestic destinations were merely initialreceiving points for projected overseas shipments, or that storage and
handling conditions were severe enough to justify an overseas type of
packing regardless of destinat ion. To permit th e military services to state
their requirements more objectively, the concept of levels of protection was
adopt ed. As defined in MIL-STD-2073-1C, levels of protection are a means
of specifying the level of military p reservat ion an d pa cking th at a given item
requires to assure that it is not degraded during shipment and storage (see
figur e 2). Specific levels of pr otection a re a s follows:
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Figure 2. Examples of protection.
M i l i t a r y l eve l o f p r e s e r va t i on . Preservation designed to protect
an item during shipment, handling, indeterminate storage, and
distribution to consignees worldwide.
Mili t a r y leve l s of pa ckin g .
o Leve l A. Protection required to meet the most severe worldwide
shipment , handling, and storage conditions. Level A pack mu st,
in ta ndem with t he a pplied preservation, be capable of protecting
material from the effects of direct exposure to extremes of
climate, terrain, operational and transportation environments.
Examples of situations which indicate a need for use of a Level A
pack are: War Reserve Material, mobilization, strategic and
theater deployment and employment, open storage, and deck
loadin g. Exa mples of cont ain ers used for Level A packin g
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requirements include, but are not limited to, overseas type wood
boxes and plast ic and meta l reusable containers.
o Leve l B. Protection required to meet moderate worldwide
shipment , ha ndling, an d storage conditions. Level B pack must,
in ta ndem with t he a pplied preser vation, be capable of protecting
mat erial not directly exposed to extremes of climate, t erra in, an d
opera tiona l tra nsporta tion environm ents. Exam ples of situat ionswhich indicate a need for use of a Level B pack are: security
assistance (e.g., Foreign Military Sales (FMS)) and containerized
overseas shipmen ts. Exam ples of conta iners used for Level B
packing requirements include, but are not limited to, domestic
wood crates, weather-resistant fiberboard containers, fast pack
containers, weather-resistant fiber drums, and weather-resistant
paper a nd m ulti-wall shipping sacks.
C o m m e r c i a l P a c k a g i n g . Commer cial packaging is defined as t he m ater ials
and methods used by the supplier to meet the requirements of the
distribution systems serving both DOD and commer cial consumers. The
requirements of MIL-STD-2073-1C shall only be applied to the packaging of
items that are expected to enter the military distribution system.Commercial packaging is to be used to the maximum extent possible for all
other items. Items n ot going into stock shall be packaged inaccordance with
ASTM D 3951, Stan dar d P ractice for Commer cial Pa ckaging.
Commercial packaging will be acceptable for any level of protection when the
technical design of the package meets all conditions of the level of protection
specified. It will be ma rk ed to th e level it meet s. Use of comm ercial
packaging is contingent u pon no increase in packaging changes, size, weight,
or delay in delivery.
Bulk practices used in interplant a nd intr aplant movements or shipments t o
jobbers are not acceptable unless they are the usual trade practices for
individual commodities such as coal, textiles. petroleum, and subsistence.
The packaging details will be incorporated into standardization and
acquisition documen ts when applicable.
NATO S TANAG 4280, LEVELS OF R EQUIREMENTS FOR P ACKAGING
Participating nations agree to adopt the NATO levels of requirements -
defined in this STANAG as the basis for negotiation for the procurement of
packaged mater iel between nat ions. In defining levels of requiremen ts it is
necessary to take into account: The characteristics of the environment and
constraints imposed by the environment; the technical considerations to
define package tests; the four levels of packaging used in NATO; and, it also
shows comparison of these NATO levels against the nearest nationalpackaging requirement.
Type o f Load . The term "type of load" refers to the physical characteristics
of the item, including the nature of the item as it contributes to the support
of, or dam age to the conta iner. The sam e kind of conta iner can be designed
to provide adequate protection to various items by adjusting the
constru ctional requiremen ts. This may result in a light, medium, or
heavydut y container, as necessary. The design of th e shipping container t o
be used is influen ced by the typ e of load. Ther e ar e thr ee types of loads : Type
1, Type 2 an d Type 3. The t ypes of loads will be ment ioned un der the various
shipping containers and in section I (figure 3).
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Figur e 3. Types of loads
Type 1 - easy load . The load is a single item or single interior container
which provides complete and uniform support to all faces of the shippingcontainer. Bulk practices used in interplan t and intra plant movements or
shipments to jobbers are not acceptable unless they are the usual trade
practices for individual commodities such as coal, textiles, petroleum, and
subsistence.
Type 2 - ave r age l oad . The load is composed of more than one item or
interior container which give some support to all faces of the shipping
container . The contents ar e of moderate density and relatively stur dy. Some
examples are goods in metal cans which are not packed in an interior
container, bottles individua lly cushioned, an d ha rdwa re in cart ons.
Type 3 -Diff icu l t load . The load gives little or n o support t o the sh ipping
conta iner. The cont ents can be extremely heavy, very fragile, very irregularin sh ape, bulk m ater ials which a re free to shift. and flow, or a combinat ion of
several of these factors. Some exam ples are rivets, bolts, and n uts, delicate
instruments and machined part s and assemblies.
E CONO MY IN P ACKING
The military concept of economy in packing is to obtain maximum output of
adequa tely protected items at a minimum cost. Economy measu res,
consistent, with the degree of protection required by an item or package
should be of prime concern to individuals engaged in the establishment of
packing requirements, an d to personnel in cha rge of, or performing packing
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operat ions. Significant savings can be accomplished by reducing the ta re
weight, cubage, and packing cost of a commodity through proper
reengineering of the unit and exterior containers, use of newly developed
mat erials, an d employment of altern ate met hods and techniques.
R E F E R E N C E S
Throughout this manual, packing materials, equipment, processes, methods,etc., are referred to by their common names together with the appropriate
specificat ion, sta nda rd, or other p ublication symbols. Copies of specificat ions
and other documents required by activities of the Defense Logistics Agency,
the Depar tmen t of th e Army, Navy, and Air Force, and t he Mar ine Corps a re
obtained from supply sources thr ough established chann els. Copies of
specifications, standards, and drawings required by contractors connection
with specific procurement functions should be obtained from the procuring
activity or as directed by th e cont ra cting officer. Milita ry and Feder al
Specifications and Standards are available from: Standardization Document
Order Desk, 700 Robbins Avenue, Building #4, Section D, Philadelphia PA
19111-5094. Informa tion pamphlet titled "A Guide for th e Private In dustr y"
provides more detailed informa tion a nd is ava ilable upon requ est.
