Post on 06-Sep-2019
SouthSudan
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES
ASSESSMENTNatural resources
management and climate change in South Sudan
Government of the Republic of South SudanMinistry of Environment
United Nations Development Programme
2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
3Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
Flows of the White Nile.Image courtesy of Daniel Kammen
4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
This Environmental Impacts, Risks and Opportunities Assessment was carried out from 2 May to 15 June 2011 with the aim of identifying environmental project interventions that will assist the Government of South Sudan to establish adequate environmental governance. Action in this area is urgent due to the effects of climate change and the increasing pressures on the environment caused by the resettlement of people returning to South Sudan after the war.
After a period of over fifty years dominated by wars, and the independence process which created the country of South Sudan, an institutional and regulatory framework to govern environmental issues is now being developed. This process, however, needs to be boosted to cope with the complexity of the issues and dynamics of transition, which include rapid deforestation, land grabbing, and insecure, vulnerable livelihoods for large sections of the population. Indicators of these dynamics include a significant increase in population size during 2011 (estimated to be more than 10 percent), and the rate of land privatization in South Sudan, which is currently the highest in Africa.
The assessment is based on the results of earlier assessments and surveys carried out by, among others, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), International Resources Group, (IRG), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). In addition, interviews were held with South Sudan government staff at national, state, county, payam and boma levels, staff from international organizations, resource users, returning war refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs), and with local community based organizations and non-governmental organizations (CBOs and NGOs).
Some of the most striking impacts relating to climate change and environmental degradation on water, soil, forests, biodiversity, agriculture and fisheries were observed as:
■■ The drying up of permanent rivers resulting in seasonal rivers, the reduction of water tables in boreholes, and the delay and shortening of rainy seasons;
■■ Increased soil degradation due to water erosion, wind erosion and fire;
■■ Accelerating deforestation due to wood being collected for fuel, charcoal production, livestock, agriculture, bricks, and collection of construction materials;
■■ Reduced wildlife populations due to war-related hunting with a limited possibility of recovery in many areas;
■■ Lower agricultural revenues per hectare due to unpredictable rains and soil degradation;
■■ Competition for drinking water between people and livestock and habitat degradation for livestock and wildlife due to vegetation degradation and desertification (in the north and south-east of South Sudan);
■■ Loss of fish species and reduction of fish size as a result of rivers becoming increasingly seasonal.
Dealing with these impacts requires action that addresses the following threats:
■■ Climate change;
■■ The short-term perspective of land users;
■■ Unsustainable use of natural resources including communities’ dependence on forest products;
■■ No value added through processing (forestry, agriculture);
■■ Increased export of forest products due to improved road access;
■■ Land privatization associated with unregulated large scale clearing (land grabbing);
■■ Mineral exploitation without adequate mitigating measures (particularly oil exploration in wetlands such as the Sudd wetlands);
■■ Increased insecurity at community level and conflicts often related to resource access.
Weaknesses in the current governance framework for environmental management have been identified as follows:
SUMMARy
5Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
■■ An incomplete legal framework (e.g. the Environmental Bill not endorsed);
■■ Environmental policy and legal framework not elaborated at lower administrative levels (state, county);
■■ Lack of capacity to monitor development and resource use;
■■ Unclear institutional roles and responsibilities;
■■ Revenue collection not used to regulate resource utilisation;
■■ Lack of coordination between sectors.
South Sudan has a number of significant opportunities putting it in a beneficial position compared to most other countries in the region and creating a considerable potential for sustainable development. These include:
■■ The opportunity to develop new and effective governmental structures and systems, with limited hindrance by old, ineffective practices;
■■ Strong international attention from donors and investors;
■■ A high number of young people able to learn and take up jobs;
■■ Low population density in relation to a significant wealth of basic primary resources such as abundant water, good soils, relatively high rainfall and potentially a good forest cover;
■■ The presence of the Sudd and other wetlands as a climate buffer and as a resource for agriculture, livestock, fisheries and various Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs);
■■ Considerable oil revenues potentially providing significant alternative income;
■■ Potential for tourism providing significant alternative income;
■■ International support available through the adoption of international conventions such as the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD);
■■ Existence of international funding mechanisms through the United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD).
To enhance environmental governance, this assessment proposes the application of a conceptual model intervening at the levels of knowledge management (e.g. assessments, analysis, monitoring, communication, learning), policy development (e.g. fire policy, land use policy, revenue policy), capacity building (e.g. institutions, communities, public-private partnerships, logistics) and natural resources management practices (e.g. high pressure brick making, integrated fish farming).
The overall goal of project support to environmental governance is proposed to be:
Supporting the Government to develop capacity at national and sub-national levels for sustainable environmental governance to deal with climate change adaptation and mitigation and to cope with increasing pressure on natural resources, assuring a future for current and returning populations.
Proposed project intervention priorities:
(1) The development and mainstreaming of a green energy and low carbon policy, aiming to stop the degradation of forest, soil and water resources, and to link up with related global initiatives;
(2) The consolidation of the institutional and regulatory framework for environmental management, aiming at the completion, endorsement and implementation of the environmental policy framework, addressing all current institutional and legal issues;
(3) Sectoral integration of natural resources policy planning and implementation with regard to forest, land and water through the introduction of Strategic Environment Impact Assessment (SEA), the promotion of integrated land use planning, and integrated river basin management.
6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
Summary 4
Acronyms 8
1.Introduction 101.1 Purpose of this assessment 10
1.2 Implementation 10
1.3 Geographical and physical context 10
1.4 Climate change 12
2.Problemformulation 132.1 Historical perspective 13
2.2 Environment issues 13
2.3 Environment, social conflicts and governance 14
2.4 Natural resources management challenges 14
3.Stakeholderanalysis 163.1 Background 16
3.2 Government 16
3.3 Traditional authorities 16
3.4 Private sector 16
3.5 IDPs, returnees 16
3.6 Fishers 17
3.7 Cultivators 18
3.8 Livestock keepers 18
3.9 Urban population 19
3.10 Local NGOs and CBOs 19
3.11 International NGOs and donors 19
4.Institutional&policyframework 204.1 Relevant institutions 20
4.1.1 Governmental agencies 20
4.1.2 Natural resource management and environment working groups 21
4.2 Policy and regulations 22
4.2.1 General framework 22
4.2.2 South Sudan Development Plan 22
4.2.3 Environmental Policy and the Environment Protection Bill 23
4.2.4 The Land Act 2009 25
4.3 Policy gaps 25
4.3.1 Policy implementation 25
4.3.2 Integrated policy development 25
4.3.3 Integrated resource management 26
4.3.4 Halting degradation 26
4.3.5 Climate change adaptation 26
4.3.6 Energy 29
5.Assessmentofimpactsandrisks 305.1 Methodology and availability of data 30
5.2 Climate 30
CONTENTS
7Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
5.3 Water 33
5.3.1 The Sudd wetland and Jonglei canal 33
5.3.2 Disappearing rivers 35
5.3.3 Water pollution 35
5.3.4 Oil exploitation 35
5.4 Natural forest 36
5.4.1 Clearing for cultivation 36
5.4.2 Clearing for roads and settlements 36
5.4.3 Charcoal burning 37
5.4.4 Brick making 39
5.4.5 Construction wood 39
5.4.6 Livestock grazing/browsing 39
5.4.7 Fires 40
5.4.8 Water table reduction 41
5.5 Land 42
5.6 Biodiversity 42
5.7 Food security 43
5.8 Case: sustainable farming along Juba – Yei road 43
6.Recommendedprojectinterventions 466.1 Conceptual framework for policy development and implementation projects 46
6.2 Environmental risk factors 46
6.3 Intervention fields 47
6.3.1 Adaptation to climate change 47
6.3.2 Clean energy 47
6.3.3 Integrated development planning 47
6.3.4 Sustainable natural resources management 48
6.3.5 Water and air pollution control 49
6.3.6 Monitoring and information management 49
6.4 Good practices 49
6.5 Current initiatives and efforts 51
6.6 Priority interventions 52
7.Fundingopportunities 547.1 Introduction 54
7.2 Revenues from resource exploitation 54
7.3 Donor funding 55
7.3.1 Global Environment Facility (GEF) 55
7.3.2 World Bank 56
7.3.3 Bilateral cooperation 56
7.4 Climate related funding mechanisms 57
7.4.1 Strategic Climate Fund 57
7.4.2 UN-REDD Programme 58
7.4.3 Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) 59
7.5 Private sector 59
Appendices 60
8 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
BSF Basic Service Fund
CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources
CAR Central African Republic
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBNRM Community Based Natural Resources Management
CBO Community Based Organization
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CPA Comprehensive Peace Agreement
CPRU Crisis Prevention and Recovery Unit
DDR Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration
DGIS Directorate General of International Cooperation, Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs
DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo
EA Environmental Assessment
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIRO Environmental Impacts, Risks and Opportunities assessment
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
ESSAF Environmental and Social Screening and Assessment Framework
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
Feddan = 0.42 hectare
FRA Forest Resources Assessment
FS Forestry Service (under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, GoSS)
GEF Global Environment Facility
GIZ German Agency for International Cooperation
GIS Geographic Information System
GTZ German Agency for International Cooperation
GO Governmental Organization
GONU Government of National Unity
GOSS Government of Southern Sudan
GR Game reserve
HCENR Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources
IA Implementing agency
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IOM International Organization for Migration
IRG International Resources Group
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
LDCF Least Developed Countries Fund
M&E Monitoring and evaluation
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreement
MHLPU Ministry of Housing, Lands, and Public Utilities
MoAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
MoE Ministry of Environment
MoF Ministry of Finance
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
ACRONyMS
9Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
MW Mega Watt
MWCT Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action
NCEA Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment
NGO Non-governmental organization
NP National Park
NRM Natural Resources Management
NRMG Natural Resources Management Group
NTFP Non Timber Forest Products
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
PA Protected area
PAN Protected area network
PCEA Post Conflict Environmental Assessment (UNEP)
PIF Project identification form
PPCR Pilot Program for Climate Resilience
RCU UNDP/GEF regional coordination unit
REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation
SCF Strategic Climate Fund
SCCF Special Climate Change Fund
SDG Sudanese pound (currency)
SEA Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment
SIFSIA Food Security Information for Action
SREP Program for Scaling-Up Renewable Energy in Low Income Countries
SSCCSE South Sudan Commission for Census, Statistics and Evaluation
SSDP Southern Sudan Development Plan
SSEC South Sudan Electricity Corporation
SSRRC Southern Sudan Relief and Rehabilitation Commission
TOR Terms of reference
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNDP CO UNDP country office
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environmental Program
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WCS Wildlife Conservation Society
WFP World Food Programme
WWF World Wildlife Fund
Author: Floris Deodatus | All images © UNPD / Floris Deodatus unless otherwise stated. | Design: DLD
Refugee settlement along Lol River, NBG
10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
1.1PuRPoSeoFthISASSeSSment
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and other development partners are currently helping to build environmental institutional and technical capacity within the Government of South Sudan. This gradual process seeks to encourage the Government’s adoption of environmental control measures to counter degradation of the natural environment and to help mitigate the severity of future environmental impacts as South Sudan develops. At the same time, it is essential that more immediate and direct action is taken to address the myriad of environmental issues facing South Sudan.
To guide and inform the Government as it selects priority environmental projects, this Environmental Impacts, Risks and Opportunities (EIRO) Assessment has been carried out with the objectives of:
(a) accurately reflecting the nature and scale of current and potential environment impacts in South Sudan;
(b) identifying the socio-political, economic and environmental risks that may result if insufficient action is taken to address the identified environmental impacts; and
(c) identifying the most sustainable long-term environmental interventions to mitigate adverse impacts and to reduce the risk of human-induced natural disasters in the future.
A sector-wide approach capturing all environmental and sustainable energy challenges of South Sudan will be applied and result in the identification and elaboration of project opportunities categorized under two thematic areas:
(1) Climate change (incorporating adaptation, low carbon development, technology transfer, and, in particular, clean energy development;
(2) Natural resources management (incorporating sustainable forest management and land degradation).
Within the scope of these two thematic areas, the assessment has identified technical, institutional and policy gaps, challenges and opportunities to be considered by the Government in the formulation of strategies and projects to enhance governance of natural resources and climate change issues.
1.2ImPlementAtIon
The assessment and elaboration of priority interventions have been carried out by an Environmental Specialist (Floris Deodatus) in close collaboration with the UNDP South Sudan Crisis Prevention and Recovery Unit (Emanuel Gebremedhin, Andrew Shuruma, Martin Dramani, Stuart Crane, Ganiyu Ipaye), the Ministry of Environment (David Oliver Batali), UNEP, the World Bank, and other relevant stakeholders in Juba, including other Government agencies, NGOs, donors, the private sector, and resource users. The Environment Cluster Group, in which many of these organizations are represented, provided an important platform for discussion and reflection.
Staff from central and local Government, as well as development partners, were interviewed in Central Equatoria, Eastern Equatoria, Lakes, Northern Bahr el Ghazal and Upper Nile States. Field visits took place in Central Equatoria, Eastern Equatoria, Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Upper Nile and Western Bahr el Ghazal States.
1.3GeoGRAPhIcAlAndPhySIcAlcontext
South Sudan (Figure 1) has an area of approximately 640,000 km2. The country is situated in the Nile catchment area, receiving water from the highlands of the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia and Uganda, which flows into a low and vast clay basin covering much of South. The lowest part of this basin forms one of the world’s largest swamps, the Sudd wetland, and other smaller wetlands. Altitude varies between 600 and 3000 m above sea level; the lowest point is found in the extreme north of Upper Nile State and the highest in the mountains of Eastern Equatoria State.
Most of South Sudan has a semi-humid climate, with annual rainfall ranging from 200 mm in the southeast (Eastern Equatoria) to 1200-2200 mm in the forest zone in Western Equatoria and the Equatorian highlands. In the northern states rainfall varies between 700 and 1300 mm. Mean average temperatures vary between 26° and 32°. Rainfall is seasonal: the rainy season is from April to December and causes seasonal flooding of floodplains. The seasonal climate patterns cause cyclic relations in the ecosystem and
1. INTRODUCTION
11Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
hence determine land use patterns of cultivation, livestock grazing and fisheries.
The Fifth Sudan Population and Housing Census (2008) estimated the total population of South Sudan to be 8,260,490. The figures of this census are debated and considered to be on the low side, possibly in an attempt to influence the 2011 referendum process. The annual population growth rate has been estimated at 2.2 percent (Figure 2).
Most of the country is covered with natural and semi-natural vegetation with a variable tree density: generally high in the south-west and the highest mountains and low in the south-east and north, while wetlands are dominated
by grasslands, aquatic vegetations and open water. The dominant land use in terms of land occupation is livestock keeping, which is practised throughout almost all the country, but particularly in dryer areas, which have better grass quality and lower livestock parasite occurrence. The vast forested areas provide, apart from food for livestock, timber, fuel wood, charcoal and an innumerable list of Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) including food plants, medicines and bushmeat. However, agricultural production currently takes place on a relatively small proportion of the land.
Descriptions on the different physical and ecological aspects of South Sudan are provided
FIGuRe1: Map of South Sudan showing roads and settlements
12 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
by various publications, of which the UNEP Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment (2007) and the USAID (IRG) Southern Sudan Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment (2007) are highlighted here.
1.4clImAtechAnGe
The Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment (UNEP, 2007) identifies climate change as one of the most important threats to the development of Sudan. According to this assessment, expected changes in weather patterns are projected to exacerbate existing household vulnerabilities and to exceed current coping mechanisms, limiting still further poor people’s capacity to maintain sustainable livelihoods. Expected impacts are increased water scarcity, accelerated desertification and soil erosion processes, decreased productivity (a 20 percent drop in crop yields is predicted), damages caused by more extreme climate events such as droughts or floods, increased heath-related illnesses, and higher risk of pest and disease outbreaks.
Similar conclusions are drawn in other studies (USAID, 2007, IFAD, 2009).
02468
101214161820
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Pop
ulat
ion
(mill
ion)
growth rate 2.2%FIGuRe2: Projected growth of the population of South Sudan based on the population census of 2008, an annual increase of 2.2 percent and the estimated influx of returnees (UNHCR, IOM, OCHA).
River bed exploitation for construction materials
13Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
2. PRObLEM fORMULATION2.1hIStoRIcAlPeRSPectIve
After gaining independence from Egypt and the United Kingdom in 1956, Sudan suffered seventeen years of civil war during the First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972) followed by ethnic, religious and economic conflicts between the Sudanese Government and the people of South Sudan. This led to the Second Sudanese Civil War in 1983, which ended with the signing of a Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005 granting autonomy to the southern part of Sudan. Following a referendum held in January 2011, South Sudan seceded on 9 July 2011.
During the wars the utilization of natural resources was generally not controlled and in some cases excessive exploitation was reported (USAID, 2007). However, due to the depopulation of many areas and inaccessibility due to mines, the pressure on resources was generally low. The signing of the CPA was followed by the return of millions of refugees from camps in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda and IDPs from northern Sudan. This number accelerated during the referendum period.
To deal with the process of return, the Government of South Sudan is supported by international organizations such as the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the United Nations (including OCHA, UNDP, UNHCR, UNICEF and WFP). So far, these efforts have been primarily focused on direct and basic needs such as food, housing, health and education. The urgency of the situation on the one hand, and the absence of a fully elaborated and efficient institutional and regulatory framework on the other, means that environmental considerations have often been overlooked.
Current signs of environmental mismanagement and their consequences, such as riverbank erosion, invasive species, pesticide mismanagement, water and soil pollution, canal sedimentation, irresponsible deforestation and conflicts between resource users, plainly call for the development and implementation of policies addressing these issues.
2.2envIRonmentISSueS
A problem analysis of the current environmental trends in South Sudan reveals a complex relationship between causes and consequences. It shows chains of causal relations which are often interconnected and frequently result in cumulative effects. Root causes of environmental degradation are: (a) an increasing number of people depending on the same resource base, limited in space and quantity, (b) the globalization of economy and culture resulting in increasing export of resources in response to increasing demand in other parts of the world, (c) the need to generate cash income for households accelerated by changing consumption patterns, (d) insecurity complicating control, and (e) insufficient means and capacities for environmental governance.
At present the main threats to the environment in South Sudan are:
(1) Decreasing water levels of rivers due to (upstream) land use changes and water management interventions such as forest clearing, dams, irrigation, over-grazing and fires resulting in increased evaporation and decreased infiltration;
(2) Decreasing and irregular rainfall due to climate change as a result of external factors (global warming) and local environmental changes such as deforestation and wetlands drainage modifying albedo and precipitation (Charney et al., 1977)1 leading to decreased agricultural production, among other consequences;
(3) Soil degradation due to unsustainable and expanding agriculture as well as poor bushfire management, leading to degrading ecosystem services and competition with other forms of land use;
(4) Habitat degradation and fragmentation due to increasing livestock grazing as well as unsustainable and expanding agriculture, leading to degrading ecosystem services and competition with other forms of land use;
1 In the 1970s, experiments in the Negev desert in Israel showed that reduction of vegetation due to grazing and fire leads to higher reflection of solar radiation (albedo) which results in decreasing rainfall. Protection of a large area over a longer period resulted in increased rainfall.
14 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
(5) Habitat degradation and fragmentation due to infrastructure and settlement development not providing for mitigation of environmental threats, leading to degrading ecosystem services;
(6) Soil, air and water pollution due to industrial and agricultural practices not providing for mitigation of environmental impacts;
(7) Declining biodiversity due to habitat degradation and increased (illegal) exploitation (poaching);
(8) Resource depletion due to increasing and unsustainable land use resulting from population increase and immigration/resettlement (e.g. timber, charcoal, NTFP, bushmeat, water, land).
2.3envIRonment,SocIAlconFlIctSAndGoveRnAnce
Environment and social conflicts are interlinked through access to resources by different social groups. Conflicts often result often in weakened governance and the breakdown of structures maintaining sustainable natural resources management (UNEP, 2007). However, in turn, degrading ecosystem services cause friction between competing forms of land use and competition for resources within land use sectors, which often leads to social conflicts and instability. The keys to the solution of such conflicts are:
(1) Transparency with regard to costs and benefits of resource utilization;
(2) Thorough understanding of long term impacts of unsustainable resource use;
(3) Agreement on the allocation of land and resources;
(4) Achievement of sustainable use.
2.4nAtuRAlReSouRceSmAnAGementchAllenGeS
The process leading to the establishment of the Republic of South Sudan has been characterized by a dynamic history with numerous conflicts related to power, culture and access to land and resources.
Challenges for the Government in the near future include:
(1) Managing the consequences of an increasing demand for water to satisfy the needs of irrigation and hydropower in South Sudan and further downstream in Sudan and Egypt;
(2) Matching increasing resource requirements (e.g. food, fuel) in the context of current shortages and a fast-growing population;
(3) Controlling land use conflicts to ensure fair and sustainable resource utilization;
(4) Mitigating pressure on the environment due to increasing industrialization, infrastructure development and intensifying land use;
(5) Regulating sustainable resource management in the context of intensifying international trade and globalisation;
(6) Adapting to climate change to cope with risks with regard to resource requirements and environmental sustainability;
The formation of a new state is a great opportunity to create an optimal institutional regulatory setting to deal with these issues. The Government of South Sudan is currently in the process of establishing institutions, policies and legislation in an effort to address sustainable development, natural resources management and environmental issues.
