Ethical Issues

Ethical Egoism Boss: “Ethical egoism differs from ethical

subjectivism because it is concerned with a person’s best self-interest. Our best self-interests are those that are rational. Ethical subjectivism, in contrast, asks only what people desire or feel is right for them. The ethical egoist identifies happiness with the pursuit of rational self-interest.”

Egoism vs. Egotism Boss: “Egoism is not the same as egotism.

An egotist is a person who is arrogant, boastful, inconsiderate, and self-centered. Egotistical behavior is not necessarily in one’s best self-interest because egotists tend to alienate others and, by doing so, limit their opportunities for happiness.”

The Main Thing The main thing to keep in mind is that

egoism is rational and thus thoughtful, whereas egotism is immature and hasty, and therefore, not necessarily helpful.

What Socrates Said Egotism ignores the needs of others, while egoism

simply reorders needs so that you take care of yourself first. Even the great “Socrates acknowledged that it’s morally acceptable for people to act in ways that benefit themselves. In fact, Socrates argues that being just benefits a person more than being unjust. However, he also argues that justice is good in and of itself, independent of its benefit to the just man (Boss).”

Types of Egoism Boss: “There are two main types of egoism:

ethical egoism and psychological egoism. Ethical egoism is a normative theory about how things ought to be. We ought to act in the way that is in our own best self-interest. Psychological egoism, in contrast, is a descriptive theory about how things are.”

Psychological Egoism Psychological egoism gives an explanation that

allows us to understand why some people do things to themselves that are actually harmful rather than in their own best interest. They do so because the immediate benefit seems to outweigh any future benefit. The correct way to change or modify destructive behavior, according to egoists, is to simply inform and educate.

Growth and Development When we are very little we see the world only in

terms of ourselves. Psychologists can study this in child development. One of the things they look for is growth and development as a child matures. Egoism explains many of a child’s motivations. There is no question about that. The real question is whether or not it is an adequate explanation for adult motivation.

Ethical Egoism Boss: “The current popularity of ethical egoism

has been fueled by the work of American novelist, screenwriter, and philosopher Ayn Rand (1905-1982). Rand defended a version of ethical egoism that she called ‘objectivist ethics.’”

Ayn Rand (1905-1982) She was a great admirer of American freedom and

independence. She thought the freedom we enjoy to find success or failure was the best system under which to practice ethical egoism. While some people saw the American celebration of self-interest as a problem, she saw it as one of our crowning glories.

Objective Reality Boss: “According to Rand, there is no source of

values other than objective reality - hence, her term objectivist ethics. Rand maintained that we value that which helps us survive, and that which helps us survive is what is in our own self-interest.”

Reason is Essential Boss: “Rand adopted what first appears to be an

Aristotelian view of human nature; she argued that reason sets us apart from all other species. According to both Rand and Aristotle, reason is essential for our survival as humans. Because reason is necessary for survival, reason has moral value for humans. Therefore, we ought to act in a rational manner. According to Rand, to behave irrationally is to behave immorally.”

Social Creatures by Nature? Rand did not follow Aristotle in his thinking about

ethics. While they both agreed that humanity was rational by nature, Aristotle taught that we were also social creatures by nature, and Rand did not agree with this.

Concept of Rationality Boss: Rand’s concept of rationality counsels us to,

“1. Be independent. Live by the work of your own mind, 2. Have integrity. Don’t sacrifice your convictions to the opinions of others, 3. Be honest. Don’t fake reality, 4. Be just. Neither seek nor give that which is unearned or undeserved.

Rand assumed that any rational person would accept her list of virtues and what she called the supreme value of productive work.”

A Fair Trade Rand recognized that sometimes it was in our

interest to help others, but only when they could help us in return. There had to be a fair trade. Anything less than a fair trade would not be just, and thus, would actually be an insult to the dignity of the other person.

Altruism and Compassion Boss: “Altruism and compassion are vices, Rand

argued, because all altruism is based on self-sacrifice and demands by others to give them something that they have neither earned nor deserve. Altruists are willing to sacrifice their lives and interests to benefit others. This attitude not only turns the giver into an object; it also turns the receiver into a parasite.”

Adam Smith (1723-1790) Boss: “Scottish economist and moral philosopher

Adam Smith laid out the foundations of laissez-faire capitalism in his book Wealth of Nations. The best society, he argued, is one where everyone is allowed the freedom to pursue their own self-interest in the marketplace. Smith’s book, which was published in 1776, had a profound effect on the founding fathers of the United States.”

Is Capitalism Moral? Boss: “There is no doubt that capitalism, as an

economic system, has produced massive wealth and technological advancement. Because capitalism is successful in raising the overall wealth and productivity, does that mean it’s moral? Both Marxist and liberation ethicists argue that it’s possible to have a successful economic system that raises the gross national product and productivity but that’s nevertheless unjust.”