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CHAPTER 1
PACKING
GENERAL
P ACKING OF GENERAL SU P P L I E S
Some commodity items require preservation by procedures and materials
described in FM 38-700/MCO P4030.31D/NAVSUP PUB 502/AFJPAM 24-
237/DLAI 4145.14, Packaging of Materiel Preservation, which provide unit
containers suita ble for shipment without fur th er packing. Other items may
require fur ther packing in containers suitable for shipment . This cha pter
relates to the packing of commodity items directly in shipping containers
with whatever protection is required to prevent damage in shipment,
han dling and storage. The container alone can not always provide full
protection for military items. Items must be properly anchored, braced,
blocked, or cushioned in th e cont ainer t o provide adequ at e protection. A
container is often blamed for damage to its contents when the cushioning,
blocking, or bra cing ar e at fault (fig. 1-1). Ever y packing operat ion, including
the final closure, strapping, and marking of the container, must be carefully
planned and executed to ensure that the contents will arrive at its
destinat ion in a u sable condition.
P ACKAGING OF H AZARDOUS ARTICLES
Commodities classified as hazardous materials come within the scope of
TITLE 49 Code of Federal Regulations which incorporates Department of
Transportation Regulation for the Transportation of Explosives and other
Hazar dous Articles by all modes. Inter na tiona l Shipments mu st be packaged
in accordance with the International Air Transport Associations DangerousGoods Regulation (IATA) and the International Maritime Organization
Dan gerous Goods Code (IMDG) codes. In addition, ha zar dous mate rials
which a re to be shipped via milita ry aircraft mu st be packaged in a ccorda nce
with the joint service manual AFJMAN 24-204/TM 38-250/NAVSUP PUB
505/MCO P4030.19/DLAM 4145.3, Preparing Hazardous Materials for
Military Air Shipmen ts.
SEQUENCE OF PACKI NG OPE RATION
The general sequence of military packing is divided into a series of basic
operations which may include some or all of the following steps, not
necessarily in the order given below:
D e t er m i n e t h e P a c k in g R e q u i r e m e n t sKnowing the item characteristics helps to determine the protection required
and the best way to provide it through the use of an adequate container,
suitable blocks, braces, and cushions, and a ppropriate bar rier m ater ials. This
study will include consideration of the characteristics of the item, its size,
shape, fragility, etc.; the types of loads (easy, average or difficult); the mode
of transportation (rail, ship, truck, or aircraft); the storage facilities (covered
or un covered); the dest ination (domestic or overseas in t he ar ctic, temperat e,
or tr opic zones); an d th e levels of protection r equir ed.
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Se l ect t h e Con t a i ner
Select and use an exterior container that will comply with the requirements
outlined in applicable cha pter s of th is ma nu al. This selection should consider
all factors pertinent to giving adequate protection at the minimum cost such
as the characteristics and limitations of the container; its initial cost and
upkeep expenses; its weight and cube; its availability or obtainability in
appr opriate quant ities; an d its reusability.
Prepa re protec t i ve barr iers
Prepare an appropriate barrier to give weatherproofing protection not
obtaina ble from th e conta iner a lone.
I n s e r t an d S ecur e t h e I t em t o t he Con t a i ner
Insert the item a nd secure it to the conta iner to contr ol or prevent m ovement
by mea ns of adequ at e cushioning, blocking, an d bra cing. The distinction
between cushioning and blocking is that cushioning permits controlled
movement of the item within the container, while blocking and bracing
usu ally is designed to prevent m ovement of the item within th e container .
Figure 1-1. Dama ged items as a r esult of improper/inadequa te packing.
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S eal the Ba rr ier i f Used
Seal the bar rier mat erial by mean s of adh esives, heat seals, pressur e seals, or
sealing tape to provide weatherproofness of the seams, joints, and closures
equal to tha t of the ba rr ier mat erial itself.
C lo s e t h e C o n t a i n e r
Close the container following the detailed requirements outlined in the
section of this m an ual which describes th e cont ainer selected.
R e i n f o r c e t h e C o n t a i n e r . Reinforce the container with metal or plastic
strapping or reinforced tape as appropriate and as required for the container
selected.
M a r k t h e S h i p p i n g C o n t a i n e r . Mark the container as appropriate to
identify the cont ents a nd to ensur e movement to its destinat ion.
DETERMINATION OF P ACKING REQUIREMENTSThe different types of items procured by the Depart ment of Defense r equire awide var iety of packing operat ions. Items var y from str ong, ru gged ones tha t
fit the container well and require no cushioning, blocking or bracing, to
others that are irregular in shape, delicate, or fragile, and require special
cushioning, blocking or bra cing.
B ASIC F ACTORS
To determ ine packing requirem ents, several ba sic factors mu st be considered,
namely, the item characteristics, the load characteristics, the mode of
transportation, the storage and handling facilities, the destination and field
conditions.
B ASIC R E F E R E N C EThe basic reference for blocking, bracing, and cushioning is MIL-STD-1186,
Cushioning, Anchoring, Bracing, Blocking, and Waterproofing, with
Appropriat e Test Methods. This stan dar d, appr oved by th e Depart ment of
Defense and mandatory for use by the Armed Forces, provides general
requirements and procedures concerning the arrangement of the contents
within th e shipping cont ainer for t he pr evention of physical damage.
SC O P E O F MIL-STD-1186
The standard covers common packing requirements which may be omitted
from detail specifications for items or categories of items when this standard
is referen ced in the deta il specificat ion. It does not cont ain requ iremen ts for
shipping containers, themselves or for unit packing, both of which also
provide physical protection.
ITEM CHARACTER ISTICSThe first step in any packaging operation is a careful study of the item to be
packed. It is necessary to consider the shape, size, weight, strength, and
degree of fragility of th e item in all directions. The ava ilability of moun tin g
provisions, the degree of disassembly permissible for shipment, corrosion
prevention requirements and special use requirements which affect the
packing opera tions mu st a lso be considered.
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SH A P E
The shape of the item to be packed is an important factor to consider in
designing blocking and bracing. A regular-shap ed item with rectan gular
surfaces requires a minimum of blocking, while an irregular-shaped item
with uneven surfaces, including projections, often require an elaborate
blocking system. Cur ved surfaces requir e car efully fitt ed blocking to preven t
damage caused by concentrated stresses at contact points, and to distributeinternal forces over a greater area of the faces of the container (fig 1-2).