2. PRObLEM fORMULATION
15Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
Heavily degraded Balanites-Acacia forest due to charcoal production, Upper Nile State
FIGuRe1: Mean annual rainfall zones in South Sudan
16 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
3.1BAckGRound
South Sudan is in the middle of a transition process leading to the organisation of the State, which started with the CPA. During this time the people of South Sudan are trying to find their place in the evolution of their new country. For some of them, this means securing their immediate livelihoods. For others it is a time to start working on the future, which could mean a career in the Government or private sector. The social upheavals during the war (and also the preceding colonial period) disrupted the status quo with regard to access to land, resources and power, resulting in a complex situation.
In most of South Sudan, the socio-geographical map has been dramatically altered by the movements of significant numbers of people fleeing from the war and the return of people after the signing of the CPA. Many people have spent a considerable period, if not all, of their lives, outside South Sudan as internally displaced people (IDPs) or refugees. Different groups of “citizens of South Sudan” may be distinguished and various classifications can be applied according to, among other factors, social role, ethnic background, livelihood or history. In the following sections, a simplified classification of stakeholder categories has been made, using various distinguishing characteristics. However, the categories are not exclusive and people can belong to one or more categories at the same time.
3.2GoveRnment
The formation of a new state involves developing the administration at all levels – national, state, county, payam, and boma – requiring recruitment of considerable numbers of new staff. As a result, a new elite is being formed. This process is actively supported by international agencies increasing opportunities for training and access to ‘new technology’ and other advantages. Presently, the institutional, policy and legal framework of the new State is being formed and this is further addressed in Chapter 4. A major challenge for the Government in the near future will be to keep the focus on working towards a better and sustainable future for the country and all its citizens, and to keep individual administrators away from the temptations that may be posed by private investors to orient decisions in their advantage, or even to use their position for their own profit.
To cope with this challenge, the Government has established an Anti-Corruption Commission.
3.3tRAdItIonAlAuthoRItIeS
Traditional authorities still play an important role in South Sudanese society that should not be overlooked. The traditional system often has three levels: local chiefs, paramount chiefs and king/sultan. Traditional authorities play a role in various fields such as social-related legal issues. They also enforce traditional regulations on resource use. Examples include the obligation to return any small fish caught to the water, regulations for the use of forest fires, and the protection of certain wildlife and tree species such as the ostrich and the Balanites tree. Traditional authorities collect fines from trespassers and taxes from resource users, such as pastoralists using their territory for the grazing of livestock.
3.4PRIvAteSectoR
International and national private investors and entrepreneurs form an essential pillar of the development of the South Sudan’s economy and future prospects. The wealth of natural resources in the country has attracted the attention of an array of sectors, such as oil, agriculture, construction, hydro-power and tourism. More will certainly follow, considering the growing global demand for resources.
Generally, investors and entrepreneurs focus on the breaking even of their investments and the generation of profits in relation to financial risks, rather than on sustainability. Investors and entrepreneurs target usually maximum profit and expansion of their own activity. Often they are not concerned about the costs of their business borne by other sectors or individuals. This is considered to be the responsibility of the Government. Mechanisms to promote responsible entrepreneurship such as certification and codes of conduct, which urge companies to comply with social and environmental norms, have not yet been developed for the private sector of South Sudan.
3.5IdPS,RetuRneeS
After their return, most returnees were received in camps spread as much as possible across
3. STAKEhOLDER ANALySIS
17Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
South Sudan. The Government and international organizations provide food and other facilities such as water, health clinics and schools. Camps are usually located near state or county capitals offering employment to some of the returnees. Presently, at the level of communities, a distinction can be made between people who (a) did not move during the war (residents), (b) people who left their homes and came back to their villages after the war, and (c) those who left and temporarily returned to South Sudan but settled elsewhere, temporarily or permanently.
Being used to ‘urban life’ and easy access to social facilities and food, many returnees were not very eager to return to the rural conditions of the villages where their parents grew up. In fact, many of these villages were partly or entirely destroyed. They are often in remote locations, and options for social and economic development are limited. The Government has also been allocating land that was nationalized by the Government of Sudan in the 1970s. Other returnees have resettled in larger urban areas but have obtained plots for cultivation in the surrounding rural area. This requires a daily commute but allows them to access urban services and amenities and may prove a valuable investment if land prices around growing urban areas rise in the future (Table 1).
A case was reported in Aweil where the state government wanted to move IDPs to their native
villages, where their land can provide livelihood opportunities. After their refusal, and the rejection of the suggestion to force people to the villages, 10,000 plots were allocated near the town of Aweil. A forested area of close to 10 km2 has been cleared for this purpose and 60 boreholes will be drilled to accommodate 40-50,000 people. However, the area does not provide land for cultivation or other employment opportunities. Moreover, some government staff suggested that the extensive support provided by international aid organizations to IDPs may be creating ‘dependency syndrome’ and even a ‘lost generation.’
3.6FISheRS
Fishing is not very developed in South Sudan and it is not associated to specific tribes. Generally, it is believed that fish as a resource is underutilized in South Sudan. Simple fishing techniques are used, such as gillnets, throw nets and hooks. Women in the north are using baskets to catch fish in stagnating pools. Fish traps and related fish dams
Status doesnotcultivate cultivatesIDP/refugee 73.6% 26.4%Resident 20.8% 79.2%Returnee 53.2% 46.8%total 24.7% 75.3%
tABle1: Cultivation by residential status in 2009 (FAO, 2009)
© UNDP/Ferdinand von Habsburg
18 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
3. STAKEhOLDER ANALySIS
which are being used neighbouring countries are not being used in South Sudan.
On the Nile and in the Sudd wetlands fishers from Sudan operate with fast boats. Fishers are not licensed and not taxed, but fish retailers are taxed when selling fish on the market. In Nyamlel, there is a fishers’ association which has established a social security system based on the regular contributions of members.
3.7cultIvAtoRS
Most of the rural population practise cultivation. In the northern part of the country, sorghum, sesame and groundnuts are the principal crops. Many farmers have little access to inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizer and pesticides. Micro credit systems have not yet been developed.
Farmers reported they are suffering from a changing climate. In the last decade, the rainy season has started late and for several years planting of crops
has begun one to two months later than in the past. In addition, rainy seasons also are tending to be shorter and sometimes interrupted, which results in an early harvest before crops are fully grown. Adapting to climate change could be achieved by establishing small dams to improve irrigation and by promoting animal traction to prepare land for cultivation which would enable a quicker response to rains than if it is done by manual labour.
3.8lIveStockkeePeRS
Livestock-rearing may be categorized according to three systems: (a) nomadic, based largely on herding of cattle, camels, sheep and goats in the semi-arid north (e.g. Misseriya); (b) semi-nomadic agro-pastoralism, combining the herding of cattle and some sheep with cultivation (Dinka, Nuer); and (c) a sedentary system, where cattle and small livestock are reared in close proximity to villages (UNEP, 2007).
The number of cattle is high (Table 4) and
Urbanisation patterns around Wau, WBG
19Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
rangelands are considered to be overstocked. The production of livestock products (milk, butter, meat and hides), however, is low. Livestock is mainly perceived as a store of value by many livestock keepers, particularly the nomadic and semi-nomadic. For example, during an interview, two herdsmen with 10 cattle coming from the cattle market in Aweil and going to their village beyond Marial Bai, declared that they just bought this herd because they received money from a relative, and they did not want to keep the amount in cash.
3.9uRBAnPoPulAtIon
The urban population consists of a diversity of different socio-economic categories, among which the principal groups are (a) people working for the Government, (b) small business entrepreneurs, (c) labourers, (d) people without jobs and (e) IDP and returnees, who often have no land and no job, but many of them create or find more or less temporary occupations such as charcoal burning (men) or growing and selling vegetables (women). Usually there is also an elite, related to the government or private sector (or both).
(1) Urban people require resources such as water, fuel and food. On average they have more to spend than rural people and hence the level of consumption is generally higher. Moreover, consumption is not so much determined by the availability of resources, but more by the level of income in relation to commodity prices.
3.10locAlnGoSAndcBoS
The local NGO sector is not yet very well developed. Many local NGOs have political links or have been established to create access to subsidies. In Northern Bahr el Ghazal, we met two NGOs that were established by individuals. One of them was associated with an international NGO (Concern Worldwide), which gives financial and operational stability. ‘Basic’ CBOs are present in the form of user group associations. An important motivation for such associations is to share risks and costs.
3.11InteRnAtIonAlnGoSAnddonoRS
A large spectrum of international organizations (both inter-governmental and non-governmental) are present in South Sudan, many of whom started their operations following the signing of the CPA or even more recently. Presently, many service gaps are filled by these organizations. These organizations focus very much on meeting primary needs such as food, health and shelter of IDPs, as well as on capacity building to enable the different government agencies to fulfil their tasks. The risk of emphasizing capacity building without assuring a clear link with policy implementation and service delivery is that all government staff’s capacity is absorbed by learning rather than doing. Moreover, coordination is required to avoid conflicting approaches and duplication of work.
Sheep and goat herding on the way to Lofi, Eastern Equatoria
Cultivated land is bare and prone to flooding and erosion during the dry season (NBG)
20 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
4.1RelevAntInStItutIonS
4.1.1 Government agencies
South Sudan has five administrative levels, namely: (1) national level, (2) state, (3) county, (4) payam and (5) boma. At both national and state level ministries are established, and below that the administrations have departments or units for the various sectors. Before South Sudan’s independence, the Government of Southern Sudan (GOSS) had the following ministries working on issues related to the environment:
■■ Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
■■ Ministry of Environment
■■ Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning
■■ Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
■■ Ministry of Roads and Transport
■■ Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
■■ Ministry of Energy and Mining
■■ Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development
■■ Ministry of Commerce and Industry
■■ Ministry of Wildlife and Tourism
■■ Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
The information on functions of these ministries extracted from the Government website (www.goss.org) is presented in Appendix 4. Ministries directly involved in sectors such as agriculture, animal resources, fisheries, forestry, wildlife, water and mining of course play an important role in natural resources management. In addition, ministries responsible for finance, rural development, physical planning and road infrastructure have an important role to play in assuring effective management of natural resources and the environment.
Ministry of Environment
The Ministry of Environment is responsible for the development and implementation of environmental policy and legislation, performing
the following functions and duties:
■■ Develop and execute policies and programmes on environmental protection and conservation throughout South Sudan;
■■ Establish the Government’s environmental policy and monitor its effectiveness and impact;
■■ Create programmes, in collaboration with other ministries, for the control of environmental degradation and control of desertification;
■■ Develop Environmental Impact Assessment standard methodologies and procedures for Government development policies and for private sector investment;
■■ Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for environment and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy;
■■ Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for environmental protection and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy.
At the level of the states and local governments, environmental governance has not yet been shaped. Only a few states have environmental directorates attached to one of their ministries. In Eastern Equatoria, the Directorate of Environment is part of the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism. An interesting structure in that state is the Environmental Task Force, which is composed of representatives of all state line ministries. Its role is joint planning of natural resources issues, and it meets monthly according to the Directorate of Environment.
Land Commission
The Land Commission is an independent agency within the Government, responsible for the management of land, involving issues such as ownership, registration, conflict resolution and development of policy and legislation in this regard. It is a crucial entity for the coordination of management of the environment as well as of
4. INSTITUTIONAL & POLICy fRAMEWORK
21Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
natural resources. The commission has a partnership with UN-HABITAT. The Land Act 2009 lays out an institutional arrangement for land management at the lower administrative levels, but this has not yet been put in place.
4.1.2 Natural resource management and environment working groups
To support coordination of policy development and technical support two working groups have been established, the Natural Resources Management Group and the Environment Cluster Group.
Natural Resources Management Group
The mission of the Natural Resource Management Group (NRMG) is to ensure holistic and integrated management of South Sudan’s natural resources for sustainable development. The NRMG is currently formed of seven Government ministries and the South Sudan Land Commission:
■■ Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
■■ Ministry of Energy and Mining
■■ Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
■■ Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development
■■ Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism
■■ Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
■■ Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning
■■ Ministry of Environment
■■ South Sudan Land Commission
4. INSTITUTIONAL & POLICy fRAMEWORK
Demonstration of fuel efficient stoves in Magwi, Eastern
Equatoria State, South Sudan
22 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
Environment Cluster Group
The Environment Cluster Group (ECG), formed of development partners including UN agencies and NGOs, was established to assist the Ministry of Environment in identifying and addressing significant environmental issues in South Sudan, and ensure that the Ministry of Environment is effective in coordinating its development partners through knowledge sharing, formation of partnerships, and provision of collaborative support. The ECG creates an opportunity for development partners to provide a coordinated approach in support of the Government that enable joint activities to be taken in identifying solutions to existing and newly emerging environmental issues.
4.2PolIcyAndReGulAtIonS
4.2.1 General framework
The current fundamental policy framework is the Interim Constitution of South Sudan. Since the signing of the CPA, policies and legislation developed under the Government of Sudan in Khartoum were gradually replaced and renewed by the Government of Southern Sudan and now by the Government of South Sudan. However, most are now in the final consultation and approval phase and have draft status (Appendix 6). Generally, draft versions are considered as confidential and therefore not available for review. Policies and legislation at lower levels follow after those at national level and therefore an analysis of the lower administrative levels is even more restricted.
4.2.2 South Sudan Development Plan
The main guiding document for the development of the country is the South Sudan Development Plan (SSDP) which addresses conflict management, poverty reduction and economic development. One of the goals of the document is to strive for less dependence on oil. The Government’s role is not to undertake economic activities itself, but to create an enabling environment for economic development by assuring peace, security, rule of law, macroeconomic stability, basic infrastructure and effective tax administration (GOSS, 2011).
The SSDP is structured through four ‘Pillars’, namely: (1) governance, (2) economic development, (3) social and human development, and (4) conflict
prevention and security. Within these pillars, cross cutting issues are defined as (1) anti-corruption, (2) capacity development, (3) environment, (4) gender, (5) HIV and AIDS, (6) youth, and (7) human rights.
Under the Governance Pillar, the Government’s role is to:
■■ ensure that development is sustainable through enforcing environmental and social impact assessments for all development programmes and projects
■■ accede to and ratify applicable and beneficial multilateral environmental treaties, conventions and agreements
■■ promote inclusive participation, access to information and good governance in sustainable natural resources management and environmental protection.
The Economic Development Pillar covers the following priority programme areas: (a) agriculture and forestry, (b) roads and road transport development, (c) development of energy, mineral and mining sectors (including oil), (d) animal resources and fisheries, and (e) Water resources management, development, utilisation and provision of sanitation services. Environmental sustainability of economic development and related activities including oil extraction, logging and charcoal production is to be ensured. The use of environmental impact assessments (EIAs) is required for infrastructure and power supply development.
The Social and Human Development Pillar envisages environmental awareness-raising of children, and improved health and sanitation facilities focusing particularly on the youth. A national early warning system will be developed to reduce risks of disasters.
The Conflict Prevention and Security Pillar will ensure environmental awareness-raising of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) participants as well as the requirement of EIAs for all major construction projects.
The following additions are recommended to be included in the SSDP:
■■ Explicit mention of climate change, adaptation strategies, and risks of climate change to livelihood, security
4. INSTITUTIONAL & POLICy fRAMEWORK
23Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
and economic development in the Governance Pillar;
■■ Mechanisms for the mainstreaming of environmental sustainability into development policies (e.g. SEA) in the Governance Pillar;
■■ Integrated land and resource use planning in Governance and/or Economic Development Pillar;
■■ Green energy promotion and carbon reduction should be included in the Economic Development Pillar;
■■ Discussion of the risk of land grabbing and excessive deforestation associated with the investment-eager policy of the Economic Development Pillar;
■■ Awareness-raising in the Social and Human Development Pillar should address adults as well as children;
■■ Attitudes towards littering the environment should be addressed through awareness-creation initiatives under the Social and Human Development Pillar (this is a very wide problem which starts with throwing plastic bottles everywhere and ends with dumping toxic products without feeling any responsibility).
4.2.3 Environmental Policy and the Environment Protection Bill
The South Sudan National Environmental Policy has been drafted to achieve sustainable development in light of the following factors (draft January 2010):
(1) The upcoming huge investment and development activities following the attainment of comprehensive peace in the country;
(2) Emerging environmental management challenges pertaining to diversion of land use systems, urban sprawl, oil exploration in the Sudd wetlands, loss of biodiversity, waste management and others;
(3) Ineffective environmental governance due to inadequate institutional capacity and limited government budgetary allocation for
environment;
(4) The need to harmonize the environmental legal frameworks with sectoral legislation and guidelines;
(5) The need to decentralize and devolve management of the environment to the lowest levels of government within the framework of the federal system of rule;
(6) The current state of environmental degradation as manifested in widespread pollution by the oil industry, increasing loss of biodiversity due to over-exploitation of forests, inadequate environmental sanitation associated with urban sprawl, and desert encroachment southwards;
(7) Lack of reliable information and data on the environment and limited research capacity.
The policy is based on the following principles: good governance, sustainable development, prevention, subsidiarity, the precautionary principle, scientific knowledge, skills and expertise, and ‘The Polluter Pays’. The policy gives guidance to all relevant sectors: agriculture, biodiversity, energy, fisheries, forestry, health, human settlements, industry, livestock, mining, oil, roads, tourism, transportation, water and sanitation. It emphasizes the importance of carrying out Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) in relation to any activity that may affect the environment.
The arrangements required for the implementation of the environmental policy are elaborated in the Environmental Protection Bill 2010. Relevant in relation to this EIRO assessment are the following elements:
■■ The establishment of the South Sudan National Environmental Authority (Article 8);
■■ The arrangements for the integration and mainstreaming of the environmental policy in line ministries and lower level governments through Environmental Liaison Units and State Environmental Committees and Local Environmental Committees (Articles 23-27);
■■ The elaboration and implementation of the 5-yearly Environmental Action Plan (Article 28);
■■ The implementation of EIA, EIS,
24 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
4. INSTITUTIONAL & POLICy fRAMEWORK
Fisherman at Lol River near Nyamlell, NBG
25Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
environmental audits and monitoring (Articles 29-33);
■■ Land use planning (Article 42);
■■ The protection of wetlands, lakes, rivers, hilly and mountainous areas, biodiversity, forests, rangelands, natural heritage and the ozone layer (Articles 43-55).
4.2.4 The Land Act 2009
The Land Act was enacted in 2009 and it is another crucial legal document in relation to sustainable environmental management. The Land Act classifies land as (a) communal, (b) public, or (c) private land. Only South Sudanese citizens can own land, but foreigners can lease land. The document defines rights and restrictions of land users and owners. The Land Commission supervises the application of the Land Act and its institutional set-up at the different administrative levels is elaborated in the Act. The Act prescribes EIA for investment projects, but there are no elaborate provisions for land use planning such as land use categories or planning and allocation procedures. A Land Policy is still under development and it will include some amendments to the Land Act.
4.3PolIcyGAPS
4.3.1 Policy implementation
The South Sudan National Environmental Policy and Environmental Bill form an excellent basis for sustainable environmental management of the country covering practically all required issues. The challenge, however, will be to make it work. The Bill is well elaborated, but it refers to a long lists of tasks to be accomplished before it can actually be fully implemented:
■■ The completion of orders, regulations, standards, criteria, measures, mapping, registers, and prescriptions as mentioned in the Bill;
■■ The establishment of institutional capacity, regulations and commitment at the lower administrative levels (Environmental Liaison Units and State Environmental Committees and Local Environmental Committees);
■■ Realization of capacity (including financial resources) for monitoring and law enforcement.
One of the most crucial threats in the immediate future is that the Environmental Bill has not yet been endorsed, so investments and development affecting the environment continue without being assessed and guided. As the originating and coordinating body for the Environmental Bill, the Ministry of Environment (MOE) is tasked with presenting the Bill to the Council of Ministers for endorsement. It is of paramount importance that an immediate and concerted effort is made by the MOE to have the Bill endorsed.
4.3.2 Integrated policy development
Most sectoral policies within the field of natural resources management are very sector-oriented. The environment is recognized by several policies and the SSDP as a factor to take into account through awareness-raising and the implementation of EIA. Several policies such as the Electric Power Policy, explicitly mention the importance of EIAs. However, generally land and natural resources are regarded only from the perspective of how they are interact with each sector, instead of being considered as a common asset to be managed by the sectors jointly to achieve a wise, fair and sustainable development of the country’s wealth for all. As a result, each sector devolves a part or all the cost of its development to other sectors. Examples are (a) charcoal burners destroying resources for livestock keepers and NTFP collectors, (b) livestock keepers burning tree seedlings of future forest users, (c) dam builders degrading floodplains of livestock keepers and fishers, etc.
The effectiveness of an EIA to achieve integrated development has limitations. An EIA is effective for the correction of project plans and the mitigation of its expected negative effects. However, it does not optimize resource use strategies and policies taking all sectors into account in an integrated way. The tools used to realize integrated policy development leading to sustainable natural resources management and climate change adaptation and mitigation are the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) or Strategic Environmental and Social Assessment (SESA).