Philosophy of the Elite Boss: “Marxists claim that, rather than promoting

the interests of the majority, capitalism benefits only a few at the expense of the many. Ethical egoism, therefore, is not a philosophy of ‘humans qua human,’ as Rand claimed, but according to Marxists, a philosophy of the elite.”

A Free-Market Economy Boss: “Marxists, on the other hand, point out that

people’s talents and their ability to trade skills and goods in a free-market economy vary enormously. Poverty, lack of access to resources, poor health, and social discrimination are only a few of the factors that place certain people at a distinct disadvantage.”

Opportunity and Access Boss: “Women, in particular, have suffered in a

capitalist system because much of women’s labor, especially that which is based on caring and communal values, is unremunerated and undervalued. Patriarchal social structures also limit women’s opportunities and access to resources and high-paying jobs.”

Individual and Social Responsibility Boss: “Both Rand’s theory of ethical egoism and

the critics of capitalism offer important insights. Rand emphasized the importance of individual responsibility; Marxists and liberation ethicists remind us of the importance of social responsibility. However, an adequate moral theory must consider and integrate both the individual and social aspects of morality.”

Capitalism and Marxism Boss: “Although capitalists are not necessarily

greedy or exploitive, an egoist ethics offers no reason or incentive for people not to pursue their own ends at the expense of others. On the other hand, an ethical theory like Marxism, which for the most part ignores the individual, can just as surely create a sense of alienation by swallowing up individual interests and goals into the concept of the good of the community.”

Self-Love and Self-Interest Boss: “By pointing out the importance of self-

love, Rand provided an important corrective to moral ideologies that glorify self-sacrifice and putting the needs of others first. However, by universalizing egoism as a moral principle - rather than seeing it as a stage in our moral development - we remain forever stunted at the preconventional level of moral reasoning. Indeed, most egoists are trapped in their own self interest - shut away from the richness of the wider moral community.”

A Seed Boss: “Egoism and concern for our own well-

being become integrated into the higher stages of moral development rather than being discarded when we move on to later stages. Egoism, in other words, is not the goal of morality, as ethical egoists claim; it is the seed from which our moral community grows to become more and more inclusive.”

Communitarians Boss: “Communitarians regard the democratic

community as the basis of ethics. The human community - which encompasses community decisions, social conventions, and historic and religious traditions - rather than the individual, defines the moral community.”

Individualism Modern democratic societies have placed a great

deal of emphasis on individualism. But there are alternative views. Many of the great mystical systems, for example, teach that our sense of being alone, individual and separate from others, is one of the great delusions that needs to be overcome through spiritual practices such as meditation.

A Moral Theory Boss: “We need a moral theory that can take both

individual dignity and the value of community into account.”

The Hedonist Paradox Boss: “James Rachels argues that by having

individual happiness as its only goal, ethical egoism becomes self-defeating. This phenomenon is known as the hedonist paradox. If we try to pursue only our own happiness, we are often left feeling frustrated and alienated. Individual happiness seems to be more often the by-product of other activities than a goal in itself.”

No Moral Guidelines Boss: “Ethical egoism provides no guidelines for

resolving conflicts of interest between people. In a world of limited resources and opportunities, people’s self-interests sometimes come into conflict. When this happens, ethical egoism is unable to provide any moral guidelines for resolving the conflict.”

Arbitrariness Boss: “Ethical egoism is arbitrary. While it may

be true, as Rand claims, that we cannot truly value others without first valuing ourselves, it does not follow from this that we should habitually put our interests above those of others. By doing so the ethical egoist violates the principle that all people have equal dignity.”

Devastating Effects Boss: “The devastating effects of this ideology on

the people and nations that are not in positions of economic power, however, are becoming more and more evident with the increasing accumulation of wealth and social goods in the hands of fewer and fewer people and the destruction of the environment in the name of economic progress.”

Social Beings Boss: “Ethical egoism fails to take into account

that we are social beings who exist only as part of a wider community. We do not exist as isolated individuals who can act independently of social constraints. There are times when self-denial may be called for, such as saving a drowning child without first negotiating to see what is in it for us.”

The Right Path Boss: “It may sometimes be right to pursue our

own self-interest. But, in general, the right path consists of choosing the medium between these two extremes. The association of the moral life and happiness with seeking the mean is also found in Aristotle’s philosophy.”

Balancing our Needs Boss: “The idea that morality does not require

putting our interests aside but balancing our needs with those of others is also a central theme in Carol Gilligan’s theory regarding moral reasoning and moral maturity.”

People at Their Best? Boss: “Ethical egoism inhibits moral development.

Rand believed that capitalism would encourage people to be their moral best. However, studies have shown that this is not the case. A business education in the United States and the socialization process within U.S. business firms actually tend to inhibit and even decrease a person’s level of moral reasoning rather than attract people of high moral integrity.”