Long, slender items, particularly if heavy, exert a tremendous concentrated
force on th e ends of th e container du ring ha ndling. This force may be
counteracted by securely blocking the item to the sides, top, or bottom of the
container, and by increasing the thickness of the ends of the container (fig
1-3). Relatively heavy, irregular -sha ped small items pr esent a pa rticularly
difficult pr oblem when t hey mu st be cush ioned a s well as blocked. Gener ally,
in solving this problem, it is desirable to even out the surfaces by means of
pads an d blocking to increase the bearing area. This in tu rn decreases the
load p er u nit a rea of bear ing on th e cushion (fig 1-4).
S IZE AND WE I G H T
A large item may require more extensive blocking and larger amounts of
cush ioning th an a smaller one. The blocking ma y be necessary to bridge the
relatively wide spans of the container faces, or it may be required to
distribute the cushioning over larger area s of the item. Since the impact
force developed by the abrupt stopping of a moving object is directly
proportional to its weight, the weight of an item is very important in
considering the blocking an d cushioning. In stu dying the item, consider th e
distribution of the weight with respect to the size and bearing ar eas. Where
the weight is concentrated, it may be necessary to distribute it over a larger
area . This may be done by tran sferring some of it from one conta iner face to
the edges or corners of the container by the use of end blocks.
Figure 1-2. Inter ior blocking for an irregular sh aped item.
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Fi gu r e 1-3 . Us e o f co r r uga t ed fi be r boa r d pa ds and l i ne r .
F i g u r e 1 -4 . I n t e r i o r b l o ck i n g t o p r o t e c t c on t a i n e r a g a i n s t e n d t h r u s t .
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STRENGTH AND F RAGILITY
Some items are rugged enough to withstand greater stacking loads and
ha ndling forces tha n th eir container s. Various components of vehicles and
tanks, in particular, require little protection against shipping hazards, but
are placed in conta iners for ease of ha ndling, stowage, and storage. On th e
other h and, there a re nu merous items th at require the maximum protection
afforded by packing mat erials. Equipmen t is considered ru gged or highlyresistant to shock when bracing and blocking within the container is all that
is needed for protection. Items th at r equire cush ioning for pr otection ar e
considered to be fragile. The degree of fragility of an item determines the
amount and type of cushioning required to protect it from damage during
han dling and shipment . Some items are inh erent ly strong and ru gged except
for one or more fra gile compon ent s. When t he fragile componen ts cann ot be
removed for separat e packing the entire item m ust be treat ed as fragile, even
though t his may resu lt in an u na voidably large, cumber some pack.
AVAILABILI TY OF MOUNTING P ROVISIONS
An importa nt factor to consider in packing is the availability of brackets a nd
holddowns on the item that can be used to mount it within the container.
Frequently, it is possible to mount an item within the container by using the
same bra ckets and h olddowns tha t ar e used for positioning an d securing it in
place when it is permanently installed. Mounting facilities should be
examined to determine if they are adequate, especially if the container is
likely to be tipped on end (fig 1-5). Compr essors, en gines, engin e componen ts,
generators, starters, an d carburetors are often secured in this ma nner.
Figure 1-5. Moun ting facilities of item m ust be adequat e.
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D ISASSEMBLING OF AN ITEM
Items should be thoroughly investigated to determine if disassembly of
simple parts can reduce the size of the conta iner r equired an d/or simplify the
packaging. Proper au th orization must be obtained before disassembling any
portion of an item that would require technical skills or special tools to
rea ssemble, rea lign, or recalibra te. The disassem bly of simple-to-rem ove
component s with stan dard tools (i.e.., han dles, wheels) does n ot require priorauthorization.
D i sa s s e m b l e d P a r t s
When practicable, items should be disassembled to afford protection of
components, attachments, and accessories against damage and pilferage and
to reduce cubage. Disassembled par ts should be wrapp ed, packaged,
anchored, braced, blocked, or cushioned within t he sh ipping container so tha t
parts or protective devices within the shipping container cannot be damaged
by mutu al cont act. Disassembled par ts sh ould be clearly and legibly mar ked
as to identity an d proper location on the assembled item. All fasten ers
removed dur ing disassembly should be secur ed in one of th e mating par ts. A
part should not be removed from an assembly unless it can be reassembled
rea dily in t he field with out special tools.
CAUTION
Proper authorization must be obtained before disassembling any
portion of an item that would require technical skills or special
tools to reassemble, realign or recalibrate. Disassembly of simple-
to-remove components such as handles, wheels, etc., requiring
stan dar d tools, does not n eed aut horization.
SPECIAL P ACKING R EQUIREMENTS
Reusable and other special purpose containers usually require special
consideration of the packing of the conten ts in th e container . For instan ce, inreusable containers, the blocking and cushioning must be arranged so that it
may be easily removed, and when replaced, it will adequately protect the
contents. However, reusable and special purpose containers should be
considered for use, especially if their use results in reduced weight, cube, or
cost. For examp le, th e reusa ble cont ain er for a missile nose cone, shown in
figure 1-6 while expensive to procure, may more than pay for itself through
its reusa bility and its designed protection featu res.
LOAD CHARACTER ISTICSThe proper selection of the shipping container for a given load is of the
utm ost importa nce. The kind of conta iner mu st be determined by the weight,
size, sha pe, and fra gility of th e load. To aid in th is selection, th e various
loads have been classified as Type 1-Easy Load, Type 2-Average Load, andType 3-Difficult Load. (See fig. 3 of the I nt roduction.)
MODES OF TRANSP ORTATIONThe mode of tra nsporta tion is an importan t factor in deter mining th e packing
requiremen ts. The hazar ds of ha ndling an d shipping vary greatly between
motor, ra il, ship, or aircra ft. As an exam ple, th ere could be consider able
difference in the amount of handling that an item being transshipped from
truck to rail to ship would receive, and the amount of handling an item
delivered by air freight would receive. Likewise, an item
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Figure 1-6. Protection featu res of a r eusable missile container.
to be delivered by airdr op would require m uch more pr otection t ha n one to be
delivered by tr uck.
STORAGE CONSIDERATIONSTo assure serviceability of the contents after prolonged exposure to
deteriorating elements, not only the supplies, but the packing materials
which enclose them m ust be protected. There ma y be a considera ble periodfrom the time the material leaves the man ufacturer u ntil it is used. It may
be stored outd oors in domestic depots, then shipped to staging ar eas or ports
of embark ation to await tr an sportation overseas. Fina lly arr iving, it may
again be st ored in depots or su pply areas wh ich could be improvised shacks,
nat ive hut s, tents, caves, or even in th e open. At oversea supply points, the
packs are often broken open and smaller intermediate packs distributed to
forward ar eas. On the other ha nd, items may be shipped directly from the
supplier to th e user with a minimu m of delay. In th is insta nce, th e protection
provided by the pack could be considerably reduced from the amount
required for t he oversea pack.