26 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
4.3.3 Integrated resource management
Land use planning and a resource use based system for revenue collection are effective mechanisms to make integrated policies work. The former is a mechanism to assure a fair, wise and sustainable allocation of resources to all stakeholders, the latter is a system for monitoring, feedback and the provision of funding of maintenance (e.g. monitoring and protection). Land use planning is basically addressed by the Environmental Bill, but not by the current Land Act 2009.
The concept of Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), which is becoming widely applied globally, has not yet been used in South Sudan. This concept is particularly effective to facilitate the involvement of local communities in the management of restricted use areas, such as protected areas, forest reserves, buffer zones and corridors. A successful application in the East African region of this approach was in the Masai Mara Reserve in Kenya. In view of the large wildlife areas to be managed in both the east and west of the country, the development of this approach could be beneficial for both communities and government agencies responsible for resource protection. This approach also fits in well in a decentralized governance model.
Indirectly linked to resource-use planning are urbanization, migration and population growth. Although the SSDP deals extensively with health and the large proportion of the population that needs to be educated, there is no reference to population policy.
4.3.4 Halting degradation
All policies related to natural resources management should address the impact on vegetation, soils and climate of vegetation degradation and destruction due to charcoal production, fuel wood collection, livestock overstocking, (human made) forest fires and clearing for mechanized agriculture. Forest plantations are very useful to release the pressure from natural forests and to obtain forest products that satisfy specific needs. However, they is no long-term (nor a cheap) solution to degradation. Planted forests tend, in the long term, to become vulnerable to phyto-parasites, which may cause mass die-off. Examples of this exist in pine forests
in southern Africa and Europe. In many countries, (e.g. Carpathian and Alpine countries) foresters have started natural regeneration in mono-species forests to cope with this problem. In fact, the best and only long-term option is proper fire management, maintaining livestock numbers and forest exploitation at sustainable levels. An interesting experiment was carried out in the 1970s in the Negev desert in Israel when a vast semi-desert area was fenced to exclude livestock. After several years, green natural vegetation settled and stabilized and even higher rainfall was measured.
Dealing with the livestock problem is a challenge in a country where this sector has such a prominent place in society and the economy. However, with the current numbers, addressing this issue is unavoidable. A good suggestion in the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) 2007 was to shift from goats to sheep, but further thinking is required to transform the livestock sector into one having less impact on the environment and contributing more to the economy, without losing all of its cultural importance.
The most urgent gap in the current policies is the absence of an elaborate fire policy. Fire is costing South Sudan a great deal in terms of reduced forest production and consequences of climate change. West African Sahel and Sudan zone countries (e.g. Senegal, Burkina Faso and Ghana) have recorded significant achievements by developing and implementing effective wild fire policies. Such policies would be applicable in South Sudan as the climatic conditions and general land use are comparable.
The Environmental Policy and Bill provide a good starting point for the protection of water, catchment areas and slopes. These measures urgently need to be mainstreamed and implemented at the lower administrative levels.
4.3.5 Climate change adaptation
The Environmental Bill addresses the protection of the ozone layer, but neither the Environmental Policy nor the SSDP mentions climate change adaptation as urgent. The NAPA, prepared by the Government of National Unity in 2007, specifies adaptation measures to be applied in the field of agriculture, water and health.
4. INSTITUTIONAL & POLICy fRAMEWORK
27Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
Major adaptation activities and needs with regards to agriculture:
■■ Community-based forest and rangeland management and rehabilitation;
■■ Replacement of household goat herds with sheep herds to reduce pressure on fragile rangelands;
■■ Lessening of pressure on local forests through use of mud brick building design and alternative energy sources;
■■ Land use conversion from agricultural activities to livestock raising;
■■ Strengthening of agricultural and veterinary extension services, including demonstration;
■■ Introduction of drought-resistant seed varieties, poultry and fish production;
■■ Afforestation of areas denuded of trees for building construction and firewood;
■■ Drought early warning systems for disaster preparedness;
■■ Extension services in agricultural capacity strengthening for small scale farmers;
■■ Protection and rehabilitation of rangelands, including construction of shelterbelts to reduce windstorm impacts.
Water intake in Juba on the Nile river bank to supply returning citizens with water, Central Equatoria State
28 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
Major adaptation activities and needs with regards to agriculture:
■■ Introduction of new water harvesting/spreading techniques making use of intermediate technologies;
■■ Promotion of greater use of effective, traditional water conservation practices;
■■ Rehabilitation of existing dams as well as improvements in water basin infrastructure for increased water storage capacity, particularly in central and western regions of South Sudan;
■■ Construction of dams and water storage facilities in some of the water valleys, particularly in the western region of South Sudan;
■■ Introduction of water-conserving agricultural land management practices;
■■ Improvement of access to groundwater supplies by humans and animals though installation of water pumps;
■■ Enhancement of capabilities of regional meteorological stations to monitor hydro-climatic variables;
■■ Introduction of a revolving micro-credit fund to support implementation of small water harvesting projects;
■■ Extension services in to strengthen capacity in water capture and storage techniques among small-scale farmers.
Major adaptation activities and needs with regards to health:
■■ Improved community sanitation and medical services, including capacities for diagnosis and treatment;
■■ Building of community awareness regarding preventative measures for malaria, meningitis, and leishmaniasis;
■■ Introduction of preventive measures to restrict malaria transmission such as mosquito nets, treatment/drying up of breeding sites;
■■ Introduction of early disease diagnosis and treatment programmes for malaria, meningitis, and leishmaniasis;
■■ Improvement of irrigation system management so as to reduce breeding sites;
■■ Provision of alternative water supply systems for domestic use that do not involve open standing water areas.
It is recommended that South Sudan join the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and that climate change adaptation are
4. INSTITUTIONAL & POLICy fRAMEWORK
Sale of thatching grass, fuel wood and charcoal and Ikotos market, Eastern Equatoria
29Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
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mainstreamed in its policies based on a National Adaptation Programme of Action for South Sudan. The Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is an effective tool to support the development of climate adaptation programmes and policies.
4.3.6 Energy
The South Sudan National Electric Sector Policy (‘the policy’) was approved in 2007. The policy is very much geared towards diesel and hydropower. The policy envisages a parastatal status for the main producer, the South Sudan Electricity Corporation (SSEC), supervised by the Government and investors. Since 2005, electricity production powered by diesel has expanded significantly and now covers the towns of Bor, Kapoeta, Juba, Malakal, Maridi, Rumbek, Wau, Yambio and Yei with more planned for Aweil, Bentiu, Kwajok, Malakal and Torit (Figure 4). The policy aims at the development of an extensive power network to allow fewer but larger power plants to satisfy needs.
The policy strives also for diversification and sustainable energy generation. To this end, the feasibility of eight hydropower dams is being investigated (Juba barrage, Due, Kinyeti, Bedden,
Fula, Lakki and Shukolli). Moreover, a tender is running for the construction of a 50 MW power plant generated by municipal waste and biomass gasification funded by an European Union (EU) loan. There is also interest in the use of solar power and the Ministry of Energy and Mining is currently studying an offer for streetlights powered by solar power. However, no feasibility studies have been carried with regard to solar and wind energy, despite the country’s potential for those resources (Afrepen, 2011).
The policy does not address other household energy needs. Charcoal and fuel wood are considered as issues to be dealt with by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. An effective policy for charcoal and fuel wood management is badly needed. Currently, these resources are essentially considered as ‘free resources’ that can be used without limitation, resulting in accelerating depletion with deforestation, erosion and climate change as side effects.
elec
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FIGuRe1: Increasing diesel-powered electricity production in South Sudan’s main cities by the SSEC (source: Min. Energy & Mining, Department of Energy)
30 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
5.1methodoloGyAndAvAIlABIlItyoFdAtA
Field data on natural resources and ecosystem services are very scarce in South Sudan due to the long period of war, during which data collection stalled and during which existing data sources were also lost. Moreover, the focus of many studies and data sets was on northern Sudan.
To quantify impacts of land use and environmental changes such as climate change, it is necessary to gather data over extended time intervals, preferably spanning several decades. Data series derived from spatial analysis are very useful for this purpose, but such information could only be collected on a few occasions. However, the Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment (UNEP, 2007) contains some maps on land cover changes in different areas of Sudan, indicating locally a dramatic shift from woodland and forest to cultivated and bare land.
Most of the information on impacts and risks in this chapter is obtained from existing assessments and publications. Further information was obtained by interviews with a wide variety of stakeholders (Appendix 1). In some cases, data sets were provided by Government agencies and processed with statistical analysis procedures (SPSS). Where possible, graphs were used to visualize trends. Additional information, particularly on ecosystem dynamics, was used from scientific publications reporting research in other but comparable areas. As much as possible crosschecking and triangulation was done between different information sources. As a result of the variable availability of information, the level of the presented results and conclusions varies per section.
At the end of this chapter a figure is presented giving a summary of all impacts recorded (Figure 14).
5.2clImAte
Climate is mainly determined by water and temperature. The National Adaptation Plan of Action (HCENR, 2007), which was prepared for the entire Sudan before South Sudan became independent, predicts rising temperatures and a decrease in rainfall having significant consequences for agriculture, water and health:
Climate scenario analyses conducted as part of the preparation of Sudan’s First National Communications indicate that average temperatures are expected to rise significantly relative to baseline expectations. By 2060, projected warming ranges from 1.5oC to 3.1oC during August to between 1.1oC to 2.1oC during the month of January. Projections of rainfall under climate change conditions also shows sharp deviations from baseline expectations. Results from some of the models show average rainfall decrease of about 6 mm/month during the rainy season. Such changes in temperatures and precipitation will adversely affect sustaining the development progress that has achieved in many sectors in Sudan. The three highest priority sectors where urgent and immediate action is needed were identified through the NAPA consultation process to be agriculture, water, and public health (Figure 5).
For South Sudan, no specific climate change scenario models have been found, but generally expectations are based on regional trends. According to various sources (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Ministry of Water and Irrigation) climate change in South Sudan is manifested through:
(1) Duration and timing of rain becoming erratic, rainy season delayed and shorter;
(2) Some areas receiving generally less rain, water tables dropping;
(3) The desert expanding southward.
Rainfall data for South Sudan are scarcely available. The FAO SISFIA project managed to collect data from 1980 onwards from different rainfall stations and apart from that some additional data were collected from other sources by the assessment team. These data do not show a clear change in annual rainfall (Figure 6). Data on monthly rainfall in Malakal (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Upper Nile) do however show a trend of delayed and shortening rainy seasons over time (Figure 7). An even longer period of data from Aweil (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Northern Bahr el Ghazal) shows a similar trend (Figure 8) and, moreover, a tendency towards an earlier finish to the rains, resulting in a more drastic shortening of the rainy season. These trends were confirmed by different sources in Upper Nile and Northern Bahr el Ghazal at government level and in the field by farmers.
5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
31Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
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5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
FIGuRe5: Projected yields for all Sudan (north and South Sudan) with climate change showing decreasing harvests in the future due to climate change (source: results of Sudan’s First National Communication under the UNFCCC, 2003)
FIGuRe6: Annual rainfall measured at El Renk, Juba, Malakal, Raga and Aweil meteorological stations in South Sudan from 1975 to 2010 showing no clear trend of annual rainfall decrease but significant fluctuations of from year to year (sources - El Renk, Juba and Raga: FAO Juba; Malakal: Upper Nile State Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; Aweil: Northern Bahr el Ghazal State Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry)
32 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
JAn FeB mAR APR mAy Jun Jul AuG SeP oct nov dec1975
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FIGuRe8: Months with over 20mm rainfall (indicated as dashed) in Aweil in the period 1975 – 2010, indicating a trend of delayed and shortened rainy seasons (source: Northern Bahr el Ghazal State Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries)
FIGuRe7:Months with over 20mm rainfall (indicated as dashed) in Malakal in the period 1990 – 2010, indicating a trend of delayed and shortened rainy season (source: Upper Nile State Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries)
33Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
5.3wAteR
Most of South Sudan is covered by the Bahr el Ghazal, Nile and Sobat River catchments which join at their confluents near Malakal to form the White Nile (Mohamed et al., 2004, Mohamed et al., 2005; Sutcliffe & Parks, 1989). The Sobat River and even more so the Bahr el Ghazal river catchments have a strong seasonal character in contrast with the Nile, which finds its origin in various climatic zones and whose hydrological dynamics are also toned down by the lake systems in East Africa. The Sudd wetlands between Bor and Malakal have a similar effect, as per other African wetlands such as the Niger Inner Delta, the Senegal Delta and the Okavango Delta (Sutcliffe & Parks 1989). Remarkable, however, is the dramatic increase of the Wetlands due to heavy rains in Congo and East Africa in the 1960s and 1970s (Sutcliffe & Parks, 1987). At present, flooding is close to the limits it had during the first half of the twentieth century, but there is generally a trend of decreasing flooding.
5.3.1 The Sudd wetland and Jonglei canal
In the Sudd and Bahr el Ghazal wetlands, water stagnates and a high proportion evaporates. However, the evaporated water is not lost from the system as it is partly recycled in the form of rain and it contributes to an increase of the air moisture index, which results in a reduction of evaporation in the dry season (Mohamed et al., 2005). Plans to complete the Jonglei Canal – draining part of the Sudd swamps in order to increase the quantity of water available for hydropower and irrigation downstream – are therefore expected to have a negative effect on the climate in South Sudan. Apart from this, a dramatic impact is to be expected on wildlife, livestock and fish, as dry season feed supply for wildlife and livestock will decrease due to reduced flooding, and wet season spawning areas for many fish species will also decrease.
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1895 1910 1925 1940 1955 1970 1985 2000
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FIGuRe9: Annual maximum flooded area of the Sudd marches since 1895 showing sudden increase of the flooded area in the 1960s due to a number of years with high rainfall in the Great Lakes region during that period, and the gradual decrease in flooding since then due to decreasing rains and increasing water utilisation upstream (Sutcliffe & Parks, 1987)
34 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
Discharge of sewer into Nile River at Malakal, Upper Nile State
35Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
5.3.2 Disappearing rivers
Rivers coming from the plateau along the border with the Central African Republic are drying up. A number of rivers that were reported to have been permanent rivers in the past have become seasonal in the last two decades. This applies to rivers such as the Kir, Lol, Jur, Gal and Peyia. This phenomenon has been confirmed in interviews with several older people in the region. The decrease of water flow in the river is most likely related both to land use (forest clearing, overgrazing and forest fire accelerating erosion and siltation) and climate change (less rainfall and higher evaporation). The siltation in the river has increased, causing congestion of irrigation channels and a drop in the water table in riverbeds. Furthermore, swamp areas are decreasing and trees have been reported as dying in some areas due to lack of water.
The ecological impact of rivers changing from perennial to seasonal is significant and so are the consequences for livelihoods. There is a significant change in water quality, particularly at the onset of the rains. Many migratory fish species will disappear, and only fish which can survive in stagnating dry season ponds or in the mud will survive. Fishermen in Nyamlel fishing in river Lol reported that they suspect that five species have disappeared from their river out of the 15 species they know, and the size of fish they caught has also decreased. Mudfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) could reach a length of 1.5 metres in the past but nowadays the fishermen are catching specimens which are a maximum of 0.5 metres in length. More factors may play a role here, but over-fishing is most probably not one of them as the fishing in these rivers is quite limited and simple techniques are being used.
5.3.3 Water pollution
Water pollution is increasing due to the increasing concentration of people in urban areas and the use of an increasing number of chemical and toxic products (UNEP, 2007). In Malakal, for example, it was observed not only that the open sewer discharged directly into the River Nile, but also waste water from a hospital and run-off from the electricity power plant, which was obviously seriously polluted with oil. In Wau, a slaughterhouse was visited whose drainage discharged into a nearby wetland, but a new slaughterhouse is being constructed.
5.3.4 Oil exploitation
Oil pollution is a very serious risk, particularly in wetlands. From various persons who managed to visit the oil exploitation sites in Abyei, Unity State and Upper Nile State, it was understood that oil pollution around these sites is visible (see also Cooper & Catterson, 2007 and GoSS, 2010). However, these sites were then under the control of the Khartoum Government and the Government of Southern Sudan generally had no access and no control. It was therefore impossible to monitor the level of respect paid to the environment by the oil companies. Cooper and Catterson (2007) state: “The areas in Unity and Upper Nile currently yielding petroleum are dotted with small ponds created near the well heads to hold the “produced water” that typically comes out of the ground from the oil wells. Produced water is produced with the oil, often with high concentrations of chemicals, minerals or mixed with oil, and frequently at high temperatures. The high amounts of the contaminants (salts or chlorides, hydrocarbons, well treatment chemicals, oil separation and water treatment chemicals) can reach toxic concentrations that will pollute the surrounding areas or waters if dispersed directly into them (Exxon Mobil 2000). They are currently being stockpiled in man-made ponds adjacent to the drilling sites where the expectation is that they will be disposed of by evaporation over time.”
Some other risks of oil exploitation mentioned in the same report are:
■■ Oil spills causing contamination at exploration/production facilities and around pipelines;
■■ Disruptions to the local hydrology (of various types and magnitudes and with varying collateral adverse socio-environmental impacts);
■■ Contamination as a result of disposal and release of produced water;
■■ Disposal and release of hazardous materials used in drilling;
■■ Pollution from human waste, solid waste from oil camps and/or fuel and lubricants associated with mechanized equipment;
■■ Species and habitat loss from increased accessibility to otherwise remote areas, especially within the swamps of the Sudd.
36 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
5.4nAtuRAlFoReSt
The FAO Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) 2010, (Table 5, and Table 6) estimates the current annual loss for forests and other wooded land in South Sudan at 277,630 hectares. The rate of forestation is determined by the national and foreign demand for tree products. It is likely that deforestation (without significant improvement of protection) increases at least proportionally with the number of national consumers, but probably much faster due to accelerated deforestation for the reasons explained in the following sections. The number of consumers increases as a result of immigration, natural population growth and the extension of the market (e.g. to Kenya, Uganda and Sudan) due to the reduction of transport barriers (Figure 10). The factors playing an important role in deforestation are explained in the following sections.
5.4.1 Clearing for cultivation
The most important factor responsible for total forest clearing is cultivation. The average small-scale farming household uses 0.4 to 1 hectares of land for the cultivation of subsistence crops. However, the total area under cultivation in South Sudan is still low. It may be expected that the cultivated area will increase proportionally with the increasing population and, in the longer term when agricultural mechanization becomes more common, even more.
Since the security situation has been improving, mechanized agriculture has expanded in all parts of South Sudan. A recent survey of land-based investments (Deng, 2011) indicates that, from 2007 to 2010, foreign companies, governments and individuals have sought or acquired at least 2.64 million hectares (26,400 km
2) of land for projects in the agriculture, biofuel and forestry sectors in South Sudan. Private investment projects in agriculture may help the country’s economy forward, but if social and environmental aspects are not taken into account social and environmental cost may be very high.
This is particularly the case with mechanized agriculture, which does not contribute much to employment. According to the Upper Nile State Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 442,470 hectares of mechanized agricultural land have been planted in the season 2010-2011 in Upper Nile State, which is an area close to the total current area under cultivation in the state (448,442 hectares,
according to FAO). In Central and Western Equatoria States, large scale clearing has been carried out with bulldozers in some dense, humid forest areas to make space for mechanized maize production and biofuels. It has been reported that in some counties in Central Equatoria, up to 70 percent of the territory has been leased out to the private sector. Such large-scale forest clearing projects have been reported in the vicinity of Juba, Terekeka and Yambio (unknown large areas for maize cultivation), among others; and along the Juba - Yei road there are plans to clear an area of 20,000 hectares. One project initiative (The Joseph Project) even proposes the clearing of 1 million hectares of forest in the Nile region of South Sudan for highly mechanized and partly irrigated agriculture. This American-Canadian company has links with the American agro-machinery company John Deere.
The production of biofuels is becoming one of the most important causes of deforestation worldwide. Due to rising oil prices and a growing and insatiable market, only a strong land use policy can resist this pressure. ‘Land grabbing’ is also occurring in other parts of the world. In countries such as Brazil, Indonesia and Malaysia, it is counterproductive to the development of rural communities and it causes social stress and conflicts. Experience has shown that such large-scale developments can only bring long-term benefits and minimal social and environmental costs if they are carefully planned. A high level and fully independent EIA should be applied in all these cases.
5.4.2 Clearing for roads and settlements
To create space for roads, settlements and other social and economic infrastructure, forested areas are often to be cleared. The area cleared is usually larger than the area occupied by the structures themselves. Moreover, the impact of human presence and land use associated with roads and settlements usually reaches much further than the original area cleared. Continuous use of forest products by people and passing livestock results in an impact gradient in a wide zone along and around such areas, which may stretch over a distance of up to 5 km or more away from roads and settlements (Deodatus & Toko, 1998).