Wishful Thinking Fallacy There is a fallacy discussed in critical thinking

called the wishful thinking fallacy. This means we take something as true because we wish it to be true, rather than because we have evidence backing up its truth. Just because we want to believe capitalism - or communism, for that matter - brings out the best in people, we still need to read and study and look at the evidence. Is it true?

Overcoming Egoism andSelf-Interest Boss: “In many Eastern philosophies, the moral

life is not identified with denying the individual self or ego, nor with pursuing rational self-interest or productive labor. Many schools of Eastern ethics, in particular, emphasize overcoming egoism and self-interest as a virtue and the path to true happiness.”

Moral Maturity Boss: “Moral maturity is viewed in terms of going

beyond the self - the diffusing of the one or individual ego into the One, the I am into the I AM. According to these philosophies, we are all part of the same web of life - the same great ‘self’ - rather than separate, isolated beings.”

Utilitarians What were the utilitarians trying to do? They

wanted to apply the principles of empiricism (which worked so well in science) to ethical and political issues.

Find Pleasure/Avoid Pain When you look at all of the things that motivate us

in our lives and break down these reasons as far as you can go, you discover that we are trying to find pleasure and avoid pain.

Jeremy Bentham Boss: Jeremy Bentham’s contribution is that he

taught “that hedonism doesn’t have to be egoistic; it can be social. That is, one can (and should) be motivated to act in the name of the pleasure of others as well as for one’s own pleasure.”

Social Hedonism Boss: “Bentham’s social hedonism is reflected in

his most famous maxim, ‘the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number’ (where ‘happiness’ is defined in terms of pleasure)”.

Pleasure isn’t simply sensual enjoyment. Primarily, it is the absence of pain and anxiety.

Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is sometimes called

“consequentialism” because the emphasis is on the consequences of our actions. It is the results that count, it is the results that make something morally right or wrong.

Universal Laws? For Immanuel Kant, the value of a moral act

depended on the rational question of whether our acts could be made into universal laws for all people to follow all of the time. In other words, it was our intentions that counted, not the results of our actions.

Kant and Bentham Both Kant and Bentham give us some important

clues to how to make important decisions, but they also both leave problems. What we really need is an ethics that incorporates both views, which is, in fact, what most of us do, whether we know it or not.

The Calculus of Felicity Boss: Bentham taught that utilitarian ethics could

be looked at mathematically and he called this ‘The calculus of felicity.’ One had to study pleasure scientifically and if one did, then you would come up with seven questions representing seven categories:

“1. Intensity: How intense is the pleasure? 2. Duration: How long does the pleasure last?”

“Calculus”, continued Boss: “3. Certainty: How sure is the pleasure? 4. Proximity: How soon will the pleasure be

experienced? 5. Fecundity: How many more pleasures will

follow in the train of this pleasure? 6. Purity: How free from pain is this pleasure? 7. Extent: How many people will experience the

pleasure?”

John Stuart Mill According to the one vote per person rule, the

greatest happiness of the greater number might very well lead to the lowest common denominator. John Stuart Mill came to the conclusion that some pleasures are more desirable and more valuable than others, and only those who have knowledge of both will be allowed to vote.

Realistic? Is it realistic to vote on all of these issues; and, is

everyone’s vote, informed or not, of equal value?

Another Way? If people will support football stadiums but not art

galleries, should we just accept that as the democratic way, or do we want to find another way of allocating funds? These are not easy questions, and their difficulty helps us understand why living in a democracy can be so tough.

Principle of Liberty Boss: Mill’s ‘principle of liberty’ states, “…the

only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.”

Love of Liberty The problem with Mill’s love of liberty is

knowing where to draw the line between our public and private lives.

Hands-Off! Mill also influenced economics. His hands off

policy basically said the government should stay out of regulation and control, unless required by some great good, and instead let the law of supply and demand take its natural course.

Promote Equality How do we promote equality and, at the same

time, only have the educated and the informed take part in the voting?

Not Quantifiable One difficulty is in how we determine what

happiness is. It seems that Bentham thought there might be a “calculus of happiness,” some quantitative way to determine what is best, but John Stuart Mill and many others have shown that that is not possible.

Predicting Consequences There is a problem of predicting consequences.

We do have our past experience to guide us, but nevertheless, the future is still unknown. Utilitarians might argue that they are not required to know exact consequences, but simply must make the best decision possible given the knowledge that they do have.

Consequences and Intentions

There is also a problem with dealing only with consequences and not with intentions. What if someone intends to hurt others, but mistakenly helps them? Does that make their action O.K.?

Human Rights One last example: What about human rights? If something, such as

slavery, or the “torture argument” we have been hearing about, were to the benefit of the majority, utilitarianism would seem to give it approval. What is one to do?

One Tool Among Many Utilitarianism does not work very well for me

when it stands alone. But as discussed earlier regarding Rand’s ethical egoism theory, it works very well as one tool among many that we might want to use and have at our disposal. Having some quantitative questions to ask makes sense some of the time, but we also want to find a way to bring qualitative values into the picture.