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DESTINATION AND FIE LD CONDITIONSThe ultimate destination of items is generally unknown when they leave a
packing facility. Some item s may be used domest ically while the rest will
eventua lly go overseas. They may be shipped to the a rctic regions, the
island s of th e seas, or th e tropical jungles. They ma y be subjected to the cold,
heat, humidity, aridity, or the extreme temperature changes of the various
regions, all of which must be considered in planning the pack to assure
adequate protection through the time of delivery and after arrival at
destinat ion when they m ay be su bjected t o unfavorable field conditions.
FUNCTIONS AND SELECTION OF SH IP P ING CONTAINERS
F UNCTIONS
A shipping container is an y exterior box, cra te, dru m, etc., which is required
to enclose one or more items d ur ing tr an sit or storage. The ba sic functions of
a shipping container are to protect the contents and to provide for ease of
han dling. Shipping containers a ssist in th e han dling of a nu mber of items by
consolidation, and of a single item which is difficult to handle. The degree of
protection derived from the shipping container depends upon its type, thematerials used in its fabrication, its construction features, its final
destination, the nature of the contents, and the anticipated hazards.
Chapters 2 through 7 of this manual contain information on approved
containers for military shipments and should be consulted when making
selection of th e app ropriate containers.
SELECTION
The shipping container is usually established by specifications, directives,
technical orders, or oth er aut horized publications. Where a group of
containers is authorized, or when the proper container is not specified, the
packing supervisor is responsible for the selection of the appropriate
container. They must ba se their selection u pon the ph ysical cha ra cteristics of
the item; its destination; whether domestic or overseas; the level of protectionrequired; the type of load; the initial cost of the container; the weight and
cube of the container; the simplicity, economy and ease of assembly and
closure; the availability; and need for reusability of the container (fig 1-7).
Nailed wood boxes or similar heavy wooden containers will not be used
unless fully justified by past experience or environmental, geographical, or
security considerations.
ARRANGEMENT OF CONTENTSThe contents of a pack should be arranged within the shipping container so
as to provide maximum pr otection to its contents an d the cont ainer. Where
applicable, the arrangement should permit a container fabricated of
materials that will result in low tare weight, smallest practical cube,
convenient ha ndling, an d suitability for palletization. Conten ts should
completely fill the container or be secured therein with suitable clearance.
Packs of like items should contain like quantities and should be uniform in
size, shape, an d weight.
MOVABLE P ARTS AND P R O J E C T I N G P ARTS
Articles with moving external parts or projecting parts that might become
damaged by shock or vibration encountered in shipment should have these
part s ma de secure against movement by mea ns of blocking, bracing, tiedown,
or other adequate provisions, or should be disassembled, if practicable.
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Figur e 1-7. Conta iner selection factors.
SEGREGATION OF P ACKED C ONTENTS
So far as p racticable, contents of shipping conta iners sh ould be segregated in
th e following order: (a) th e ord er on th e packing list; (b) items of th e sam e
contract; (c) items of the same National Stock Numbers; and (d) items of the
same Feder al Supply Class.
C ONVERSION OF TYP E 3 LOADS
Where practicable, type 3 loads should be converted to type 1 or type 2 loads.
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BLOCKING AND BR ACING
B LOCKING AND BRACING DE F I N E D
Blocking and bracing is the process of providing physical and mechanical
protection t o an item by mean s of mat erials, oth er th an cushioning ma terials,
intended to prevent any free movement of the item within the container, and
distribute or transfer concentrated loads of the item to larger areas of other
faces of the cont ain er.
F UNCTIONS OF BLOCKING AND B RACING
Items which do not completely fill the shipping container should be blocked,
bra ced, an chored, or other wise immobilized with in the conta iner . Blocking
and bracing should be used to secure items or components so that they will
not shift within a container; to make irregular shaped items fit a regular
container; to distribute th e weight of irr egular items over all edges and faces
of the container; to protect projections from injury; to prevent projections
from damaging the barrier or container; to provide space for spare parts or
make room for desiccant; and to reinforce weak portions or mountings.
Blocking and bracing modifies the original shape of an item so that it isprotected adequa tely an d so th at it fits the cont ainer. The mat erials used for
this purpose differ from cushioning in that they are not intended to absorb
shocks. Item s having legs or oth er projectin g portions which may become
loose or broken, or which m ight pun cture th e conta iner, must be supported by
adequa te blocking and bra cing. The blocks an d braces should be applied
against portions of the container that are strong enough to resist forces
tending to distort them. Likewise, th e bracing should be arr an ged to
distribute forces to several reinforced sections of the surface of the item (fig
1-8). Items with movable par ts, items mounted sprin gs or other flexible
supports sh ould be braced secur ely to prevent m ovement , except wh ere su ch
mounting is part of the package cushioning or is designed to protect against
shock an d vibrat ion dur ing shipment.
Figure 1-8. Blocking an d bracing to prevent movement.
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ABRASION P ROTECTION
Protection should be provided when the surface of the item in contact with
the blocking an bracing can be damaged by relative motion between the
contacting surfaces or could become corroded as a result of such continuous
cont act. Pr otection aga inst a bra sion should be provided for highly finish ed or
easily marred surfaces by wrapping or covering with cushioning material.
Surfaces that might be damaged by contact with cushioning material shouldbe sepa ra ted by a covering of noncorr osive pa per conforming t o MIL-P-130 or
greaseproof barrier material conforming to MIL-B-121, grade A.
AP P LICATION OF BLOCKING AND BRACING MATER IALSThe materials selected for all blocking and bracing, the design and
application of the blocking and bracing should be compatible with the load to
be supported and the size, shape, and strength of bearing areas of the item.
The heavier the load needing support, the stiffer and stronger the materials
for blocks an d braces must be. Hen ce, th e choice of ma ter ials depend s upon
the size and sh ape of th e area s against which t he blocking an d bracing will be
placed, as well as the size and weight of the item being secur ed. Since a
shipping container may be dropped on any of its faces or corners, blocks andbraces must be designed to withstand the thrust and impact applied on any
direction. The choice of ma ter ials used for blocking a nd br acing vary widely.
The chief materials used are corrugated fiberboard in cells, trays, pleated
pads, and flat pads, for relatively lightweight items or for supplementary
prim ar y blocking of hea vy item s. Wood, plywood, rigid plast ic foam s, an d
meta l are used as t he prima ry blocking ma terials for lar ge and hea vy items.