Currently, a highway is being constructed from Khartoum via Malakal, Bor, and Juba to Gulu in Uganda. This road will open up vast areas in the states of Upper Nile, Jonglei and Central Equatoria that were previously isolated. The road will have a
5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
37Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
positive influence on the economy of these areas, but at the same time pressure on their resources will increase considerably. Prior to the construction of this highway no Environmental or Social Impact Assessment was carried out and hence no mitigating measures to minimize its impacts were included in this project. A resident livestock farmer near the Sobat River (Upper Nile State) reported that nobody was consulted or informed in his village, and in April bulldozers cleared his land in front of his house, without even explaining what was going to happen. The course of the road is not only reducing his land, but it cuts through it, which will force him in the future to cross the road with his cattle on a daily basis.
5.4.3 Charcoal burning
The main fuel used in urban centres is charcoal. Many returnees burn wood to make charcoal to generate income, because no license is needed and simple tools are required. Moreover, the forest
belongs ‘to nobody.’ The production of charcoal requires large quantities of wood and likely contributes significantly to deforestation (Table 3). Two charcoal burners in Northern Bahr el Ghazal used five trees for one charcoal mound, which is producing three to four bags of charcoal. In Upper Nile, larger mounds are made producing 20-30 bags, but on average we can estimate that one bag of charcoal contains more or less 1.5 trees. The Northern Bahr el Ghazal burners produced on average 4 bags per week, which were sold for 20 Sudanese Pounds to buyers who then took them to Aweil market. According to various interviewees, one family (on average five persons) uses approximately one bag of charcoal per week. If we assume that 30 larger trees are found per hectare on an undisturbed savanna (based on Google Earth image of Upper Nile), than each removed tree results in the deforestation of 0.03 ha. Hence, the annual use of charcoal of one family accounts for 2.6 ha of deforestation in that area. This estimate may be not very precise due to variations in tree
Charcoal burning Magwi County, Eastern Equatoria
38 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
cover and tree size, but it is meant to give a tangible sense of the scale of deforestation due to charcoal utilization. In the humid savannas, tree densities are higher (10-50 times for example, in areas assessed by the team in Central Equatoria) and therefore the deforestation rate expressed in hectare per bag of charcoal is lower.
Large quantities of charcoal are also exported. Based on some monthly figures on charcoal
exportation from the Renk County in Upper Nile State to Sudan (Table 2), it is estimated that now annually in the order of 60,000 bags of charcoal are exported from Renk County, representing 2,700 hectares of deforested land. This estimate is based on an extrapolation of the annual fluctuations in charcoal production due to seasonality. Since more charcoal may have been exported unregistered or illegally, the real figure is expected to be much higher.
month numberofbags
January 3,118
February unknown
March 7,596
April 3,605
May 4,325
tABle1: Number of bags of charcoal taxed for exportation to northern Sudan in Upper Nile during the first months of 2011 (source: Upper Nile State Ministry of Finance)
tABle2: Observed activities contributing to woodland degradation in the area west of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (source: Malimbwi et al., n.d.)
Activity Percentage
Charcoal making 75
Timber 12
Agricultural expansion 7
Others 6
total 100
5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
Charcoal selling along Magwi-Torit road
39Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
Charcoal burners often do not realize that they degrade the forest and deplete their own source of income in the longer term. A charcoal burner in a returnee settlement of Malakal stated:
“We feel that this forest is so big that the wood will never finish.”
5.4.4 Brick making
In the past, houses were made of sun-dried bricks. Nowadays more and more baked bricks are used. Brick bakers interviewed in the Bahr el Gazal region produced 120,000 bricks in one cycle, which are sold for 0.25 Sudanese Pounds per piece. One brick-baking cycle uses 8 cubic metres of firewood. Building the kiln takes 7-14 days, baking 7 days and taking the bricks out another 7-8 days. In Upper Nile brick makers produced between 80,000 and 160,000 bricks per kiln using one truck load of
wood for large kilns and a half a truck load for small kilns. One brick-baking cycle was half a month, which means that the presence of one kiln accounts for the utilization of an average of 18 truckloads of firewood per year.
5.4.5 Construction wood
The demand for wood for construction has increased due to the construction of new settlements. For timber, higher quality wood of larger older trees (Daniellia oliveri, Khaya senegalensis) is exploited. If taken in large quantities, important elements of the vegetation are removed, which impacts vegetation structure and may increase erosion. Teak plantations are found in the more humid parts of the country. Most of them lack proper management and were badly harvested during the war (UNEP, 2007).
5.4.6 Livestock grazing/browsing
Livestock in South Sudan, particularly cattle, sheep and goats, consume grass and trees (leaves, branches, seedlings). Grazing and browsing is
Brick making along Sobat River near the end of the Jonglei canal, Upper Nile State
40 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
sustainable as long as the re-growth capacity of the vegetation matches the level of use. If the off-take by livestock is too high or if other factors of degradation (e.g. fire, clearing for different purposes, low rainfall, drop of water table) interact with grazing the vegetation will degrade, which means that open tree savannas may fragment and on the long run they turn into grasslands or deserts (Miehe et al., 2010).
The number of livestock has increased dramatically since the 1960s, and the stocking rates even more due to the loss of rangeland. From 1961 to 2004, the number of livestock in Sudan and South Sudan has increased almost fivefold, while the number of cattle increased 3.6 percent annually. South Sudan has a very high number of livestock (Table 4), but data from the Sudan Institutional Capacity Programme: Food Security Information for Action (SIFSIA) show a recent slowdown of the increase of cattle, which had an annual increase rate of 2 percent between 2005 and 2010. In approximately the same period (1973 to 2006), the area of rangeland in South Sudan has decreased annually by 18.5 percent between due to degradation and land conversion (UNEP, 2007).
The impact of livestock grazing is less visible and more difficult to quantify than that of clearing for agriculture and cutting for charcoal, fuel wood or construction. The most important contribution
of livestock to deforestation is the removal of seedlings, which eliminates the capacity of the forest to regenerate. Heavily grazed forest therefore often shows a very open structure on the ground. Fire is very much associated with livestock keeping, as pastoralists burn grass to promote the re-growth of perennial grasses in the dry season. Again, fire kills seedlings and hence reduces re-growth of trees. If fires are badly managed they also degrade perennial grasses (Penning de Vries, 1982).
5.4.7 Fires
Bush fire may originate from a number of causes:
■■ Farmers use fire to remove vegetation for cultivation; sometimes they lose control and wildfires result;
■■ Pastoralists use fire to remove dry grass cover and to stimulate re-growth of perennial grasses (green flush);
■■ Hunters use fire to chase animals hidden in the vegetation;
■■ On some occasions natural fires occur due to thunderstorms, but this is actually rare since thunderstorms mainly occur in the wet season and they are accompanied by rain.
tABle4: Livestock numbers in South Sudan states (source: SISFIA)
5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
State cattle Goats Sheep total
Upper Nile 990,024 650,503 447,097 2,087,624
Unity 1,188,824 1,511,319 1,784,172 4,484,315
Jonglei 1,475,096 1,423,281 1,227,409 4,125,786
Northern Bahr el Ghazal 1,590,400 1,305,897 1,657,635 4,553,932
Western Bahr el Ghazal 1,256,416 1,183,622 1,138,833 3,578,871
Lakes 1,320,032 1,252,096 1,488,919 4,061,047
Warrap 1,538,712 3,130,788 1,391,907 6,061,407
Central Equatoria 882,672 1,286,333 1,172,576 3,341,581
Eastern Equatoria 894,600 1,041,783 1,151,487 3,087,870
Western Equatoria 679,896 1,188,513 1,151,487 3,019,896
Total 11,816,672 13,974,135 12,611,522 38,402,329
41Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
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Fires destroy seeds, tree seedlings, rhizomes of perennial grasses and organic contents of the soil. Areas frequently devastated by fires lose tree re-growth and perennial grasses. Annual grasses, which have less nutritious value for livestock, gain an advantage from fire, since their seeds may survive in the subsoil or recolonize burned areas by dispersion through wind or herbivores. However, frequent, hot (late) fires will even reduce occupation of the soil by annual grasses. The impact of fires depends on the time of year and of day that they take place. Fires early in the dry season are less destructive as air temperature is normally relatively low in that period and plants are less dry. As a result, fires are less hot, pass quickly, and only dead material burns, leaving trees and topsoil intact. More or less the same applies to fires started early in the day when air temperature is relatively low and air humidity is high. Fires on slopes are usually hotter and more destructive than fires in flat areas.
5.4.8 Water table reduction
Resistance to drought varies between tree species. The drop in water tables (section 5.3) reduces the availability of water for tree species of limited drought resistance in the dry season, particularly
species found in gallery and ground water forests. Farmers and staff of the Northern Bahr el Ghazal State Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry reported a significant drop in the water table, but this was not observed in Upper Nile and Central Equatoria States, which can be explained by the better water retention of the clay soils along the River Nile.
Area Forest(ha) otherwoodedland(ha) Annualloss(ha) Annualpercentageloss
Bahr el Ghazal 14,048,291 4,829,122 113,958 0.60
Upper Nile 15,165,707 6,333,033 76,192 0.35
Equatoria 14,256,099 3,356,184 87,480 0.50
Forest Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.
otherwoodedland Land not classified as “forest”, spanning more than 0.5 hectares; with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of 5-10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ; or with a combined cover of shrubs, bushes and trees above 10 percent. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.
otherland All land that is not classified as “forest” or “other wooded land”.
otherlandwithtreecover(Subordinatedto“otherland”)
Land classified as “other land”, spanning more than 0.5 hectares with a canopy cover of more than 10 percent of trees able to reach a height of 5 meters at maturity.
Inlandwaterbodies Inland water bodies generally include major rivers, lakes and water reservoirs.
FIGuRe10: Predicted changes of forest cover and other wooded land in South Sudan regions based on the deforestation rate during the period 2005-2010 and an annual population increase of 2.2 percent, indicating disappearance of forest within a century if protection is not improved (FAO, 2010).
tABle5: Cover of forest and other wooded vegetation in South Sudan regions (FAO, 2005) and annual loss of forest cover (FAO, 2010) in hectares and percentage.
tABle6: FAO Forest Resources Assessment forest cover classification (FAO, 2010).
42 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
5.5lAnd
Erosion is a serious problem, which occurs particularly on sloping areas with coarse soil texture and poor vegetation cover. Factors accelerating erosion are cultivation, over-grazing, wildfire and other activities responsible for the clearing of the land’s natural ground cover. The major consequences of erosion are loss of soil quality for natural vegetation and agriculture, and the siltation of rivers, lakes, dams and irrigation canals. Water erosion is more prominent in the Bahr el Ghazal region and Eastern Equatoria, due to higher human pressure, more sloping land and/or generally coarser soil types compared to the landscapes dominated by the Nile floodplains in the centre of the country. Signs of erosion observed in Northern Bahr el Ghazal were ‘rill’ erosion and clogged irrigation canals in the Aweil Rice scheme. However, the most striking consequence (partly) due to erosion is the drying up of permanent rivers in the dry season.
Construction of roads and settlements usually implies removal of vegetation, and hence contributes to the erosion hazard. Almost everywhere along newly constructed roads quarries are found which were used to extract laterite for the road pavement. Usually these are not decommissioned after use.
According to the Ministry of Energy and Mining, no field surveys have yet been carried out to explore mineral resources, but potential areas for mining (e.g. for gold, diamonds and cement) have been mapped, based on remote sensing data. Artisanal mining occurs dispersed throughout the country but no data exists yet on this activity. The exploitation of clay along the main rivers for the production of bricks is widespread, particularly in the north of the country. This is not controlled and environmental impacts are not taken into account, although it contributes significantly to lateral river bed erosion.
The risks related to large investment projects mechanized agriculture (e.g. biofuels) with respect to land were highlighted in section 5.4.1. In addition to the environmental impact of such projects, large scale leasing of land may conflict with the interests of local communities (Shanmugaratham, 2008) and reduce options for these communities to adapt to climate change. This risk is significant since Social Impact Assessments (SIA) and consultations have so far
not been used in land use planning (see also the example of the construction of the Malakal – Bor highway given in section 5.4.2).
5.6BIodIveRSIty
This assessment mainly focused on human-dominated landscapes, where it is expected that biodiversity will be impacted and larger wildlife species are usually less common. Visual and qualitative assessment of the vegetation showed that, particularly in Northern Bahr el Ghazal, grasslands are heavily degraded. Even in the floodplains, tuft-forming perennial grasses (e.g. Andropogon gayanus) show clear signs of degradation. In the lower parts, patches of Vetiveria nigritana survive, but apart from that low quality annual grasses are taking over.
The absence of a good understory of young trees and seedlings in the woodlands indicate overgrazing and the impact of wildfire, evidence of the 2.5 million livestock coming from northern Sudan to spend the dry season in the Bahr el Ghazal area reported by the State Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries in Aweil. The Upper Nile plains east of the River Nile show less impact of grazing and fire than in Northern Bahr el Ghazal and perennial grasses seem to have generally a better condition. The forest structure of the area around Malakal is however strongly determined by the impact of charcoal burning. Most of the older trees have been removed.
Birds are quite common and include some charismatic species such as the Crowned Crane, Spurwing Goose, Open Bill Stork and others. It is very probable that high numbers of migratory birds are present during the period November – March. There are however no data that enable an assessment of the current status of birds.
The presence of mammal species is very poor. During the two-week assessment period, only a few Sun Squirrels and Patas Monkeys were observed, despite the excellent wildlife habitat that can be found along the Nile River in Upper Nile. Villagers in Upper Nile reported the occasional sighting of gazelles. Game guards in Northern Bahr el Ghazal gave a reliable report of the recent sighting (May 2011) of two adult lions and a cub in the vicinity of Ashana Game Reserve, which is a positive indicator of wildlife in that area. Poaching in that area is however very common,
5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
43Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
particularly by Baggara, often in large groups of 40 to 50 hunters using horses and sometimes even cars or trucks.
5.7FoodSecuRIty
Among the most important staple foods, cereal production has increased on average 5 percent per year (Figure 11). This trend, however, was strongly influenced by the extremely good season of 2008. If this year is omitted, the increase in cereal production is, on average, 3.4 percent per year, which is still more than the natural increase of the human population, but less than the actual population increase due to migration. In the same period, with an average annual cereal production of 700,000 tonnes per year, an average 100,000 tonnes of imported food aid was provided by WFP alone (Table 7).
The increased production of cereals is a consequence of the extension of the area under cultivation (Figure 12). Production per hectare shows a light decrease (Figure 13), which could be a consequence of climate change and/or soil degradation.
tABle7: Food aid provided by WFP to South Sudan from 2006 to May 2011 (source: WFP).
year Beneficiaries tonnes
2006 2,102,283 124,176
2007 1,693,206 70,624
2008 1,433,220 83,422
2009 1,325,940 74,241
2010 2,399,553 157,755
2011 (Jan-May) 953,655 35,336
5.8cASe:SuStAInABleFARmInGAlonGJuBA–yeIRoAd
To give this chapter a happy ending, a report is included about a family farm visited by chance by the assessment team, along the Juba - Yei road. This ‘traditional farm’ appeared to have included principles of agro-forestry and sustainability in its diversified farming practices, such as:
■■ Sustainable charcoal production through tree coppicing in agricultural fields;
■■ Leaving coppiced trees in the fields, to enable new harvesting of wood after re-growth;
■■ Long cultivation cycle with a variety of crops (e.g. sesame, groundnuts, cassava, teak);
■■ Tying goats during crop season;
■■ Applying fire only in the month of October (as fires are less destructive short after the rainy season);
■■ Avoid perennial grasses to be affected by fire;
■■ Managing perennial grasses for production of thatching grass;
■■ No agro-chemicals;
■■ Small-scale plot pattern alternated with trees (including fruit trees).
Marabu storks near Juba, Central Equatoria
44 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
0
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5. ASSESSMENT Of IMPACTS & RISKS
FIGuRe11: Annual production of cereals in Equatoria, Bahr el Ghazal and Upper Nile regions and respective regression lines indicating an increase in all regions, but also increasing production fluctuations related to climate change (source FAO)
FIGuRe12: Annual production of cereals in South Sudan (in 1000 tonnes) and cultivated area (in 1000 ha) indicating that the increase in production is correlated with an increased area under cultivation (source: FAO).
FIGuRe13: Production of cereals per hectare showing a trend of gradual decrease of production per hectare (source: FAO).
45Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
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46 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
6.1concePtuAlFRAmewoRkFoRPolIcydeveloPmentAndImPlementAtIonPRoJectS
Effective policy development and implementation is usually based on a cyclic learning process that starts with acquiring knowledge and understanding of the relevant sector. After the problem analysis, policies can be elaborated to give direction to interventions and operations. If these have been defined, the capacity required has to be determined and mobilized. Then, operational and managerial activities can be implemented. At a certain (usually pre-set) moment, the achievements are assessed, eventually in the context of external factors to enable improvement or adaptation of the strategy in a changing context. At this stage, the cycle recommences.
The impact of environmental project interventions will be optimal if they adhere to the basic structure stated above, paying attention to the requirements of each phase in the cycle. According to this model, a successful project in the field of natural resources management and climate change needs to intervene at all of the following four levels to avoid bottlenecks in the cycle:
1. Knowledge management – ensuring adequate information availability for sound decision-making, planning and policy development, and sharing information with all stakeholders for transparency and the formation of a joint vision;
2. Policy and strategy development – developing guidelines for operations and resource management, including target setting and determination of pre-conditions and requirements;
3. Capacity building – adjusting capacity to needs, including staffing, awareness, skills, logistics, tools and infrastructure, in order to accomplish tasks and targets;
4. Natural resources management practice – deliver the outputs required to achieve sustainable natural resources management, e.g. resource planning, revenues taxation, alternative livelihood, awareness-raising (see section 6.4).
6.2envIRonmentAlRISkFActoRS
The analysis carried out through the assessment and consultations revealed a number of issues that urgently need to be addressed in order to turn current practices into a sustainable system:
Threats
■■ Climate change resulting in unpredictable rains, desertification;
■■ Short term perspective of land users resulting in unsustainable practices;
6. RECOMMENDED PROjECT INTERVENTIONS
Forest clearing with bulldozers for agriculture at the foot of Imatong range, Eastern Equatoria
47Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
■■ High exploitation levels due to communities’ dependence on forest products and limited added value through processing of forest and agricultural products;
■■ Increased export forest products due to improved road access;
■■ Land privatization associated with unregulated large scale clearing (land grabbing);
■■ Pollution due to mineral exploitation (particularly oil exploration in wetlands).
Weaknesses of current governance framework
■■ Incomplete legal framework (Environmental Bill not endorsed);
■■ Environmental policy and legal framework not elaborated at lower administrative levels;
■■ Lack of capacity to monitor development and resource use;
■■ Unclear institutional responsibilities;
■■ Benefits and taxes of revenue collection not used to regulate resource utilization;
■■ No coordination between sectors.
In the following sections, measures to deal with these issues are elaborated into possible interventions, which would be building blocks for projects enhancing policy and practice in climate change adaptation and mitigation and sustainable resources management.
6.3InteRventIonFIeldS
6.3.1 Adaptation to climate change
Presently, people are very vulnerable to climate change-related impact and disasters due to the dependence of their households and most of their economic activities (livestock, agriculture, fisheries, brick making) on water. Settlements are therefore often found in low, flood-prone areas. Some groups (e.g. in Northern Bahr el Ghazal) have solved this issue by having temporary dry season hamlets in
floodplains next to their villages on higher ground.
Policies of climate change adaptation should, among other things, address planning of settlements and facilities (e.g. boreholes), floodplain and wetlands protection (to avoid riverbed degradation and to absorb excess water of floods), agricultural measures (e.g. different varieties) and health (dealing with waterborne diseases).
6.3.2 Clean energy
The South Sudan Development Plan adopts “Diversified and sustainable economic growth and development which improves livelihoods and reduces poverty” as an outcome of the Economic Pillar. The energy policy is a crucial element of economic growth.
The current economy depends very much on carbon fuels and, apart from some hydropower projects, there have not been many initiatives to shift to more green sources of energy. Policies should promote an economy shifted towards low carbon use activities. There is a wide array of options which have proved successful in other parts of the world, including biogas, efficient stoves, solar power and wind power, some of which are presented in section 6.4. Some of these options require feasibility studies, such as wind power.
Collaboration with the private sector will be very helpful to move the introduction of clean energy forward. The development of wind power would involve international companies, while regional companies could promote liquefied gas utilization (stoves, gas cylinder filling), and local companies could take up high-pressure brick making. The establishment of public-private partnerships might also be considered.
6.3.3 Integrated development planning
As concluded in section 4.3.2, integrated policy development is essential to minimize conflicting approaches and targets among different sectors on the one hand, and between development and caring for the environment on the other hand. Several policies, such as policies related to land, environment and revenues are crucial in this process of policy tuning. However, an integrated approach is required in all policies affecting the environment and natural resources. The most common and effective tool presently used for integrated policy development is the SEA (OECD, 2006). SEA capacity
6. RECOMMENDED PROjECT INTERVENTIONS
48 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
building will be required to enable the introduction and promotion of integrated planning.