F i b e r b o a r d
Open -end cells an d tra ys of corr uga ted fiberboar d. When used a s blocking,
corrugated fiberboard must be designed to fit the bearing area of the item to
support an d evenly distribute the load. Common forms of corr ugat ed
fiberboard blocking are die-cuts, open end cells, trays, pleated pads, and flat
pad s (fig 1-9). Fr equen tly, var ious combina tions of th ese forms ar e employed.They can be used to provide spaces for, and restrain the movement of,
disassembled parts, as well as provide openings for bags of desiccant.
Genera lly, cells an d tr ays should be held in shape with tape or sta ples.
Figure 1-9. Cells an d tra ys made of corru gated fiberboard.
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Figur e 1-10. Incorrect an d correct direction of corr uga tion.
Those surfaces of the cell or tray which are perpendicular to the contacting
surface of the item are called bracing supports and are the load bearing
members. No bracing support allowances should be ma de for the other
surfaces. To utilize all of the str ength of th ese bracing sup ports, they should
bear directly on th e item. The weight of the item mu st be exerted in th e
same direction a s the corr ugat ions. If not, the item is ina dequat ely supported
and d ama ge may result (fig 1-10). Open-end cells and t rays should be used
for blocking and bracing deep recesses; bridging long projections; providing
spaces for disassembling parts, accessories, and dessicants; and providing
clearan ce between item and conta iner. Bracing supports sh ould bear directly
on the a rt icle. Allowable loads for bra cing su pport s of open-end cells loadedin th e flut e direction sh ould be in accorda nce with ta ble 1-1. If flut e direction
is at right a ngles to the direction of th e load, t he a llowable loads should be 50
percent of th e valu es of ta ble 1-1. Tra ys should be scored a nd folded par allel
to the flute direction an d should n ot exceed 4 inches in h eight .
C ORRUGATED F IBERBOARD F ORMS
Corrugated fiberboard used for blocking and bracing should conform to
ASTM D 4727. Blocking and br acing forms sh ould be loaded in th e direction
parallel to the flutes wherever possible. The cutting, slotting, scoring, and
folding of fiberboard blanks to make blocking and bracing supports or forms
shall be such as to assur e proper fitting a nd distr ibution.
F OLDED P AD S
Folded pads of corrugated fiberboard may be used for blocking greater loads
tha n are feasible to support with cells and tra ys. The pads should be
designed to fit against a flat surface (flat pads) or along an edge (corner
pads). Conn ecting webs between flat pads should always contact the
container a nd not the item. All scores and folds should be made at right
angles to th e flute direction. Flat pa ds should be a minimu m of 2 inches
wide. Portions of folded pads in direct conta ct with t he item ar e bearing
area s. The maximum loads for these bearing areas should be in accordance
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Table 1-1. Allowable loads for corru gat ed fiberboard . Colum ns loaded in the
flute direction.
Material
Allowable loads p er linea l inch
of bra cing su pport or column
Height u p to
4 inches
Height over
4 inches
Pounds Pounds
Double-faced fiberboard :
200-pound burst ing strength
275-pound burst ing strength
350-pound burst ing strength
2
2.5
3
1
1.5
2
Double-wall fiberboard :
275-pound burst ing strength
350-pound burst ing strength
500-pound burst ing strength
2.5
3
4
1.5
2
2.5
Triple-wall fiberboard :
1,100-pound burst ing st rength 5 4
Note. When a greater load is imposed than that permitted by the table, use wood
blocking and bracing
with ta ble 1-2. Accordion folded pads ha ve grea ter r esista nce to brea kdown
than open end cells because the load is spread over a large area rather than
on bra cing support s. Accordion folded pads with tight folds distr ibute th e
load more evenly to th e conta iner . The conn ecting web between t he folded
pleats should be placed in contact with the container rather than the item.
Creases for accordion folded pads should be made across the corrugations,
and t he pleat should be at least 2 inches in width. If necessary, a pleat 1 1/2
inches wide may be made, but extreme care must be exercised when folding
the pad to prevent cru shing the corru gations. Tape should be used to keep
accordion folded pad s in shap e. The load bea rin g capa city of a pa d is based
on the initial compressibility of th e corrugat ed mater ial. Increasing the
number of pleats does not increase the safe load limit; numerous pleats
increase the cushioning value only. Wide or long items a re better supported
by several accordion folded pads, placed side by side, than by one pad having
extremely wide folded pleats.
F LAT P AD S
Flat pads of corrugated fiberboard may be used to block very shallowprojections, su ch as hin ges or slight offsets on su rfaces; to level off projectin g
screw heads; to fill in the space between ends of inner flaps of slotted
fiberboard boxes to provide additional protection to contents at top and
bottom of boxes; an d to sepa ra te items with in a conta iner . Allowable load s
should be in a ccorda nce with table 1-2. Maximum a llowable loads per squar e
inch of bearing area on a flat pad are the same as those for a pleated pad.
Flat pa ds can be slotted t o form par titions, or th ey may be die cut or pun ched
to fit items or irregular sh ape. Figure 1-11 shows the assem bling of slotted
fiberboard par titions.
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Table 1-2. Allowable loads for folded corn er a nd flat p ads of corru gat ed fiberboar d
Flu te design Maximum a llowable load for bear ing
areas
Pounds per squa re inch
A-flut e (36"3 corru gat ions per foot)
B-flut e (50"3 corr uga tions per foot)
C-flut e (42"3 corr uga tions per foot)
2.0
3.0
2.5
Note. The flat crush resistance of the corrugations shall determine the load that may be carried
in flat loading of corr ugat ed fiberboar d. This shall not be constru ed to meet the bur sting
strength of the mat erial.
Figur e 1-11. Assembling of slotted fiberboard pa rt itions.
C O R N E R P AD S
The use of corner pa ds m ade of multiple layers of corru gated fiberboar d sh all
comply with t he load requirem ents of table 1-2. The pads sh all provide
required clearances and support for rectangular shaped items or for an inner
box in wh ich items ar e packed.
TUBES
Fiberboard tubes should be used as blocking when items mounted on an
auxiliary base ar e packed on fiberboard boxes. The bottom of the tu be shall
contact th e top of the au xiliary base an d th e top of the tu be sha ll contact th e
top inside surface of th e conta iner. The flutes sh all be oriented in th e top-to-
bottom direction of the t ube. The weight of th e item plus au xiliary base, in
pounds, divided by the perimeter of the tube, in inches, sha ll not exceed th e
appr opriate values given in table 1-2 for column heights over 4 inches.