At the lower strategic level, such as plan and programme development, complex issues (e.g. returning IDPs, town planning, land use planning and water management) can usually be addressed using a similar approach.
Integrated River Basin Management is a conceptual framework for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), which addresses water allocation and management issues in catchments taking into account supply and requirements upstream as well as downstream. The concept would apply very well in particular to the catchment areas of the rivers flowing from west to east in the Bahr el Ghazal region.
6.3.4 Sustainable natural resources management
The following elements are essential for the development of sustainable management systems of natural resources:
1. Sustainable resource use planning
Sustainable resource use planning should be based on understanding of the resources, their capacity to recover and how to achieve their conservation. The sustainable resource management system is established in a management plan, which includes a monitoring system as a mechanism for adaptation to external factors, unpredictable events and managerial inefficiency.
If there is only one party or one individual in full control of the resources, a sustainable management system is relatively easy to maintain. However, when there is no effective control of resource use, and/or there is no clear ownership of the resources, extractors will maximize their short-term profits. The concept of sustainability does not apply because what one extractor spares today may be taken by a competing extractor tomorrow (‘tragedy of the commons’).
A solution that has proved to be effective in many cases (but not always) is Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), where a delineated area including its resources is allocated to a specific group of people (usually a community) on the condition that a sustainable resource management plan is made and monitoring applied according to established criteria. Normally, the
CBNRM concept is initiated after developing a policy and legal framework especially for this purpose, and after establishing conditions and an enabling setting. Such a framework should include responsibilities, arrangements for fund flow and control, management planning, monitoring and reporting. One of the first such models functioning successfully for many years was CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe, but since then it has been implemented in many other countries in Africa and Asia.
2. Payment for ecolosystem services
Payment for ecological services is based on the principle of recognizing the economic value of services provided by ecosystems in terms of (1) regulatory functions, (2) habitat functions, (3) production functions and (4) information functions, and then expressing that in monetary terms. These values are used to weigh ecological services against other economic interests in the context of resource-related processes or actions such as planning, allocation and extraction. The consequence of this approach is that users of ecological functions (e.g. resource extractors) pay for what they take. The revenue should be (at least partly) used to maintain the service/resource, for example through plantation and protection while some ‘overhead’ is used to cover administrative costs.
3. Transparent revenue collection system
To improve collection and utilization of revenues from natural resources, which can constitute a significant contribution to sustainable resource planning, the current revenue collection system needs to be reviewed. Under the current system, payments are not related to the value of the resource and its abundance or scarcity, but instead are linked to sale values, as determined by the purchasing power of the market. Extractors usually pay nothing and as a result, even if the resource becomes scarcer, extractors continue extraction at equal levels. There are some exceptions, such as the exploitation of mahogany, which is subject to a licensing system, and payments made in some areas to traditional authorities by livestock owners grazing their animals on the land. However, in no revenue collection system is there direct use of the revenue for the maintenance or conservation of the resources. Revenues are, in the best-case scenario, absorbed by the budgets of the various levels of the administration, without any specific allocation. To create trust and acceptance of the system it should be fully transparent to all stakeholders.
6. RECOMMENDED PROjECT INTERVENTIONS
49Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
6.3.5 Water and air pollution control
Due to the relatively low number of cars and absence of heavy industry, air pollution is still at a low level. Even flaring, and other oil exploitation-related air pollution is assumed to be insignificant (so far). The main source of carbon emissions is probably forest fire. The most urgent action in this context is therefore the development of a strategy and policy to control forest fires.
Water pollution is rapidly increasing due to urbanization and industrialization (section 5.3). Water pollution is playing a significant role in sanitation, but not yet in relation to climate change and sustainable natural resource management. However, this may change in the future as a result of interactions between water pollution and flooding, for example.
6.3.6 Monitoring and information management
Policy implementation as well as management require monitoring to enable the adaptation of strategies in order to:
■■ Improve efficiency and effectiveness;
■■ Adapt to a changing context;
■■ Introduce and test innovative approaches and techniques.
Information on changes in the environment (particularly rainfall, river discharge), and social and economic issues (demography, trade, land use, etc.) are important indicators for this purpose. Collection of these data has been limited in the past and a lot has been lost during the war. The present availability of data is therefore very limited and there is a general lack of means to share information. Some organizations, particularly the South Sudan Commission for Census, Statistics and Evaluation (SSCCSE) and FAO are working hard to close this gap.
Current facilities for information sharing are poor throughout the country, in particular from the national level down to the lower levels and vice versa. The costs of communication could be reduced significantly by developing shared facilities, such as natural resource management extension services, radio services, awareness events and open databases.
6.4GoodPRActIceS
In different parts of the world various practices of sustainable natural resources management have been developed which could be valuable alternatives to the current resource use practices in South Sudan. These good practices aim to reduce energy use, deforestation and erosion. They lead to less dependency of external inputs, to a general decrease of costs and hence to poverty reduction. All of these practices have been successful in different African countries and other continents. A number of such practices are presented in the following sections as examples.
Integrated fish farming
Integrated fish farming combines different economic activities that can be connected through recycling of waste and by-products. Dung from chicken or pig farming, and any organic agricultural by-products, can be used to produce fish feed, since the disposal of these products in fishponds leads to the growth of meso- and macrofauna and algae which are consumed by fish.
An example of an elaborate integrated farming system is a sugarcane project in Dwangwa (Malawi) which uses its organic waste for fish farming and a part of the fish production, and the heat generated by the sugar processing for the heating of pens for crocodile farming (increasing crocodile growth rates by 50 percent).
Biogas production
Organic waste from farming, including livestock dung, can be used to generate biogas for home use. In the Indian Central Highlands dung from two cattle produces enough gas to cook food for a family of 7-10 people. The use of biogas reduces deforestation caused by fire wood collection. The second advantage of this system is that cattle have to be kept at home to enable efficient dung collection. As a result, forest degradation due to grazing is reduced. However, food must be available to keep the cattle near the house. In the Central Highlands, grass and other food plants are harvested to feed the cattle. Since there is no need to spend time finding wood for fuel, the time/energy balance is still positive. After fermentation in the gas tanks, the dung can still be used as fertilizer.
50 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
Solar energy
The use of solar energy is a way of avoiding power generation by other sources such as diesel generations and batteries which involve pollution as side effects. Particularly in remote areas and at the level of smaller villages, solar energy is a good alternative. Solar energy provision may involve setting up collectives or micro-enterprises renting out rechargeable light units. The investment for panels, batteries, charging devises and rechargeable light units is relatively high, but could be covered by a recoverable micro credit facility.
Fuel-efficient stoves
To reduce deforestation and to reduce the time necessary for fuel wood collection, an innumerable variety of fuel-efficient wood stoves has been designed, each adapted to location-specific household needs and fuel availability. This ‘new’ technology has actually been in use since the 1970s after the drought in the Western Sahel (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger). Generally, innovations in this area are readily accepted by local populations. In South Sudan, the use of this type of stoves is not yet common, perhaps because a feeling still prevails among consumers that resources are abundant and inexhaustible. In Darfur, however, introduction of fuel-efficient stoves has been successful since 2003 (http://www.stovesonline.co.uk/darfur-stove.html).
Fuel-efficient fish smoking facilities
Fish smoking requires a lot of fuel. However, in the same vein as fuel-efficient stoves, fuel-efficient fish smoking facilities have been designed and made. World Wildlife Foundation (WWF), for example, was very successful with this in the coastal areas of Senegal where fuel wood is very scarce.
Liquefied gas use promotion
Liquefied gas is a good alternative to charcoal and firewood. Its contribution to carbon release in the atmosphere is much less than that of charcoal, it is cheaper in the long term and it saves firewood users a lot of time spent collecting firewood. Women and children do most firewood collection, and it may take up to half a day’s work per day per household. The price of a 14 kg gas cylinder in Malakal is 35-40 Sudanese Pounds, which is equivalent to the price of a bag of charcoal. A family uses one bag of charcoal per week for cooking, whereas a cylinder of gas may last two weeks or perhaps more. One of
the barriers to switching to gas is the price of a gas stove and the cost of the first cylinder deposit. At present gas cylinders are imported from Khartoum or Uganda. The price of a gas cylinder in Khartoum is reported to be much lower (15 Sudanese Pounds). If the filling and distribution of gas cylinders could be done in South Sudan, the price would go down and the utilization would increase. A financial support system for the purchase of stoves could boost their use even more. The current price of gas stoves is between 40 and 125 Sudanese Pounds. The main barriers for increased use of liquefied gas are:
■■ Deposit value of empty cylinders to be paid for the first cylinders (210 Sudanese Pounds);
■■ The availability of empty cylinders (currently they are imported from Turkey and Saudi-Arabia, but a production plant is under development in Khartoum which will improve availability significantly);
■■ The non-inter-changeability of gas cylinders among suppliers, which means that if a certain supplier is out of stock, his clients are forced to pay the first time deposit charge again to get a cylinder from a different supplier;
■■ The transport cost of cylinders which strongly influences the current price (but a gas cylinder filling plant is planned in Juba, which will reduce the price significantly;
■■ Border issues on the Sudan-South Sudan border including increasing import/export taxes are hindering supply and raise the price.
High pressure brick moulding
Brick manufacturing may use significant quantities of fuel wood if bricks are baked, which may cause serious deforestation in brick producing areas. High-pressure brick moulding is a system that produces hard resistant bricks without baking. It uses various mixtures as base material (usually formed by soil of different textures), which is then mixed with termite soil or cement. The bricks are compacted under very high pressure to harden. The best bricks are made of pure termite soil whereby termite excretions solidify the bricks under pressure. The system was thought to have been developed in South Africa, but it is used in many countries all over Africa and Asia.
6. RECOMMENDED PROjECT INTERVENTIONS
51Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
Agroforestry
The integration of agriculture and forestry into one land use system forms a very sustainable alternative to traditional agriculture and modern mechanized agriculture and forestry systems. It provides a variety of products for food and household use, reduces erosion significantly and contributes to a favourable microclimate.
Pig farming
Pigs are omnivores and consume a wide variety of agricultural and household waste products. Hence, pig farming can contribute to reduction of garbage in urban and peri-urban areas. By providing an alternative to the meat of ruminating animals, pig meat supplied to the market may reduce ruminant numbers and consequently deforestation. Furthermore, pig dung can be used to supply biogas units and fish farms.
Vermiculture
Worms (e.g. Lumbricus terrestris) convert organic waste such as agricultural by-products and dung, which can be used as high quality fertilizer. The application of such fertilizers increases agricultural production and makes soils more erosion resistant.
Eco-tourism
The development of tourism can, if well-organized, be a very sustainable form of land use of natural areas. Potential for the development of eco-tourism is dependent on the attraction value of areas, which is determined by the availability of wildlife, natural beauty, fishing water, and/or the potential for activities (e.g. hiking, rafting, horseback safari, boat trips). Eco-tourism requires a very specific approach in relation to the target group, but if well-designed and easily accessible by the market, it may generate significant revenue.
The development of tourism catering for the national (urban) market is also important. It will not only contribute to revenues, but more importantly, it is a very effective mechanism for the promotion of wildlife conservation at the levels of decision-makers and society in general.
Forest plantation
Plantation of forests near users reduces the pressure on natural forests and improves resistance to erosion. Forest plantations may provide local populations with timber, firewood, charcoal and other NTFPs. Forest plantations also contribute to a better climate if planted in highly deforested areas, particularly near urban areas.
Firebreaks
Fire risk can be reduced by the creation of firebreaks. Firebreaks may be bare strips of land, but this type of break increases erosion risk and is expensive to keep clear. Firebreaks may also be planted with fire resistant species which suppress the growth of herbs and grasses on the ground such as Cassia (Cassia spec.) and Mango (Mangifera indica).
Polythene recycling
Synthetic waste such as plastics mainly produced as disposable packing, pose a serious risk to the environment. Stray plastic bags are known to block water outlets such as culverts and cause intestine and stomach congestion in livestock and wild animals, often leading to a slow and painful death. Polyethylene is easy to recycle. In other countries (e.g. Bangladesh and Ghana) collection systems have evolved based on incentives for collectors, often providing income to poor families.
6.5cuRRentInItIAtIveSAndeFFoRtS
Since the signing of the CPA, many initiatives have started to improve environmental management, many of them intervening at the level of improved livelihoods and capacity building.
UNEP was one of the first organizations who started working on environmental issues in South Sudan after the CPA was signed. The Post Conflict Environment Assessment (PCEA) is a very significant output of their efforts which is still the main baseline for environmental initiatives in the country. The current UNEP Programme in South Sudan Programme is mainly funded by DFID and covers (1) environmental capacity building, (2) sustainable forestry, and (3) waste management.
FAO has been involved in a variety of initiatives and projects particularly dealing with information management through the Sudan Institutional
52 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
Capacity Programme, SIFSIA, which is funded by the European Union (EU). Important contributions are the South Sudan Land Cover Assessment and the Annual Crop and Food Security Assessment, carried out jointly with WFP.
USAID and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), through UNDP, are funding a large conservation project in Central Equatoria, Eastern Equatoria and Jonglei States on biodiversity conservation implemented by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). The project is based on the Landscape Approach, which involves looking beyond the boundaries of protected areas to look at entire landscapes harbouring wildlife populations as units to be managed, in order to cover all possible ecological bottlenecks. This project will also look into land use planning as a tool to minimize conflicts between different forms of land use, and land use planning processes will be carried out in Eastern Equatoria and Jonglei States.
6.6PRIoRItyInteRventIonS
The overall goal of support to environmental governance is to support the South Sudan Government (specifically the Ministry of Environment and partner Ministries dealing directly and indirectly with natural resources management). This support aims to develop capacity at national, state and local levels for sustainable environmental governance addressing climate change adaptation and mitigation, and coping with an increasing pressure on natural resources, assuring a future for the current and returning populations.
With respect to this goal, UNDP is committed to support the development of project(s) with a duration of 2-3 years. The project(s) will include a funding mechanism to encourage the participation of local NGOs in the promotion of sustainable natural resource management (NRM) practices and also collaboration with the private sector will be sought. The project would be funded by contributions from the Government, UNDP and other donors. The proposed projects should address the following key interventions:
1. Development and mainstreaming of a green energy and low carbon policy
The development and mainstreaming of green energy and low carbon policy through reducing
forest degradation and deforestation (REDD) is a major theme covering many sectors. Therefore, it should address all issues, helping the various ministries dealing with natural resources and the environment to improve environmental governance in general. Important partners apart from these ministries would be, among others, UNEP (specifically the capacity building programme funded by DFID) and FAO (the proposed WISDOM project). Also, the private sector could play a role in relation to the promotion of alternative energy (e.g. liquefied gas distribution) and alterative livelihoods (e.g. agricultural and forestry products processing).
Mindsets, attitudes and practices do not change by simply changing rules, for a number of reasons including:
■■ Other priorities such as urgent needs;
■■ Attachment to traditional trusted practices;
■■ Lack of other options;
■■ No positive or negative incentives to change practices;
■■ No skills or techniques to apply other practices;
■■ No enabling economic or regulatory context.
Introducing a different approach to the use of natural resources therefore requires overcoming these barriers by: (a) the creation of positive and negative incentives, (b) the active promotion of new practices, and (c) policy reform, supported by experience sharing, extension and training. Crucial results of this intervention should be:
■■ Green development mainstreamed in sectoral policies;
■■ A transparent revenue collection and benefit sharing system linking resource use and preservation, developed in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance;
■■ New policies developed (e.g. on forest fire);
■■ South Sudan signing the CBD, UNFCCC and UNCCD;
■■ Green alternative livelihood development promoted;
■■ Green energy practices promoted.
6. RECOMMENDED PROjECT INTERVENTIONS
53Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
2. Consolidation of the institutional and regulatory framework for environmental management
To enable the Ministry of Environment to fulfil its mandate requires the development of its capacity to liaise and collaborate with all other ministries and sectors involved in natural resources and environment, as well as with the administrations at lower levels (states, counties, payams and bomas).
Crucial results of this intervention should be:
■■ Institutional arrangements for environmental governance finalized, including an independent body to deal with compliance issues, and the ‘branching’ of environmental governance through sectors at all administrative levels;
■■ Environmental Policy and Environmental completed Bill and endorsed;
■■ Reviewed and approved Environmental Management Plan;
■■ Orders, regulations, standards, criteria, measures, mapping, registers, and prescriptions as mentioned in the completed Bill;
■■ Institutional capacity, regulations and commitment at the lower administrative levels (Environmental Liaison Units and State Environmental Committees and Local Environmental Committees) established;
■■ Monitoring and enforcement system established (including communication and financial resources).
3. Sectoral integration of natural resources policy planning & implementation
The South Sudan Development Plan (SSDP) promotes economic development through an integrated (multi-sector) approach, while both the SSDP and the Land Act 2009 acknowledge the importance of land use planning and the need to introduce land use planning to manage land and resources. Integrated resource use planning can be applied to any resource and should take into account all ecosystem services, sectors and stakeholders into the process of land and resource allocation, searching for a balance among interests and leading to a sustainable mode of exploitation. Apart from
natural resources-related ministries, important potential partners are the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, the Land Commission, the Local Government Board and SSCCSE.
Crucial results of this intervention should be:
■■ Integrated planning and budgeting implemented;
■■ Enhanced ministerial capacity for EIA and SEA;
■■ Integrated land use planning mainstreamed in town planning, resettlement of returnees, state and county planning;
■■ Established policy framework for community-based resource use management;
■■ The concept of community-based resource use management established in a number of communities;
■■ The concept of integrated river basin management applied in pilot catchment areas (e.g. Bahr el Ghazal region);
■■ Sustainable livelihood development.
Effects of climate change on crops, Eastern Equatoria State. © UNDP / Martin Dramani
54 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
7.1IntRoductIon
To make Government operations sustainable their functions must be funded through current Government budgets as much as possible (Table 8). Taxes on revenues are normally indirectly used as they are absorbed in the country’s treasury at the different administrative levels. In several African countries, mechanisms have been developed to collect and spend revenues locally to enable direct support and protection and to address livelihood issues (section 7.2). Similar systems could be considered for South Sudan.
Supplementary funding from other sources may help to bring about change and enhancement of common practices, improving effectiveness and efficiency of operational and managerial systems. Typically, donor funding is used for this purpose and can be sourced from multilateral and bilateral sources that are earmarked for specific purposes such as climate change or sustainable forest management, or through a framework for budget support (section 7.3).
Finally, funding may be attracted from the private sector in the form of direct investments or public-private partnerships (section 7.5).
Agency millionSdG
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 65.5
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries 44.3
Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural development 12.4
Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism 143.0
Ministry of Environment 5.0
Land commission 2.2
7.2RevenueSFRomReSouRceexPloItAtIon
Oil revenues
Currently, 2 percent of oil revenues are supposed to be used for local communities. The money is collected at central level and transferred through the states to local level. The effectiveness of this mechanism has not been evaluated by this EIRO, but it could constitute an interesting concept for ‘payments for ecological services.’ The resources available for this mechanism are expected to increase significantly since the revenues from oil exploitation will not be shared with Sudan after July, and revenues will also increase due to the expansion of oil exploitation.
Payment for ecosystem services
‘Payment for ecosystem services’ is a mechanism partially feeding back the revenues from the utilization of ecosystem services to cover their maintenance costs, through levies on utilization and arrangements for the flow of funds. Such systems work best when the lines between levy and application are short and implemented at the local level. The Government should mainly play a controller role. Such systems have been developed in many countries (e.g. Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) and when conditions are favourable (low corruption, effective monitoring and control of natural resources and fund flow, security) they have been very successful.
An innovative payment for ecosystem services is the introduction of carbon credits to cover cost of forest conservation for carbon sequestering by payments from sources of carbon emission such as industries or industrialized countries. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)2 is such a system.
Current revenue system
The current revenue system is not used as a tool to control resource use by adjusting tax and exploitation quotas to resource availability and scarcity. Instead, most levies are on the market/consumer side, which is determined by the purchasing power of the consumers. Resource extraction revenue systems should actually be used
Government of South Sudan Budget 2011 (source: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning)
7. fUNDINg OPPORTUNITIES
2 http://cdm.unfccc.int/index.html
55Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
to adjust exploitation levels to resource abundance and to maintain renewal and sustainability of resources.
Firstly, taxes should be collected on extractor’s side and linked to the quantity extracted. In many countries fees are collected through exploitation licences and/or concessions. Moreover, collectors may be taxed for the quantity extracted, and traders and marketers may be taxed for quantities handled. Secondly, collected revenue taxes should (at least partly) be used as directly as possible for local resource management. In the current system, part of the revenues remain in private hands at local levels and the remainder is transferred to the more central levels and absorbed by the State budget. Good communication and transparency is required with regard to revenue collection and reporting in order to achieve a constructive attitude among stakeholders. Furthermore, collaboration is required between different ministerial branches to ensure an efficient system contributing to sustainable resource management.
7.3donoRFundInG
7.3.1 Global Environment Facility (GEF)
With respect to the environmental issues identified in the current assessment, GEF support could be
applied for in the following three focal areas.
Climate Change (Mitigation and Adaptation)
The GEF supports projects in:
(1) Climate Change Mitigation: Reducing or avoiding greenhouse gas emissions in the areas of renewable energy; energy efficiency; sustainable transport; and management of land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF).
(2) Climate Change Adaptation: Aiming at developing countries to become climate-resilient by promoting both immediate and longer-term adaptation measures in development policies, plans, programmes, projects, and actions.
As the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC, the GEF contributes to projects in energy efficiency, renewable energy, sustainable urban transport and sustainable management of land use, land-use change, and forestry. The GEF also manages two separate, adaptation-focused Funds under the UNFCCC — the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF), which mobilize funding specifically earmarked for activities related to adaptation, and the latter also to technology transfer (Appendix 9).
7. fUNDINg OPPORTUNITIES
Sale of Non-Timber Forest Products at Ikotos market
56 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
Land Degradation
In 2003, the GEF was designated as a financial mechanism of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), ensuring that GEF projects addressing desertification would be aligned with objectives of this Convention. The GEF as a financial mechanism of the UNCCD directly contributes to implementation of the 10-year (2008-2018) Strategic Plan and Framework. The Strategic Plan aims ‘to forge a global partnership to reverse and prevent desertification/land degradation and to mitigate the effects of drought in affected areas in order to support poverty reduction and environmental sustainability.’
Sustainable Forest Management / REDD+
Since its inception in 1991, the GEF has financed over 300 projects and programmes focusing on forest conservation and management in developing countries (Figure 3). The total GEF allocation to forest initiatives during this period amounts to more than $1.6 billion, leveraging $5 billion from other sources. Drawing on guidance from the three international conventions dealing with forests (CBD, UNFCCC and UNCCD), the GEF has funded projects that can be broadly classified into three categories:
(1) Forest conservation (primarily protected areas and buffer zones);
(2) Sustainable use of forests (forest production landscapes);
(3) Sustainable forest management (addressing forests and trees in the wider landscape).
Convention on Biodiversity and Development
Most of the GEF funds cannot be accessed before joining the Convention on Biodiversity and Development (CBD). If South Sudan starts this project now, funds will be available in next cycle starting in 2014. However, the limitation of grants to signatory countries only does not apply to the Green Climate Fund and the Climate Adaptation Fund.
7.3.2 World Bank
The World Bank has developed a series of safeguard policies to help staff promote socially and environmentally sustainable approaches to development as well as to ensure that
Bank operations do not harm people and the environment. These safeguard policies include the Bank’s policies on Environmental Assessment (EA), Cultural Property, Disputed Areas, Forestry, Indigenous Peoples, International Waterways, Involuntary Resettlement, Natural Habitats, Pest Management and Safety of Dams.
The Environmental and Social Screening and Assessment Framework (ESSAF) details general policies, guidelines, and procedures to be integrated into projects to ensure compliance with the World Bank’s safeguard policies and is applicable to all World Bank/Multi Donor Trust Fund (MDTF) funded projects.
The World Bank administers globally a number of funds addressing climate change and green energy (section 7.4.1, Appendix 9). Currently, there are no projects running or in the pipeline under one of these funds: eligibility and conditionality for South Sudan needs to be investigated.
A number of current and proposed projects related to infrastructure, health and natural resources management implemented and supported by the World Bank/MDTF offer support to the strengthening of Environmental Monitoring Units and environmental safeguard activities within the line ministries.
7.3.3 Bilateral cooperation
A number of bilateral donors are supporting South Sudan in the field of sustainable natural resources management (including water management) and livelihood security. Climate change and environment are considered as cross-cutting issues by some of them. In the following section some of these contributions are presented. Apart from these examples other governments such as Norway (sustainable forestry, hydro power, oil), Germany (through GIZ), Sweden, Switzerland and Denmark are active or will be active in this broad sector.
United States of America (USAID)
The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is one of the most important donors in South Sudan contributing in many areas and focusing particularly on security and economic growth. USAID activities link isolated communities and facilitate an enabling environment for market development, through improvement of roads, assistance in electrification, agricultural support,
7. fUNDINg OPPORTUNITIES
57Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
bolstering of private sector competitiveness, support for improved land policies, and promotion of better environmental management of the Boma–Jonglei landscape and its rich biodiversity.
European Union (EU)
The European Union (EuropeAid) supports projects under the themes of Rural Development and Infrastructure. One of the cross-cutting themes is Environment. The use of EIAs is compulsory for all EU-funded projects and importance is being attached to EIA capacity building. Currently, the EU supports projects such as SIFSIA and the Aweil Rice Scheme, as well as, in Sudan, livestock and fisheries projects.
United Kingdom (DFID)
The Department for International Development (DFID) in South Sudan supports, through the Basic Service Fund (BSF), health, education, water, sanitation, trade development, custom services, and governance. Other funds are the Capacity Building Fund and the South Sudan Peace Building Fund.
DFID is currently funding a large part of UNEP’s South Sudan Programme covering capacity building related to environmental management, waste management in Juba and sustainable forest management.
The environmental programme for South Sudan was under DFID’s Khartoum office until July, after which the administration of all DFID programmes in South Sudan shifted to Juba.
Netherlands (DGIS)
Environment is no longer a priority area (theme) of the Netherlands international cooperation programme, which is managed by the Directorate General for International Cooperation (DGIS) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. However, some of the current priority areas (water, agriculture and governance) are directly connected to the environment.
Apart from the current programme, DGIS provides funds to the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment (NCEA) to support governments to develop policy and implementation capacity for environmental management. In this way they have supported
governments including Cameroon, Ghana, Uganda and Yemen, to mainstream Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental Assessment. Since South Sudan is on the priority list of the DGIS, the Commission can provide technical assistance to the Government of South Sudan and is interested to do so.
Canada (CIDA)
At present, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) does not have programmes on climate change or sustainable NRM in South Sudan. The environment is, however, a cross-cutting theme, and while environmental considerations have to be integrated into all projects, there are no specific CIDA projects or programmes that are focusing on environment. CIDA’s South Sudan Programme focuses on the thematic priorities of Food Security (agriculture, value chains, etc.), Children and Youth (health, education, basic services) and Governance. Given the context of South Sudan, combined with the fact that both climate change and natural resource management will have an impact on CIDA’s priority programme areas, there may be interest in initiatives targeting climate change or sustainable NRM, if they tie in well with current programme priorities.
7.4clImAteRelAtedFundInGmechAnISmS
Several climate and energy projects have been instituted since climate change has gained priority on the international development agenda (Appendix 9). To receive support and more access to climate related funding, South Sudan should join the UN Convention on Climate Change as an independent State. Climate related funding is administered by the World Bank (section 7.3.2), the GEF (section 7.3.1) and the UNREDD secretariat (7.4.2).
7.4.1 Strategic Climate Fund
The Strategic Climate Fund (SCF, administered through the World Bank) is one of the two funds of the Climate Investment Funds. It serves as an overarching framework to support three targeted programmes with dedicated funding to pilot new approaches with potential for scaled-up, transformational action aimed at a specific climate change challenge or sectoral response. Targeted programmes under the SCF include:
58 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
(1) The Forest Investment Program (FIP), approved in May 2009, aims to support developing countries’ efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation by providing scaled-up financing for readiness reforms and public and private investments. It finances programmatic efforts to address the underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation and to overcome barriers that have hindered past efforts to do so;
(2) The Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR), approved in November 2008, was the first program under the SCF to become operational. Its objective is to pilot and demonstrate ways to integrate climate risk and resilience into core development planning, while complementing other ongoing activities;
(3) The Program for Scaling-Up Renewable Energy in Low Income Countries (SREP), approved in May 2009, is aimed at demonstrating the social, economic, and environmental viability of low carbon development pathways in the energy sector. It seeks to create new economic opportunities and increase energy access through the production and use of renewable energy.
The GEF (section 7.3.1) supports projects in:
(1) Climate Change Mitigation: reducing or avoiding greenhouse gas emissions in the areas of renewable energy; energy efficiency; sustainable transport; and management of land use, land-use change and forestry.
(2) Climate Change Adaptation: assisting developing countries to become climate-resilient by promoting both immediate and longer-term adaptation measures in development policies, plans, programmes, projects, and actions.
7.4.2 UN-REDD Programme
The UN-REDD Programme (UN-REDD 2011) is the United Nations Collaborative Initiative on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) in developing countries. The Programme was launched in September 2008 to assist developing countries prepare and implement national REDD+ strategies, and builds on the convening power and expertise of FAO, UNDP and UNEP. UN-REDD funds help countries to support the development and implementation of national REDD+ strategies.
7. fUNDINg OPPORTUNITIES
Drying skins at the Wau slaughter house, WBG
59Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
The UN-REDD Programme’s strategy for delivering readiness is based on four operational principles. National REDD+ strategies must be:
■■ Demand and context-driven, iterative processes that are supported by a strong monitoring system;
■■ Country-owned and driven by national stakeholders and partners;
■■ Developed within the context of national policies and economic development;
■■ Supportive of the implementation of the decisions of the UNFCCC.
7.4.3 Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF)
The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) is a global partnership focused on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, forest carbon stock conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (REDD+). The FCPF assists tropical and subtropical forest countries develop the systems and policies for REDD+ and provides them with performance-based payments for emission reductions. The FCPF complements the UNFCCC negotiations on REDD+ by demonstrating how REDD+ can be applied at the country level.
The World Bank acts as trustee for the Readiness Fund and the Carbon Fund, it provides secretariat services, and it is a delivery partner for the FCPF, providing technical support to the REDD+ Country Participants and conducting due diligence on matters such as fiduciary policies and environmental and social safeguards. The focus of the facility to date has been on REDD+ readiness, though it is expected that the Carbon Fund which will provide payments for verified emission reductions from REDD+ programmes in countries that have achieved, or made considerable progress towards REDD+ readiness, will become operational in the course of 2011 as a public-private partnership.
7.5PRIvAteSectoR
The private sector can be an important source of funding to induce a change in exploitation or production practices. In order to give
direction to development, public-private partnerships (PPPs) may be formed based on common interests and consolidating a shared approach. PPPs are sometimes created for the development of infrastructure or services such as public transport, power supply and drinking water. In such cases the government may create favourable conditions for companies to deliver their desired service or investment, or joint investment is also possible. An example of an opportunity for such a partnership in the field of greening the economy is the offer presented by a South African company to the Ministry of Energy and Mining for the development of a solar power based street lighting system.
In the area of greening the economy, it is worth investigating the possibilities for such collaboration with regard to improving the accessibility of liquefied gas on the market throughout the country, including the possibility to establish one or more gas refilling centres within the country. In addition, the possible role to be played by the private sector in the promotion of the utilization of gas stoves fuelled by liquefied gas or biogas could be investigated.
Another opportunity could be sought in the collaboration with oil companies. Western companies in particular are under pressure to maintain a good public image due to oil disasters and bad practices in other parts of the world. They are often interested in opportunities to “green” their image by investing in environmental investments. Examples are to be found in oil exploitation fields in Gabon.
It is to be expected that apart from these examples the private sector could play a prominent role in the generation of investments and the development of employment in urban areas. To save the country’s land, water and forests for the future, its economy should shift from extraction to focus more on processing. Opportunities are in particular those related to agriculture and livestock, for example sesame and groundnut oil, dairy products, and leather and wood processing based on forest plantations. The Government has to facilitate this shift, but the private sector could be the engine in many cases by investing in and developing the businesses, among them several of the ‘good practices’ mentioned in section 6.4.
60 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
name Position organisation
Jaafar Zaki ABARCI Petroleum Company
Albina Madhan Anei Minister Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Northern Bahr el Ghazal
Samuel Ajing Deputy Director for Animal Health
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Northern Bahr el Ghazal
Abdul Malek Microfinance Specialist BRAC, Torit
William Ibrahim Programme Organizer BRAC, Torit
Jason Schmuttz CIDA
Modest Oroma Acting Director of Administration and Finance Commission of Finance, Eastern Equatoria
Peter Loki Acting Executive Director Commission of Finance, Eastern Equatoria
Peter Louju Commissioner General Commission of Finance, Eastern Equatoria
Justin Tata Consultant - Land Management Land Commission
Rejoice Manasi Deputy Director for Conflict Resolution Land Commission
Wilson Kiri Lada Deputy Chairperson Land Commission
Robert Ma Otto Assistant Commissioner County Commission, Magwie County, EES
Judith Achieng Omondi Coordinator ORMA Project UNDP Conflict Prevention and Recovery Unit
Unidentified Member Farmers association, Delep Hill, Upper Nile
Unidentified Brick makers Delep Hill, Upper Nile
Unidentified Fishers Delep Hill, Upper Nile
Unidentified (3) Labourers Deng Deng’s Brick Bakery
Ben Okello Programme Assistant DFID, Juba
Katarina Hadad Programme Associate Environment and Energy Group, Arab States Coordination Unit, UNDP
Massimiliano Pedretti Programme Manager EU
George Okech Deputy Representative FAO
Michael Oyat FAO
Mtendere Mphatso Food Security and Livelihoods FAO
Sworo Yopes Assistant Emergency Coordinator FAO
Elijah MukhallaDennis Poggo Information Systems Specialist FAO SISFIA
Bokan Dinka Minister FAO, Northern BeG
Athuai Majak Fisher Fisher Association
APPENDICESAPPENDIx 1: PeoPleInteRvIewedBetween2mAyAnd15June2011
61Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
name Position organisation
Deng Athian Fisher Fisher Association
Mou Athum Chairman Fisher Association
Mary Lamaka Fuel efficient stove promoter Magwie County, Eastern Equatoria
Okee Mathew Ochillo Fuel efficient stove promoter Magwie County, Eastern Equatoria
Guyo Haro Coordinator Sudan Productive Capacity Programme GIZ
Iris Knabe Country Director GIZ
James Miller Fisheries Production and Marketing Project GIZ
Ariel Joseph Deng Manager Gomjuerthii Rural Development Programme, Nyamlel
Bot Aguer Jel Chief IDP camp Nyamlel
David Dok Clerk of Chief IDP camp Nyamlel
Deng Akol Chief IDP camp Nyamlel
Deng Dumo Jol Resident IDP camp Nyamlel
John Adwong Resident IDP camp Nyamlel
Jok Chang Resident IDP camp Nyamlel
Michael Deng Chief IDP camp Nyamlel
Unidentified women (2) Resident IDP camp Nyamlel
Alphons Loro Headman labourers Kogikawada, Central Equatoria
Manju Stevenson Sekurat
Assistant Forestry Commissioner Lainya County, Central Equatoria
Stephen Alhag Chief Loka West, Central Equatoria
James Garang Deng Manager Madingaweil Humanitarian Association, Nyamlel
APPENDICES
62 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
name Position organisation
Unidentified Returnees Malakal, Upper Nile
Shouki Aboch Agang County Commissioner Malakal County
Unidentified Malakal water supply service
Unidentified (2) Pastoralists Marial Bai, Northern Bahr el Ghazal
John Pangech Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development
Patrick Legge Ministry of Energy and Mining
Anna Otwara Acting Director General Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development, Eastern Equatoria
Daniel Alau Mbiyo Director, Afforestation and Natural Forest Conservation
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development, Eastern Equatoria
Elizeo Liki Director, Community Development
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development, Eastern Equatoria
Gina Ceasar Director, Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development, Eastern Equatoria
Peter Ohure Philip Director, Cooperatives Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development, Eastern Equatoria
Daniel Loleya Extension worker, community development
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development, Ikotos County, Eastern Equatoria
José Faustino Longulo Extension worker, cooperativesMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development, Ikotos County, Eastern Equatoria
Andruga Dominique Buni Forest Officer
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Cooperatives and Rural Development, Magwie County, Eastern Equatoria
Kouch beach Chol Director, Taxation Ministry of Finance, Upper Nile
Okwini Yor Director, Budget Ministry of Finance, Upper Nile
Dominic Fargalla Director, Fisheries Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Eastern Equatoria
Donato Apari Act. DG Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Eastern Equatoria
Kadong Merisa Director, Animal Production and Range Management
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Eastern Equatoria
Mark Wani Director, Planning Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Eastern Equatoria
Gabriel Aban Fisheries Officer Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Upper Nile
APPENDICES
63Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
name Position organisation
Manyang Chol Veterinary Officer Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Upper Nile
Stephen Opyemy Deng Acting Director General Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Upper Nile
Kenyi Bullen Baggu Nathaniel
Director, Agroforestry and Extension Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Mindo Odrande James Director, Afforestation and Natural forest Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Beda Machar Deng Undersecretary Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Juba
Jaden Tongun Emilio Undersecretary Forestry Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Juba
Michaya Gamunde Nasona Deputy Director, Planning Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Juba
Ayii Bol Akol Minister Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Northern Bahr el Ghazal
Albino Simon Wanh Acting Director Planning Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Upper Nile
Ulaw Dor Deng Director, Forestry Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Upper Nile
Ann Felix BaigoDirector General, Animal Production and Range Management
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
Undo Adriano Noti Director General, Fisheries Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
Waragak Gatulak Faguir Undersecretary Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
Anthony Agiem Abot Ministry of Cooperation
Samuel Tabou Youziel Director General, Power supply Ministry of Energy and Mining
Thongjang Awak Thongjang
Director General, Minerals Development Ministry of Energy and Mining
William Ater Maciek Undersecretary Ministry of Energy and Mining
Cecilia Mogga Kenyi Senior Inspector Ministry of Environment
Joseph Lam Achaye Director Ministry of Environment
Kuol Alor Kuol Undersecretary Ministry of Environment
Moses Gogonya Assistant Inspector Ministry of Environment
Paul Lado Dimitri Assistant Inspector Ministry of Environment
Victor Wurda LoTombe Director General Ministry of Environment
Kol Luki Ipoto Ojok Director General Ministry of Environment, Wildlife & Tourism, Eastern Equatoria
Martin Kocemoyi Acting Director, Environment Ministry of Environment, Wildlife & Tourism, Eastern Equatoria
Sabrino Majok Majok Director General Ministry of Finance and Planning
64 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
name Position organisation
Andrew Adura Karea Assistant Director, Revenue Unit Ministry of Finance, Upper Nile
Bataki Samuel Reporter Ministry of Information, Eastern Equatoria
Peter Kuot Jel Minister Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Mining
James Deng Akurkwac Director Rural Water Supply Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Mining, Upper Nile
Laurents Okic Director Urban Drinking Water Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Mining, Upper Nile
Mobior Arok Acting Area Manager SSEC Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Mining, Upper Nile
William Kur Ajang Deng Director General Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Mining, Upper Nile
Emmamuel Parmenas Lupai
Acting Director General, Planning and Projects Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
Isaac Liabwel Yol Undersecretary Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
James Adam Boi Director General, Hydrology and Surveys Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
Anthony Kenyi Acting Director, Water and Sanitation
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Eastern Equatoria
Lino Akai Assistant IT Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Eastern Equatoria
Satiro Tio D/D Sanitation maintenance Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Eastern Equatoria
Beneth Boyo Nicholas Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism
Dr D. Wani Undersecretary Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism
James Ariath Controller accounts Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism
APPENDICES
65Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
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UNDG. (2010). Integrating Climate Change Considerations in the Country Analysis and the UNDAF: Guidance Note for United Nations Country Teams. New York, NY: United Nations Development Group. Retrieved from http://www.undg.org/docs/11473/UNDG-GuidanceNote_ClimateChange-July2011.pdf.
UNDP. (2009). Regional Programme Document for the Arab States 2010-2013. New York, NY: UNDP (RBAS). Retrieved from http://204.200.211.31/contents/file/CPD/RPD_AS_2010_2013.pdf.
UNDP. (2010). Arab Climate Resilience Initiative: Concept Note. New York, NY: UNDP (RBAS). Retrieved from http://www.arabclimateinitiative.org/index.html.
UNDP. (2010). Concept Note: Environment and Sustainable Energy, Southern Sudan. Juba: UNDP Southern Sudan.
UNDP. (2010). Mapping of climate change threats and human development impacts in the Arab Region. New York, NY: Arab Human Development Report Papers (Paper 10.03). Retrieved from www.arab-hdr.org/publications/other/ahdrps/paper02-en.pdf.
UNEP. (2007). Sudan post-conflict environmental assessment. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/sudan/post-conflict/.
UNEP. (2008). Destitution, distortion, and deforestation: The impact of conflict on the timber and woodfuel trade in Darfur. Retrieved from http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/darfur_timber.pdf.
UNREDD. (2011). The UN-REDD Programme Strategy 2011-2015. The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD). Retrieved from http://www.un-redd.org/.
USAID. (2007). Southern Sudan environmental threats and opportunities assessment: biodiversity and tropical forest assessment. Washington, DC: International Resources Group. Retrieved from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADL108.pdf.