C ORRUGATED F IBERBOARD L I N E R S
A liner is a continuous pad, bent to fully contact two or more inner faces of a
container . Liners ar e used to reinforce a conta iner a gainst crush ing by forces
imposed during stacking, or to take the place of two or more flat pads. A liner
may also be used as a holddown for base mounted items weighing not more
tha n 20 pounds. The creases in a liner should be made par allel to th e
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direction of the corru gations of th e fiberboard, in order t ha t t he r esistance to
forces ordinarily encounter ed in sta cking be th e greatest .
C O R N E R P OSTS
Fiberboard corner posts should be used to reinforce the shipping container
an d provide blocking for plat form -mount ed equipmen t. The flutes shou ld be
oriented in th e top-to-bott om direction. The bottom end of th e corner postshall bear u niformly on the plat form, a nd t he t op end of the corner post sha ll
bear on the inner flap of the conta iner or top member of a crate. Corn er
posts, when installed, must so interlock with the contents and other inner
padding pieces in order not to become displaced du ring tr an sportation.
WOOD OR P LYWOOD
Wood or plywood may be used alone or in combination for blocking and
bra cing. Wood or plywood blocking an d bra cing mem bers should bear
against only those parts of th e packed item capable of withsta nding the
applied dyna mic forces or should bear a gainst blocking pads or pressur e
str ips tha t adequ at ely distr ibute th ese forces. Wood or plywood blocking an d
bracing should be designed to permit easy removal without damage to the
item. Both wood and plywood are u sed for blocking an d bracing becau se of
their h igh stren gth-weight r atio, genera l availability, and ea se of cut ting an d
fasten ing. Lumber ha s certa in weaknesses, such as low splitting resistan ce
parallel with the grain, and a tendency to shrink or swell with change in
moistur e content.
Plywood has h igh resistan ce to splitting an d h igh dimensional st ability with
cha nges in moistu re content . Because they are more resistan t to splitting
than solid wood, plywood panels are more often used in thinner dimensions
than lumber, and are readily nailed or fastened with screws near the edges.
Plywood is more apt to have a lower moisture content tha n lum ber because of
the manner in which it is manufactured and stored. Plywood, being
constructed of alternate plies at right angles to each other possesses moreuniformly distributed strength properties than lumber. When considering
lumber a nd plywood of compara ble sizes and quality, it is generally tru e th at
the strength properties of lumber parallel to the grain are greater than the
respective strength properties of plywood parallel to the grain of the face ply.
It is also true that the strength properties of lumber perpendicular to the
grain are generally less than the respective strength properties of plywood
perpendicular t o the gra in of th e face ply.
WOOD
Wood members of each size an d type u sed in t he blocking an d bra cing sh ould
be tested for moisture conten t. Stru ctura l members (those subject to critical
bendin g stresses) sha ll conform to class 1. All other blocking an d bracing
mem bers sh all conform to class 3. When ever possible, wood blocks or br acesshall be placed so that the load is applied against the end grain of the
member. En ds of braces shall be socketed or fitted an d secur ed into
appr opriate notches in load-bearing members.
P LYWOOD
Plywood u sed for blocking an d br acing sh ould conform t o A-A-55057.
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WOOD B LOCKING AND BRACING
The species of woods differ greatly in strength and related properties and,
accordingly, have been separated into four groups. Certain species, such as
those of Group IV, excel in toughn ess and shock r esistance, but care m ust be
exercised in n ailing th em to avoid splitting. Other species, such as south ern
yellow pine and Douglas fir of Group II, are high in bending strength and
stiffness ; an d na iling is a lesser problem. The char acter istics of th e groups ofwood may be used to advantage in various forms of blocking and bracing (fig.
1-12). Thin pieces of lumber split more easily than thick pieces; hence, thin
pieces for blocking should be avoided if possible. If the dim ensiona l limits of
the item require t ha t t he blocking be th in, it is preferable to use plywood.
MOISTURE C ONTENT
The moisture content of lumber employed as blocking and bracing material
should not exceed 19 percent nor be less than 12 percent of its oven dry
weight at t he time of fabrication. Shr inka ge is objectiona ble because it allows
movement of the item and the item may actually break loose. Moisture in
lumber is objectionable because it is apt to evaporate into the pack, thus
raising th e hu midity of the pa ck and causing corr osion of meta ls or d ecay of
organ ic mat erials.
CAUTION
Lumber, plywood, or other hygroscopic materials should never be placed in direct
contact with critical metal surfaces since such materials tend to absorb and
reta in moisture n ext to the sur faces, finally cau sing corrosion. Pr ovide always a
water-vaporproof barrier between any critical metal surfaces and hygroscopic
packing materials, and a waterproof or moisture-resistant barrier between all
meta l sur faces an d h ygroscopic mat erials.
DE F E C T S I N BLOCKS AND B RACES
Wooden members used for blocking a nd bracing ar e often subjected to greatstress a nd careful consideration must be given to any weaken ing defects. If
the member functions as a beam or column, defects such as divergence of
gra in, kn ots, splits and decay should be avoided. This is especially import an t
if the defect is located near the center of the piece, because of the great
reduction in shock resistan ce. If a piece with a kn ot is used, the load is
placed so that the k not is in compr ession a s shown in y, Figure 1-12. Lumber
having kn ots of a diamet er exceeding one-fourth th e width of the piece should
not be used (fig 1-12). The slope of gra in in each piece should n ot exceed 1
inch in 10 inches of length , or splitt ing is likely to occur . Decayed wood is
avoided un der a ll circumstan ces because ther e is not way of determining h ow
much th e decay may ha ve weaken ed the wood. For additional inform ation on
wood knots, see chapter 3 an d figure 3-3.
Si ze o f Wood Br aces o f Ho l ddown s
Braces or holddowns must be of sufficient size to withstand the shocks
encoun tered. The size of a brace varies with t he weight of the item, th e
length of th e brace, an d th e type of loadin g. Table 1-3 used with figure 1-13
gives the recommended allowable load in pounds for the various sizes of
braces an d the various types of loading. For example, assume tha t the
weight of the item is 60 poun ds, the length of the brace is 24 inches, and th e
type of loading is the third type illustrated in figure 1-13 (loading in the
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Figur e 1-12. Applicat ion of wooden blocks an d bra ces.
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Table 1-3
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Figur e 1-13. Types of loadin g (use with ta ble 1-3).
center 4/5 to 1/3 of the u nsu pported length of th e brace). For th is type of
loading, multiply the weight of the item by the factor 3/4, as shown in figure
1-13. Three-fourth s times 60 equa ls 45. In the column h eaded "Length of
brace in inches", of table 1-3, find 24 inches and read to the right until a
value near 45 is found. The heading for th is colum n shows that t he proper
size of member and direction of loading is a 1 x 2-inch member used on edge,
or a 1 x 4 inch member used flatwise.