68 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
APPENDIx 3:uSeFulInteRnetlInkS
website link
The A-Z Southern Sudan Map Series from UNJLC-FAO
http://www.unjlc.org/old-site/sudan/maps/catalogue/a_z_southern_map_series/
Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa http://www.ceepa.co.za/
Common SEA tools - World Bankhttp://web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/topics/environment/0,,contentMDK:21324865~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:244381,00.html
Energy, Environment and Development Network for Africa http://www.afrepren.org
European Coalition on Oil in Sudan http://www.ecosonline.org/
The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/
Government of the Republic of South Sudan http://www.goss.org/
Gurtong Peace Project http://www.gurtong.net/
IAP Sudan projects http://cafnr.missouri.edu/iap/sudan/
Life Cycle Assessment Programme Brief http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/std/sab/lca/lca_brief.htm
Nile Basin Initiative http://www.nilebasin.org/newsite/
Nile Basin Initiative, Transboundary Environmental Action Project http://www.nileteap.org/
South Sudan Crop and Livestock Market Information System (CLiMIS) http://www.southsudan-climis.org/
South Sudan Net http://www.southsudan.net/
Sudan Institutional Capacity Programme: Food Security for Action (SIFSIA)
http://www.fao.org/sudanfoodsecurity/en/
The REDD Desk http://www.theredddesk.org/redd_basics
The REDD Monitor http://www.redd-monitor.org/
UN Department of Safety and Security https://dss.un.org/dssweb/
UN Environmental Accounting http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seea.asp
UN Sudan information http://www.unsudanig.org/new_gateway/
UNEP Sudan Environmental Database http://postconflict.unep.ch/sudanreport/sudan_website/
UN-REDD programme http://www.un-redd.org/
APPENDICES
69Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
Approaching rainstorm in Bahr al Ghazal floodplain near Aweil
70 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
■■ Formulate legislation, policies, standards, and plans for the development of agriculture and forestry in South Sudan;
■■ Prevention of environment degradation through tree planting, soil and water conservation and proper utilization of agricultural land;
■■ Promotion of sustainable use of natural resources for agricultural and forestry production including non-timber forest products;
■■ Human resource training in the field of agriculture and forestry;
■■ Promote the development and adaptation of appropriate technology in the field of agriculture and forestry;
■■ Create a national food policy to ensure adequate food availability throughout South Sudan;
■■ Establish and manage an effective agricultural extension service;
■■ Promote and where necessary regulate the efficient production and marketing of agriculture and forest products;
■■ Develop and implement a forestry development strategy for South Sudan;
■■ Promote community-based forestry conservation, management and utilization to ensure sustainable forestry production;
■■ Issue licenses to fell and/or export timber;
■■ Collect agricultural and forestry production data and their socio-economic impact on incomes and well-being;
■■ Promote, and where possible, undertake demand-driven agricultural and forestry research;
■■ Establish and manage/supervise an agricultural microfinance and credit banking scheme;
■■ Control crop and tree diseases;
■■ Control and regulate the use of agricultural chemicals and phytosanitary regulations and seed quality standards and licensing;
■■ Rehabilitating and expanding training institutions and research institutions; and
■■ Provide technical assistance and training to state governments and other local governments to build their capacity to assume their responsibilities for agriculture and forestry matters as defined in the Constitution and Government policy.
Ministry of Environment
■■ Develop and execute policies and programmes on environmental protection and conservation throughout South Sudan;
■■ Establish the government’s environmental policy and monitor its effectiveness and impact;
■■ Lay down programmes, in collaboration with other ministries, for the control of environmental degradation and control of desertification;
■■ Develop Environmental Impact Assessments standard methodologies and procedures for Government development policies and for private sector investment;
■■ Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for environment and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy;
■■ Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for environmental protection and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy.
APPENDICES
APPENDIx 4:FunctIonSAnddutIeSoFthedIFFeRentmInIStRIeSoFtheGoveRnmentoFSouthSudAn(mAy2011)(www.goss.org)
71Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning
■■ Formulate policy, standards and regulations on urban planning and urban land management;
■■ Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for physical planning and housing and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy;
■■ Provide for all affordable shelter in urban areas and facilitate slum improvement and upgrading;
■■ Surveying and mapping of South Sudan and safe keeping of maps and documents;
■■ Establish and oversee the operation of urban land titling and registration;
■■ To oversee the definition and designation of city, municipal and town councils in South Sudan;
■■ Design, implement or supervise development programmes and projects to build housing in urban areas;
■■ Rehabilitate war damaged housing infrastructure;
■■ Provide or ensure the provision of suitable schemes for sewerage disposal and treatment in housing schemes and urban areas;
■■ Conduct building research for the development of the construction industry and the supply of affordable construction materials;
■■ To establish building industry standards and draw up a code of regulations for the building industry of South Sudan;
■■ Develop and oversee implementation of a housing policy for South Sudan;
■■ Oversee the operation of the South Sudan Housing Development Corporation;
■■ Formulate and implement a policy on housing for public servants and organize forces;
■■ Manage office accommodation and housing for constitutional office holders;
■■ Develop, construct and maintain Government buildings; and
■■ Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for protection, physical planning and housing and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy.
Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources
■■ Draw up and oversee the implementation of policies, guidelines, master plans and regulations for water resources development, conservation and management in South Sudan;
■■ Encourage and where appropriate, fund scientific research into the development of water resources in South Sudan;
■■ Oversee the operation of the Water Corporation of South Sudan to ensure it performs its functions as laid out in the relevant Act;
■■ Undertake or supervise the design, construction and management of dams and other surface water storage infrastructure for irrigation, human and animal consumption and hydro-electricity generation;
■■ Set tariffs for the sale of water for whatever purpose;
■■ Draw up policy on rural and urban water resource development and management;
■■ Implement ground-water supplies of drinking water for the rural populations and make provisions for local community management and maintenance of constructed water supplies until such times as state and local governments have the capacity to undertake such functions;
■■ Initiate irrigation development and management schemes;
■■ Inspection of rural water yards;
72 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
■■ Draw up and oversee the implementation of rural flood control policy;
■■ Protection of the Sudd and other wetlands from pollution;
■■ Participate in international bodies charged with management of the Nile River basin;
■■ Water hyacinth management and control;
■■ Map water resources and carry out hydrological studies and research;
■■ Design and implement surface water resources projects including those for irrigation schemes;
■■ Establish flood warning schemes and other measures to protect against floods;
■■ Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for water supply and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy.
Ministry of Roads and Transport
■■ Establish and oversee the implementation of the legal framework and regulations for the development of the transport network of South Sudan;
■■ Develop and execute an integrated transport strategy for South Sudan;
■■ Develop and oversee specific strategies for the development of road, air, rail and river transport;
■■ Develop road construction standards and specifications and maintenance regimes on all classifications of roads throughout South Sudan;
■■ Draw up and maintain a system of road classification for all public roads in South Sudan;
■■ Design, construct and maintain all roads classified as international and inter-state roads;
■■ Oversee the operation of the South Sudan Roads Authority;
■■ Oversee the standards of construction of roads constructed by states and local governments;
■■ Implement and manage the construction of roads on behalf of states and local governments until such time as the relevant government unit has the capacity to undertake such functions independently;
■■ Design, construct and maintain river ports, docking yards and navigation channels;
■■ License and regulate all commercial river transport operators;
■■ Develop railway railways standards and specifications, design, construct, supervise and monitor the development of railway lines and operations;
■■ Operate, manage and develop international and national airports in South Sudan;
■■ Manage all other airports and airstrips until such time as state governments have the capacity to undertake this responsibility;
■■ Establish and implement standards for the operation of commercial airlines and aircraft operating in South Sudan;
■■ Carry out training of drivers, mechanics and operators for the efficient control and management of public vehicles;
■■ Maintain an inventory of government vehicles;
■■ Regulate privately-owned public transport services through licensing and inspection;
■■ Registration of road, rail, river and aeronautical engineers carrying out business in South Sudan; and
■■ Provide technical assistance and training to state governments and other local governments to build their capacity to assume their responsibilities for road construction and other transportation matters as defined in the Constitution and other Government policies.
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
■■ Formulate legislation, regulations, policies
APPENDICES
73Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
and standards for the development of the animal and fisheries resources of South Sudan;
■■ Provide policy guidance and monitor performance of livestock and fisheries activities undertaken in South Sudan;
■■ Protect against environment degradation through pasture and soil conservation through proper usage of grazing areas;
■■ Identify and promote investment opportunities in livestock and fisheries in South Sudan;
■■ Human resource training in the field of animal production and fisheries;
■■ Provide technical advice on animal health and disease control policies and introduce plans to improve livestock health and production in South Sudan;
■■ Encourage the private livestock sector and regulate the delivery of veterinary services and supplies;
■■ Monitor and investigate the prevalence, spread and impact of animal diseases in the livestock populations;
■■ Support a meat inspection service at appropriate levels of government and the development of abattoirs;
■■ Promote and coordinate partnership between public institutions and private livestock owners and operators and provide needed technical assistance for the transformation of traditional livestock practices into a modern market-oriented system;
■■ Promote the improvement of fishing and fish processing technologies to improve the quality and quantity of fish catches in South Sudan;
■■ Ensure the sustainability of the fisheries sector through the development and enforcement of policies and regulations governing the exploitations of fish stocks;
■■ Promote and develop aquaculture fish production;
■■ Promote effective community-based extension programmes in livestock and fisheries production;
■■ Promote the development of bee-keeping industry and other emerging livestock resources;
■■ Promote animal welfare; and
■■ Provide technical assistance and training to state governments and other local governments to build their capacity to assume their responsibilities for animal resources and fisheries matters as defined in the Constitution and Government policy.
Ministry of Energy and Mining
■■ Formulate necessary legislation and regulation for the management and development of the energy and mining sectors of South Sudan;
■■ Develop and implement Government policies and strategies on power generation and distribution, industrial development, and mining;
■■ Organize and identify the energy potential of South Sudan in order to facilitate economic growth;
■■ Identify all sources of hydro-power and other sources of renewable energy and facilitate their exploitation for electricity generation;
■■ Plan electricity power supply schemes and oversee their implementation and operational management;
■■ Identify potential commercial partners to develop and run electricity generation schemes in South Sudan;
■■ Oversee the operation and management of the South Sudan Electricity Corporation to ensure it performs its functions as laid out in the relevant Act;
■■ Set electricity tariffs for the sale of electricity to customers;
■■ Regulate the exploitation of minerals, oil and other fossil fuels;
74 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
■■ Supervise geological surveys;
■■ Coordinate with the Sudanese Government on matters concerning oil and other mineral exploration and exploitation on behalf of Government;
■■ Monitor the activities of commercial enterprises involved in the exploration for and exploitation of oil and other mineral resources of South Sudan to ensure compliance with relevant regulations; and
■■ Provide technical assistance, training and other capacity building to state governments and other local governments to build their capacity to assume their responsibilities for energy and mining maters as defined in the Constitution and Government policy.
Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development
■■ Formulate and implement Cooperative Society legislation and policy;
■■ Establish and train a cooperative extension service;
■■ Promote and undertake the training of cooperative societies;
■■ Promote and enhance the formation of cooperative societies and community-based organizations as vehicles of community empowerment and poverty eradication;
■■ Mobilize and organize communities to initiate community-based and self help development projects;
■■ Develop policy on Cooperative Savings and Banking services and facilitate their establishment throughout South Sudan;
■■ To provide training to upgrade the management and performance of community based programmes;
■■ Support the Amadi Institute of Community Development;
■■ Develop, in conjunction with other relevant ministries, state and local governments, policies, and strategies for the development of rural areas in South Sudan;
■■ Promote and coordinate area-based rural development schemes until such time as the appropriate state or local government has the capacity to undertake such responsibility; and
■■ Provide technical assistance to state governments to build their capacity to support cooperative societies and undertake rural development planning and manage the implementation of rural development plans.
Ministry of Commerce and Industry
■■ Formulate and oversee the implementation of the Government’s commercial, industrial and trade development policy and necessary legal framework;
■■ Formulate legislation, regulations and standards for weights and measures and consumer protection;
■■ Define minimum standards for the maintenance of quality control of goods and services;
■■ Supervise the South Sudan Bureau of Standards;
■■ Micro Enterprise promotion through strategies for promotion of activities that encourage development of small scale industries;
■■ Develop and oversee regulations, contracts, protocols and agreements in the fields of commerce;
■■ Issuance of commercial and trade licenses to individuals and companies;
■■ Participation in preparation of economic and financial policies to achieve commercial development in the states of South Sudan;
■■ To provide technical and commercial information on opportunities for trade expansion to the private sector in order to enhance economic development;
■■ To promote the export of South Sudan products;
■■ To facilitate the development of wholesale markets and the efficient distribution of
APPENDICES
75Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
goods and services throughout South Sudan;
■■ To facilitate access by the private sector to commercial and marketing research, together with new technologies;
■■ Facilitate, encourage and initiate the establishment of private and public industries to promote economic growth;
■■ Develop and oversee an investment code and control the issuance of industrial licenses;
■■ Develop an Industrial Investment Promotion Policy and Industrial Investment Code;
■■ Encourage and facilitate investment for industrial development in South Sudan;
■■ Register trade marks;
■■ Facilitate and where necessary provide training to industrial entrepreneurs in business skills;
■■ Establish and oversee the working of an Inspectorate to maintain standards of hygiene and safety in shops and other commercial enterprises; and
■■ Provide technical assistance, training and other capacity building to state governments and other local governments to build their capacity to assume their responsibilities for the commerce and industrial matters as defined in the Constitution and Government policy.
Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism
■■ Develop and execute legislation, regulations, policies and strategies for the protection and management of South Sudan’s wildlife resources and protected areas;
■■ Formulate plans and programmes for the promotion and development of tourism in South Sudan;
■■ Develop policies to promote tourism as an income earning opportunity;
■■ Regulate and license private enterprises, bodies and other agencies operating in the field of tourism;
■■ Provide security to tourism institutions and resorts;
■■ Administer and manage the Wildlife Protection Service;
■■ Initiate community-based wildlife conservation and tourism industry awareness campaigns;
■■ Demarcate protected areas and build infrastructure in and around parks and reserves;
■■ Advise Government on international wildlife and tourism conventions and other agreements to which Sudan is a party;
■■ Develop and manage cross-border international “Peace Parks”;
■■ Promotion of ecotourism; and
■■ Advise and support states and local governments in their responsibilities for wildlife conservation and tourism and build their capacity to assume all functions vested by the Constitution and Government policy.
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
■■ Develop and implement legislation and regulations, including those for Public Financial Management, Tax and Revenue Collection, Procurement and other legislation as required;
■■ Develop and execute sound economic, fiscal and investment policies for South Sudan;
■■ Develop and implement a sound public financial management system for South Sudan and manage the Government Consolidated Fund;
■■ Develop and execute revenue policy for taxes and other sources of revenue within the purview of the Government;
■■ Collect tax revenues within the purview of the Government;
■■ Ensure remittance of Government non-tax revenues collected by other Government institutions to the Consolidated Fund;
76 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
APPENDICES
(grants and loans), and reflect donor support and external debt in the Government’s Annual Budget;
■■ Implement rigorous procurement policies, regulations and procedures and ensure compliance throughout the Government through capacity building;
■■ Approve all contracts made under the procurement regulations, monitor all associated obligations and payments and maintain a register of Government contracts;
■■ Oversee and build the capacity of the internal audit function throughout Government;
■■ Produce monthly Government budget execution reports and Government accounts on a quarterly, semi-annual and annual basis;
■■ Oversee and build the capacity of accounting units in all spending agencies of Government;
■■ Jointly with the South Sudan Fiscal and Financial Allocation and Monitoring Commission, set allocation policies for inter-governmental fiscal transfers, manage their disbursement, monitor their utilization and ensure accountability at the state level;
■■ Coordinate Government inputs to the Sudan Donors Consortium;
■■ Act as the custodian of Government assets and property and maintain a central assets register; and
■■ Provide technical assistance and training to state governments and other local governments to build their capacity to assume their responsibilities for financial management, accounting and audit and planning functions and other such matters as defined in the Constitution and Government policy.
■■ Liaise with the Government of Sudan and the states of South Sudan on harmonized tax policy and administration across the levels of government;
■■ Monitor the disbursement of the South Sudan share of oil revenues received from the Sudanese Government;
■■ Agree on policies with the Sudanese Government for management and draw down from the Oil Revenue Stabilization Account;
■■ Develop and execute a reserve management policy for the Government;
■■ Macroeconomic forecasting and identification of Government resource availability to finance the annual budget and medium term expenditure framework;
■■ Coordinate the Government’s short, medium and long-term planning process to develop a prioritized development framework for the Government;
■■ Coordinate the preparation of the annual Government budget and medium term expenditure framework and manage their implementation;
■■ Sanction all Government expenditure payments in conformity with the approved Annual Budget and oversee the disbursement of all Government expenditure from the Consolidated Fund;
■■ Appraise all development projects and programmes requiring financial contributions from Government prior to their approval and financing;
■■ Develop and execute Government policies on aid coordination;
■■ Coordinate and approve external donor financing programmes, monitoring their implementation and evaluating their impact;
■■ Evaluate, approve and manage all external loans to Government;
■■ Manage the disbursement of all donor grants and maintain a central database of all external aid financing to Government
77Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
APPENDIx 5: PRoJectSIntheFIeldoFclImAtechAnGeAndSuStAInABlenAtuRAlReSouRceSmAnAGement
Project ministry Partners
SIFSA (Sudan Institutional Capacity Programme: Food Security Information for Action)
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
FAO
SPCRP (Sudan Productive Capacity Recovery Programme)
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
FAO, GIZ, EU
SSALDP (South Sudan Agriculture and Livestock Development) Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry MDTF, World Bank
SAFD (Support to Agriculture and Forestry Development) Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry MDTF, World Bank
NFG (Norwegian Forestry Group) Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry NORAD
Sudan Bridge Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
SSFCRP (South Sudan Food Crisis Response Program) Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry MDTF, WB
FARM (Food Agribusiness and Rural Market project) Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
Multi Donor Trust Fund (MDTF) Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
Livestock Epidemio Surveillance Project (LESP-SS)
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
Support Programme for Integrated National Action Plans against Avian and Human Influenza (SPINAP-AHI)
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
Pan African Tsetse and Tripanosomosis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC)
Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
Support to cooperative formation and development
Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development
Construction of Community Development Centres and Community Development Offices in States
Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development
Support to Community Based Organizations and Rural Development Associations and Groups
Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development
Institutional capacity building, training, outreach consultancy and community extension
Ministry of Cooperatives and Rural Development
Medium voltage for Thongpiny and Munuki Ministry of Energy and Mining
Studies for Benden, Fula, Lakki, Shukilli, some Rivers Hydro electric Power Ministry of Energy and Mining
78 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
APPENDICES
Project ministry Partners
South Sudan Private Sector Development Project with the following components Ministry of Commerce and Industry
Embankment of flood control dikes in floods prone areas of Phom el-Zeraf (Fangak County) and Twic East County, in Jonglei State, so as to protect lives, properties, farmlands and wet season grazing areas from flooding and reclaim lands for returnees
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
Water harvesting constructions (Hafirs and Barriers), so as to increase spatial and seasonal availability of water for various uses
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
Rehabilitation and construction of rural water supply and sanitation facilities, with emphasis being on guinea worm endemic villages, schools, health centres, market places, administrative centres and other areas where communities congregate
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
Operation, maintenance, management, rehabilitation, and provision of Irrigation facilities, in an effort to boost food security
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
Projects of Investment Cooperation with some Chinese Public Companies: in 2006 the Ministry signed an MOU with China Construction and Machinery Company (CCM)
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
Projects of Technical and Development cooperation with Egypt: the Government of Egypt offered and pledged six projects at a value of $26.6 million, over a period of three years
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
National Projects through the Dams Implementation Unit (DIU): Since October 2006, the Ministry has been in charge of coordination of DIU activities in South Sudan
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI): in collaboration with the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) Subsidiary Action Programmes
Ministry of Water and Irrigation
79Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
APPENDIx 6: PolIcyAndStRAteGIcdocumentS
entityresponsible document Status
National Government South Sudan Development Plan 2011
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Food and agricultural policy framework
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Forestry policy
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Strategic plan 2011-2015 draft
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Strategic plan 2007-2011
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Training and Capacity Building Policy draft, ready end May
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Research Policy draft, ready end May
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Seeds Policy draft, ready end May
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Plant Protection Policy draft, ready end May
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Horticulture Policy draft, ready end May
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Mechanisation and Plant Protection Policy draft, ready end May
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Micro Finance Policy draft, ready end May
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Agriculture and Livestock Extension Policy approved
Ministry of Environment Environment Policy draft
Ministry of Environment Environment Bill draft
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
National Technical Guidelines and Manuals for Water Supply and Sanitation Facilities
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation Water Policy 2007
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation Mid-term Strategic Plan
Ministry of Wildlife and Tourism Wildlife Conservation and National Parks Act 2003
Ministry of Wildlife and Tourism Tourism Potential in South Sudan
80 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
1.Airquality 2.waterquality 3.Soilquality 4.vegetation 5.Biodiversity 6.Socio-demo-graphiceffects
7.healthandsecurity
8.naturalresources
9.Privateproperty
10.Agricultureandlivestock
11.employmentandincome
12.trade,trans-port,industry
A.drainageofwetlandsforoilexploitationoragriculture
Decreasing humidity, increasing dust Loss of water buffer Erosion Degrading natural
vegetation, more fires Reduction Settlement extension
May reduce water borne diseases
Usually leads to resource degradation
Depending on objectives of property
Improved cultivation, improvement livestock not certain
Improved
Positive if leading to improved agricultural production
B.dikesforoilexploitation,agriculture
No impact Flood risk, accumulated oil spill Nutrient flow disturbed Changing natural
gradients Reduction Convenient for settlements
Increase in waterborne diseases
Ecosystems disturbed
Depending on objectives of property
Reduces flooding, negative for dry season farming
Depends current land use
Positive if leading to improved agricultural production
c.dams(irrigation,power) No impact Flood risk, interruption
of nutrient flow Reducing nutrient flow Changing natural gradients
Decreasing natural biodiversity
Drinking water, electricity facilitating settlement
Increase water borne diseases
Loss downstream, benefits around dam
Sometimes people displaced
Irrigation but loss downstream
Depends current land use
Positive due to electricity and agro-activities
d.charcoalburning Pollution No impact Erosion due to decreased cover Deforestation Reduction due to tree
off-takeBurners moving to find new forests
May increase cancer risk Competing No impact Competing with
livestock
Generating employment and income.