P OSITIONING LOADS ON BLOCKS AND BRACES
When wood blocking and bracing is used to secure heavy items, place the
block so that the load r ests on th e end grain of the piece, whenever possible.
If this cannot be done, the load should bear on the edge gra in. When so
placed, the ma ximum str engt h of th e brace is used (fig 1-14). Since wood is
relatively stable in dimension along the grain, there is little effect from
shrink age or swelling with a cha nge in moistu re cont ent. The brace should, if
possible, have its na rrow face against the item so that its maximum stiffness
is utilized. If a larger bear ing area is required, an d it becomes necessary to
have the flat face of the brace against the item, the size of the brace against
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th e item, must be increa sed (ta ble 1-3). Lum ber which is relat ively wide for
its thickness must be reinforced throughout its length to prevent twisting or
buckling.
USING LUMBER AS A MOUNTING BAS E
If an item is to be secured to a base, and plywood is not available, use
dimensiona l lumber. Bases of dimensiona l lumber sh ould be constru ctedwith sufficient cleats at right angles to the grain of the baseboards, and
fastened with clinched nails to prevent the boards from splitting at the bolt
holes. Stren gth of th e bases must be adequa te to withsta nd any rough
han dling the p ack ma y be likely to receive.
SECURING LUMBER B LOCKING
Securing lumber blocking properly is the most essential factor in blocking
an d bracing. Wooden braces positioned between two faces of a cont ain er
should never be secured with end grain nailing, toenailing, or similar
meth ods, nor should th ey ever be insert ed into notches cut into the container
faceboard s. Instea d, the braces should be secur ed by cleats fastened to the
faces of th e conta iner with a sufficient nu mber of clinched na ils. When
pressures are great or an increased nailing area is required, backup blocks
are used to reinforce the cleats and give increased n ailing area . When
pressur e is from more th an one direction, a pocket cleat ar ra ngement is used
to hold the braces in position z fig 1-12. The backu p blocks are positioned
with their end grain in contact with the brace in order to make use of the
high stren gth property of wood in compression par allel to the grain. The
cleats and backup cleats | fig 1-12 are secured with clinched nails properly
staggered at intervals along their length. Sometimes, however, bolts are
used to fasten these mem bers in place. This is especially desira ble when the
entire weight of the item thrusts against the block, or when the cleat
supports a framework at tached t o one or more faces of the cont ainer.
Figur e 1-14. Positioning load accordin g to grain of wood
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Fi gu r e 1-15. P r o t ec t i on fo r ba r r i e r an d it em s u r face s .
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P LYWOOD BLOCKING AND B RACING
Plywood is used to distribute the load when the face of an item is flat but
structurally weak and the weakness prevents that face from being used as a
bear ing area . By covering the face of th e item with a sh eet of plywood, so
tha t t he plywood bears on str onger portions of the face, the load of the item is
distributed uniformly against the container and injury to the weak face is
prevented. The edges of the p lywood sh eet a re pa dded with felt, if necessary,to prevent the plywood from marring the surface of the item (fig 1-15).
Plywood can be used for making pressure strips to distribute the load of an
item on th e gaskets when a floating water-vaporpr oof barr ier is used. This
meth od, which minimized th e possibility of barrier da mage du ring sh ipment,
is illust ra ted in figure 1-15. When it is not pra ctical to block an ir regu lar
item to transfer the load evenly to all faces of the container, it is wise to
secur e the item to a solid base which ma y in tu rn be blocked to evenly
distr ibute th e load. If th e conta iner is of fiberboar d, plywood serves as a good
pallet to which the item ma y be bolted or stra pped. The plywood, in tur n, is
securely blocked int o th e conta iner by a holddown or top pad . Thin plywood
is used to advantage where the blocking must be flexible to conform to a
cur ved su rface.
Plywood is used where th in mat erial is required as a br ace in ten sion. When
an item is to be bolted to a base or auxiliary base, plywood is used for the
base because of its resist an ce to splitting (fig 1-16). Since plywood is
obtaina ble in wide pa nels, it is especially useful in base constr uction. For
light item s, 1/2-or 3/4-inch plywood should be used. For mediu m an d hea vy
items, two or more pieces of plywood can be fastened together, or a series of
stren gthening cleats can be added to th e panel. The cleats also may be of
plywood to redu ce the possibility of splitt ing.
C OMBINED P LYWOOD AND L UMBER BLOCKING AND B RACING
Plywood and lumber, combined into a blocking and bracing assembly, unite
the advantages of a strong, lightweight sheet material with a material that is
easily cut an d na iled. Plywood is used a s a sh eet with wooden blocks nailed
to the sheet. The nu mber, dimensions, and p lacement of the wooden blocks
depend u pon th e sha pe of the item, its depth , the position of an y projections,
and th e loads to be supported at th e various bearing area s. The required
thickness of the plywood depends upon the span between the blocks and the
load to be distr ibuted . The sheet of plywood mu st be stiff enough t o resist
bending so as to evenly distribute th e weight of the item . Position the blocks
upon the plywood sheet at places where the item can withstand concentrated
loads. Wherever possible, locate the blocks and braces against the stronger
portions of the item. Choose nails that are long enough to permit clinching
after being driven thr ough the wooden blocks and th e plywood sheets. If
clinching is impr actical, drive the na ils th rough t he t hinn er piece first. Cover
all surfaces of wood blocks contacting the item with felt and glue in place.Where the felt-covered blocks normally contact critical surfaces of the item,
use greaseproof or water-vaporproof barrier material between the felt and
the item. Eliminate time consu ming constru ction of a framework at th e time
of packing by us ing prefabr icat ed blocking.
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Figur e 1-16. Uses of plywood for blocking an d br acing.
NAILS AND NAILING
Nails shall conform to the requirements of ASTM F 1667-95. All nails that
are not clinched shall be cement coated, etched or mechanically deformed
(helically or annu larly thread ed). Unclinched nails shall be as long as
practicable without splitting the material, but not shorter than three times
the thickness of the member holding the nailhead for tenpenny nails and
smaller, or not shorter than the thickness of the same member plus 1 1/2
inches for twelvepenny nails and larger. Nails loaded tr an sversely to their
length (later al) in blocking and bra cing joints need not be clinched. En d
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grain nailing in solid wood or edge nailing in plywood shall not be permitted.
Nails shall be driven through the thinner member into the thicker member
wherever possible. Nails shall not be subject to withdra wal stresses. Nails
shall be driven not closer to th e end of a piece of lumber t ha n t he t hickness of
the piece and not closer to its side than one-ha lf its thickness. There sh all be
at least t wo na ils in each joint. Lat era l loading of na ils for blocking and
bra cing sha ll be in accorda nce with t able 1-4. En ds of blocks and bra ces sha llnot be fasten ed to a wood conta iner by end-grain na iling met hods. Blocking
and bracing shall be applied against areas of item(s) that are of sufficient
stren gth a nd r igidity to resist dama ge. A description of the various types of
nails and general requirements for their use are given in chapter 3.
Standard sinker and cooler nails are particularly well suited for use in
blocking and bracing and should be coated or chemically etched etched
especially if th e nails can not be clinched. If na ils fail when s ubjected to
forces of direct withdrawal, apply nails so that they are subjected to forces of
lateral displacement rather than direct withdrawal, that is, the direction of
the n ails is perpend icular to the direction of the load, rath er th an in line with
the direction of the load.
B OLTS AND BOLTINGCarriage or step bolts shall be used as fastenings for wood or plywood
blocking and bracing where necessary to facilitate disassembly for removal of
cont aine r conten ts. Bolts sha ll also be used for fast enin g blocking an d
bracing members th at ar e too thick for proper fastening with nails. Bolt
holes in wood or plywood sha ll be of th e same dia met er as t he bolts. Bolts
commonly used for blocking and bracing are machine bolts, carriage bolts,
and step bolts.
Step bolts are preferred for th is use because of th eir larger head diam eter. J -
or U-bolts are used for special conditions where regular bolts cannot be
app lied (fig 1-17). Tie rods and J -bolts ar e actua lly exten ded bolts, applied in
pairs either vertically (fig 1-18) or diagonally (fig 1-19), and are used where
stan dar d length bolts would not apply. See table 1-5 for the suggested
allowable load for th e various sizes of bolts. The following pr ecaut ions sh ould
be observed in th e use of bolts:
Items su ch as ma chines or su bassemblies having bolt h oles in part s which a re
stur dy enough to resist break age when rough h and ling should, if pra ctical, be
bolted t o one face of th e conta iner . If nonprecision bolt holes ar e involved,
the diameter of the bolt should be the nearest standard size consistent with
the diam eter of the h ole.
Table 1-4. Allowable later al loads for unclinched cemen t-coat ed or etched comm on wire nails
when used for blocking or bra cing.
Spe cies of wood Load, pounds per na il
4d 6d 8d 10d 12d 16d 20d 30d 40d
White pine, ponder osa pine, spruce and
other group I woods
14 17 21 25 26 29 38 42 48
Souther n yellow pine, Douglas fir,
western larch, an d other group II woods
21 26 32 39 40 45 58 65 73
Oak, ma ple, birch, beech, ash , and oth er
group III an d IV woods
26 32 40 48 49 55 71 80 90
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Figur e 1-17 Bolts for blocking and bra cing.
Figur e 1-18. Vertical use of tie rods.
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Figur e 1-19. Diagonal use of tie rods.
Table 1-5. Suggest ed allowable lat era l loads for bolts-impa ct loading
Diameter of bolt (inch ) Allowable load
(pounds)
3/8............................... 35
1/2............................... 90
5/8............................... 150
3/4............................... 200
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If precision bolt holes are involved, precautions should be taken to insure
that precision fitting bolts of the proper fit and characteristics are used to
prevent m ar ring or elongation.
Lag bolts should not be used for blocking and bracing.
Holes bored through containers or mounting bases must be the same size asthe diam eter of the bolts to be used. When mount ing items to cont ainer bases
equipped with skids, extend the bolts through the skids, whenever practical,
and in such insta nces counter sink th e bolt in th e outer sur face of the ru bbing
strip. Use standard cut washers under the nuts to decrease the possibility of
the bolt pulling through th e wood. Make sur e tha t th e nut s do not come loose
intransit by turning the nut securely on the bolt, and either upsetting or
nicking the t hrea ds of th e bolt beyond th e nu t; applying asph altum , paint, or
lacquer on t he t hr eads; using lock nut s; or u sing cotter pins with the nu ts; or
lock washer s. Metal plates or flat washer s are used between lock washers
and wood to pr event direct conta ct.
Bolts and nuts that are not corrosion-resistant must be completely covered
with corr osion preventa tive compounds. The compoun d must be thoroughlyset before th e bolts a re u sed.
Where the item has strong frame members fairly close to the face of the
conta iner, consider u sing U- or J -bolts. Whenever feasible, the n ut end of the
U- or J-bolt should be on th e out side of th e conta iner . In su ch cases, it is
especially important to upset the threads or otherwise prevent the nuts from
loosening.
Use tie rods as extended bolts to secure items when J- or U-bolts are
un suitable. Place tie rods in pairs, either diagonally or vert ically as may be
necessary. Attach the tie rods to a reinforced point of the cont ainer a nd u se
them with washer s bearing against the wood. Be sur e the tie rods pass
through the base at an angle which will not cause bending or kinking of the
rod. Any kinking will weaken t he r ods and increase t he possibility of failure.
ANCHORING
Anchoring of heavy items should be accomplished by securing the item to a
base by tension devices, either by bolts through mounting bolt holes on the
item (bolting down); or by metal strapping, cables, tie rods, chains, wire, or
other tension devices attached to, or applied over, the item (tiedown or
holddown); or by both. The sam e washe r requ irem ent a s specified for bolts of
equal diameter should apply to tie rods.
ANCHOR BOLTS
Carr iage or step bolts should be used. Articles having moun ting holes in
areas that can withstand rough handling without breakage shall be bolted toeither th e base of th e container or an a uxiliar y base. The bolt heads of
anchor bolts (those holding the item to the container base or the auxiliary
base) should be on t he outside of the cont ainer, other wise on t he u nder side of
the au xiliary base. The heads of all an chor bolts sha ll bear against a wide
washer conforming to FF-W-92, type A or B, grade I, class A, medium size,
except that the minimum diameter or minimum size of square bolts shall be
as specified in table 1-6 when th e member adjacent to th e bolt hea d is wood.
Bolts th rough m ounting bolt holes sha ll form a snu g fit, except t ha t p recision
holes shall be bushed to prevent dam age by an chor bolts. In a crate wher e
the item is bolted to a skid-type base, the an chor bolts shall pass th rough th e
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skids or th rough loadbear ing members that a re bolted to th e skids. Bolt
holes in wood should be of th e same diameter as th e bolts. The ma ximum
allowable load for anchor bolts required and the mi