Positive
e.Brickmaking Light air polution Destruction of river banks Erosion Deforestation Reduced through
deforestationMore stable settlements
No significant impact Competing No impact Competing
Generating employment and income.
Positive
F.constructionwoodcollection No impact Increased silt content Erosion due to
decreased cover Deforestation Reduced through deforestation No impact No significant
impact Competing No impact Moderately competing
Generating employment and income.
Positive
G.livestockgrazing/browsing No impact No impact Erosion when intensity
is highDegradation when intensity is high Reduced No impact May compete for
drinking water Competing Hardly impact Livestock may damage crops
Generating employment and income.
Positive
h.Forestfires Smoke Little impact Destroying organic components, erosion Forest degradation Reduced No likely impact Fire hazard, smoke
and injury Destructive Fire hazardStimulates regrowth for livestock,
May reduce income No impact
I.mechanisedagriculture Pollution Pollution by
agrichemicalsDemineralization, erosion Forest destruction Reduced May involve foreign
labourDust, agri-chemicals Competing
Sometimes land confiscated and people displaced
Reduction of land for these activities
Generating employment and income.
Positive
J.traditionalcultivation No impact Increased silt content Erosion Forest degradation Reduced No impact No impact Competing Not likely
Conflicts between cultivation and pastoralists
Generating employment and income.
positive
k.hunting Little impact Pollution by lead of bullets No impact Depending hunting
technique Reduced No impact Depending hunting technique No impact Not likely Not likely
Generating employment and income.
not significant
l.Fishing No impact Depending extraction technique No impact No impact Reduced No impact Depending fishing
technique
Not likely, but depends techniques used
Not likely Not likelyGenerating employment and income.
Positive
m.otherntFPcollection No impact Usually No impact No impact Depending extraction
techniqueDepending extraction technique No impact May provide
medicins Competing No impact Usually notGenerating employment and income.
Positive
P.Roadconstruction Pollution Increasing silt content Often lateral erosion Usually zone of influence
Reduction due to fragmentation and reduced connectivity
Temporary disturbance
Work floor accidents
Resource loss on the spot
Sometimes land confiscated and people displaced
Limited access Temporary employment Positive
Q.Roadutilisation Pollution Increasing silt content Often lateral erosionUsually zone of influence (deforestation)
Reduction due to fragmentation and reduced connectivity
Better communication and facilities
Road accidents, but also better access to facilities
Increased exploitation Disturbance
Better marketing, but also landscape fragmentation
Better mobility and access to jobs
Significant improvement
R.urbanisation Moderate pollution Mainly organic pollution Erosion Deforestation Significant reduction
Better facilities, but sometimes degrading social climate
Better facilities, but sometimes degrading social climate
Increasing demand More competition for space Limited access
Increased employment and higher living costs
Usually higher economic diversity
S.oilexploitation Pollution Risk of significant pollution
Risk of significant pollution, structure modification and erosion
Risk of degradation
Degradation by flaring, pollution, disturbance and associated human activities
Temporary employment and settlement often causes social frictions
Reduction Usually leads to degradation
Sometimes land confiscated and people displaced
Limited access and effects of pollution
Usually temporary income Positive
APPENDICES
APPENDIx 7: vARIouSenvIRonmentAlImPActSoBSeRvedRelAtedtotheutIlIzAtIonoFnAtuRAlReSouRceSAndlAnd
81Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
1.Airquality 2.waterquality 3.Soilquality 4.vegetation 5.Biodiversity 6.Socio-demo-graphiceffects
7.healthandsecurity
8.naturalresources
9.Privateproperty
10.Agricultureandlivestock
11.employmentandincome
12.trade,trans-port,industry
A.drainageofwetlandsforoilexploitationoragriculture
Decreasing humidity, increasing dust Loss of water buffer Erosion Degrading natural
vegetation, more fires Reduction Settlement extension
May reduce water borne diseases
Usually leads to resource degradation
Depending on objectives of property
Improved cultivation, improvement livestock not certain
Improved
Positive if leading to improved agricultural production
B.dikesforoilexploitation,agriculture
No impact Flood risk, accumulated oil spill Nutrient flow disturbed Changing natural
gradients Reduction Convenient for settlements
Increase in waterborne diseases
Ecosystems disturbed
Depending on objectives of property
Reduces flooding, negative for dry season farming
Depends current land use
Positive if leading to improved agricultural production
c.dams(irrigation,power) No impact Flood risk, interruption
of nutrient flow Reducing nutrient flow Changing natural gradients
Decreasing natural biodiversity
Drinking water, electricity facilitating settlement
Increase water borne diseases
Loss downstream, benefits around dam
Sometimes people displaced
Irrigation but loss downstream
Depends current land use
Positive due to electricity and agro-activities
d.charcoalburning Pollution No impact Erosion due to decreased cover Deforestation Reduction due to tree
off-takeBurners moving to find new forests
May increase cancer risk Competing No impact Competing with
livestock
Generating employment and income.
Positive
e.Brickmaking Light air polution Destruction of river banks Erosion Deforestation Reduced through
deforestationMore stable settlements
No significant impact Competing No impact Competing
Generating employment and income.
Positive
F.constructionwoodcollection No impact Increased silt content Erosion due to
decreased cover Deforestation Reduced through deforestation No impact No significant
impact Competing No impact Moderately competing
Generating employment and income.
Positive
G.livestockgrazing/browsing No impact No impact Erosion when intensity
is highDegradation when intensity is high Reduced No impact May compete for
drinking water Competing Hardly impact Livestock may damage crops
Generating employment and income.
Positive
h.Forestfires Smoke Little impact Destroying organic components, erosion Forest degradation Reduced No likely impact Fire hazard, smoke
and injury Destructive Fire hazardStimulates regrowth for livestock,
May reduce income No impact
I.mechanisedagriculture Pollution Pollution by
agrichemicalsDemineralization, erosion Forest destruction Reduced May involve foreign
labourDust, agri-chemicals Competing
Sometimes land confiscated and people displaced
Reduction of land for these activities
Generating employment and income.
Positive
J.traditionalcultivation No impact Increased silt content Erosion Forest degradation Reduced No impact No impact Competing Not likely
Conflicts between cultivation and pastoralists
Generating employment and income.
positive
k.hunting Little impact Pollution by lead of bullets No impact Depending hunting
technique Reduced No impact Depending hunting technique No impact Not likely Not likely
Generating employment and income.
not significant
l.Fishing No impact Depending extraction technique No impact No impact Reduced No impact Depending fishing
technique
Not likely, but depends techniques used
Not likely Not likelyGenerating employment and income.
Positive
m.otherntFPcollection No impact Usually No impact No impact Depending extraction
techniqueDepending extraction technique No impact May provide
medicins Competing No impact Usually notGenerating employment and income.
Positive
P.Roadconstruction Pollution Increasing silt content Often lateral erosion Usually zone of influence
Reduction due to fragmentation and reduced connectivity
Temporary disturbance
Work floor accidents
Resource loss on the spot
Sometimes land confiscated and people displaced
Limited access Temporary employment Positive
Q.Roadutilisation Pollution Increasing silt content Often lateral erosionUsually zone of influence (deforestation)
Reduction due to fragmentation and reduced connectivity
Better communication and facilities
Road accidents, but also better access to facilities
Increased exploitation Disturbance
Better marketing, but also landscape fragmentation
Better mobility and access to jobs
Significant improvement
R.urbanisation Moderate pollution Mainly organic pollution Erosion Deforestation Significant reduction
Better facilities, but sometimes degrading social climate
Better facilities, but sometimes degrading social climate
Increasing demand More competition for space Limited access
Increased employment and higher living costs
Usually higher economic diversity
S.oilexploitation Pollution Risk of significant pollution
Risk of significant pollution, structure modification and erosion
Risk of degradation
Degradation by flaring, pollution, disturbance and associated human activities
Temporary employment and settlement often causes social frictions
Reduction Usually leads to degradation
Sometimes land confiscated and people displaced
Limited access and effects of pollution
Usually temporary income Positive
82 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
A Institutional capacity building and strengthening
1 Integrate environmental concerns into national development planning process;
2 Finalize and approve of the draft environmental policy and legislation;
3 Enact new legislation, where needed, in the thematic areas, e.g. climate change, biodiversity conservation etc;
4 Develop Environmental Management Action Plan;
5 Develop a strategic plan for Sudd Ramsar site;
6 Build capacity for implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs);
7 Strengthen collaboration and cooperation among Government, NGOs, civil society and other relevant stakeholders;
8 Provide technical equipment and other facilities;
9 Streamline and harmonize sector specific environmental regulations/legal frameworks;
10 Conduct a skills needs assessment with respect to the national priorities of the Ministry.
B Technical Professional Training and Research Training needs, but not limited to these;
1 Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA);
2 Integrated environmental management;
3 Environmental monitoring and auditing;
4 Pollution prevention and control;
5 Waste management;
6 Use of relevant technology such as GPS/GIS and remote sensing applications;
7 Environmental standards and policy formulation;
8 Wetlands and biodiversity conservation;
9 Environmental education and awareness;
10 Integrated water resource management;
11 Information Management System;
12 Climate change adaptation and mitigation;
13 Water quality monitoring;
14 Training in Environmental Planning Research areas, but not limited to these;
15 Country Environmental Profile/ State of Environment;
16 Climate Change Variability and Adaptation;
17 Biodiversity Assessment and Inventory;
18 Inventory of Wetlands in South Sudan;
19 Research on Waste Management and Water Quality.
C Public awareness and participation
1 Develop an integrated programme for public awareness;
2 Launch public awareness campaigns to inform all relevant stakeholders of their obligations towards environmental protection;
3 Increase collaboration with the private sector, media and NGOs to enhance awareness efforts;
D Information Management system
1 Support development of Environmental Information Centre;
2 Establish environmental database;
APPENDICES
APPENDIx 8: PRIoRItyActIonSIntheFIeldoFenvIRonmentIdentIFIedBythemInIStRyoFenvIRonment
83Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
3 Develop agreements for information sharing and promote user-friendly data;
4 Establish a website for the Ministry and a web-based information system and sharing mechanism;
E Establish and develop a National Environmental Trust Fund to fund identified national priorities (National and Donor funding)
1 Increase national annual budgetary allocations for environment;
2 Contribution from productive sectors (e.g. oil, forestry, mining etc) for environmental management;
3 Contribution from environmental enforcement activities, i.e. charges etc;
4 Pursue funding from Multilateral and bilateral partners;
F International cooperation
1 Facilitate cooperation and implementation of MEAs;
2 Participation in international conferences, seminars, symposia etc;
3 Promote international cooperation on climate change, biodiversity conservation and transboundary environmental concerns.
Sale of thatching grass at Ikotos market, Eastern Equatoria
Sale of timber in Juba, Central Equatoria
Charcoal traders in Ikotos county, Eastern Equatoria
84 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
nam
eof
Fun
d/
Fund
ing
org
aniz
atio
nth
emat
icA
reas
c
over
edb
yFu
ndP
rogr
amm
e(s)
wit
hin
Fund
App
licat
ion
Info
rmat
ion
Stra
tegi
cc
limat
eFu
nd,
Wor
ld b
ank,
Co
ntac
t: C
limat
e In
vest
men
t Fu
nds,
Em
ail:
CIF
Adm
inU
nit@
wor
ldba
nk.o
rg,
Pho
ne: (
202)
458
-180
, ht
tp:/
/ww
w.
clim
atei
nves
tmen
tfun
ds.
org/
cif/
node
/3
clim
ate
cha
nge
-
The
Stra
tegi
c C
limat
e Fu
nd (S
CF)
is o
ne o
f the
tw
o fu
nds
of th
e C
limat
e In
vest
men
t Fun
ds. I
t se
rves
as
an o
vera
rchi
ng fr
amew
ork
to s
uppo
rt
thre
e ta
rget
ed p
rogr
amm
es w
ith d
edic
ated
fu
ndin
g to
pilo
t new
app
roac
hes
with
pot
entia
l fo
r sc
aled
-up,
tran
sfor
mat
iona
l act
ion
aim
ed a
t a
spec
ific
clim
ate
chan
ge c
halle
nge
or s
ecto
ral
resp
onse
clim
ate
Res
ilien
ce-
Th
e P
ilot P
rogr
am fo
r C
limat
e R
esili
ence
(PP
CR
), ap
prov
ed in
Nov
embe
r 20
08, w
as th
e fir
st
prog
ram
me
deve
lope
d an
d op
erat
iona
l und
er
the
Stra
tegi
c C
limat
e Fu
nd (S
CF)
, whi
ch is
one
of
two
fund
s w
ithin
the
desi
gn o
f the
Clim
ate
Inve
stm
ent F
unds
(CIF
). Th
e P
PC
R a
ims
to
pilo
t and
dem
onst
rate
way
s in
whi
ch c
limat
e ri
sk a
nd r
esili
ence
may
be
inte
grat
ed in
to c
ore
deve
lopm
ent p
lann
ing
and
impl
emen
tatio
n.
In th
is w
ay, t
he P
PC
R p
rovi
des
ince
ntiv
es fo
r sc
aled
-up
actio
n an
d in
itiat
es tr
ansf
orm
atio
nal
chan
ge. T
he p
ilot p
rogr
amm
es a
nd p
roje
cts
impl
emen
ted
unde
r th
e P
PC
R a
re c
ount
ry-l
ed,
build
on
Nat
iona
l Ada
ptat
ion
Pro
gram
s of
Act
ion
(NAP
A) a
nd o
ther
rel
evan
t cou
ntry
stu
dies
and
st
rate
gies
. The
y ar
e st
rate
gica
lly a
ligne
d w
ith
othe
r do
nor-
fund
ed a
ctiv
ities
to p
rovi
de fi
nanc
ing
for
proj
ects
that
will
pro
duce
exp
erie
nce
and
know
ledg
e us
eful
to d
esig
ning
sca
led-
up
adap
tatio
n m
easu
res.
The
PP
CR
con
trib
utes
to
the
obje
ctiv
es o
f the
SC
F by
inte
grat
ing
clim
ate
resi
lienc
e co
nsid
erat
ions
into
nat
iona
l de
velo
pmen
t pla
nnin
g an
d im
plem
enta
tion
that
are
con
sist
ent w
ith p
over
ty r
educ
tion
and
sust
aina
ble
deve
lopm
ent g
oals
. Und
er th
e P
PC
R
two
type
s of
inve
stm
ents
are
sup
port
ed.
1) F
undi
ng fo
r te
chni
cal a
ssis
tanc
e to
ena
ble
deve
lopi
ng c
ount
ries
to b
uild
upo
n ex
istin
g na
tiona
l wor
k to
inte
grat
e cl
imat
e re
silie
nce
into
na
tiona
l and
sec
tora
l dev
elop
men
t pla
ns.
2) F
undi
ng p
ublic
and
pri
vate
sec
tor
inve
stm
ents
in
dent
ified
in n
atio
nal o
r se
ctor
al d
evel
opm
ent
plan
s or
str
ateg
ies
addr
essi
ng c
limat
e re
silie
nce.
ht
tp:/
/ww
w.c
limat
einv
estm
entf
unds
.org
/cif/
ppcr
Gui
delin
esfo
rJo
intm
issi
ons
tod
esig
nth
eP
Pc
Rp
ilotp
rogr
amm
es -
ht
tp:/
/ww
w.c
limat
einv
estm
entf
unds
.org
/cif/
site
s/cl
imat
einv
estm
entf
unds
.org
/file
s/P
PC
R_
join
t_m
issi
on_g
uide
lines
_fina
l_0.
APPENDICESA
PP
END
Ix 9
: So
uR
ceS
oF
Fun
dIn
GF
oR
en
vIR
on
men
tA
nd
cle
An
en
eRG
yP
Ro
Ject
S
85Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
nam
eof
Fun
d/
Fund
ing
org
aniz
atio
nth
emat
icA
reas
c
over
edb
yFu
ndP
rogr
amm
e(s)
wit
hin
Fund
App
licat
ion
Info
rmat
ion
Ren
ewab
lee
nerg
y -
Th
e P
rogr
am o
n Sc
alin
g-U
p R
enew
able
En
ergy
in L
ow In
com
e C
ount
ries
(SR
EP) i
s a
targ
eted
pro
gram
of t
he S
trat
egic
Clim
ate
Fund
(SC
F), w
hich
is w
ithin
the
fram
ewor
k of
the
Clim
ate
Inve
stm
ent F
unds
(CIF
). Th
e SR
EP w
as a
ppro
ved
by th
e SC
F Tr
ust F
und
Com
mitt
ee in
May
200
9 to
dem
onst
rate
the
econ
omic
, soc
ial a
nd e
nvir
onm
enta
l via
bilit
y of
low
car
bon
deve
lopm
ent p
athw
ays
in th
e en
ergy
sec
tor
in lo
w-i
ncom
e co
untr
ies.
It a
ims
to h
elp
low
-inc
ome
coun
trie
s us
e ne
w e
cono
mic
op
port
uniti
es to
incr
ease
ene
rgy
acce
ss th
roug
h re
new
able
ene
rgy
use.
The
SR
EP s
timul
ates
ec
onom
ic g
row
th th
roug
h th
e sc
aled
-up
deve
lopm
ent o
f ren
ewab
le e
nerg
y so
lutio
ns a
nd,
it ac
ts a
s a
cata
lyst
for
the
tran
sfor
mat
ion
of th
e re
new
able
s m
arke
t by
obta
inin
g go
vern
men
t su
ppor
t for
mar
ket c
reat
ion,
pri
vate
sec
tor
impl
emen
tatio
n, a
nd p
rodu
ctiv
e en
ergy
use
. R
ecog
nizi
ng th
e si
gnifi
cant
rol
e th
e pr
ivat
e se
ctor
has
in p
rom
otin
g re
new
able
ene
rgy,
SR
EP p
rom
otes
bot
h pu
blic
and
pri
vate
sec
tor
actio
ns to
rem
ove
barr
iers
that
mig
ht o
ther
wis
e in
hibi
t sca
led-
up p
riva
te s
ecto
r in
vest
men
ts.
SREP
is c
ount
ry-l
ed a
nd b
uild
s on
nat
iona
l po
licie
s an
d th
e ac
tiviti
es o
f oth
er e
xist
ing
ener
gy in
itiat
ives
. It w
ill o
pera
te in
a s
mal
l nu
mbe
r of
low
-inc
ome
coun
trie
s to
max
imiz
e its
impa
ct a
nd d
emon
stra
tive
effe
ct.
http
://w
ww
.clim
atei
nves
tmen
tfun
ds.o
rg/c
if/pp
cr
SReP
Pro
gram
min
gm
odal
itie
san
dop
erat
iona
lgui
delin
es -
ht
tp:/
/ww
w.c
limat
einv
estm
entf
unds
.org
/ci
f/si
tes/
clim
atei
nves
tmen
tfun
ds.o
rg/
files
/SR
EP%
20P
rogr
amm
ing_
mod
alit
ies_
final
_110
910_
key_
docu
men
t.pd
f Co
ntac
t: C
limat
e In
vest
men
t Fun
ds
Emai
l: C
IFA
dmin
Uni
t@w
orld
bank
.org
P
hone
: (20
2) 4
58-1
81
86 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
APPENDICESn
ame
ofF
und/
Fu
ndin
go
rgan
izat
ion
them
atic
Are
as
cov
ered
by
Fund
Pro
gram
me(
s)w
ithi
nFu
ndA
pplic
atio
nIn
form
atio
n
cle
ant
echn
olog
yFu
nd,
Wor
ldba
nk,
http
://w
ww
.cl
imat
einv
estm
entf
unds
.org
/ci
f/no
de/2
cle
ane
nerg
yd
evel
opm
ent -
Th
e C
lean
Tec
hnol
ogy
Fund
(CTF
), on
e of
two
Clim
ate
Inve
stm
ent F
unds
, pro
mot
es s
cale
d-up
fina
ncin
g fo
r de
mon
stra
tion,
dep
loym
ent
and
tran
sfer
of l
ow-c
arbo
n te
chno
logi
es w
ith
sign
ifica
nt p
oten
tial f
or lo
ng-t
erm
gre
enho
use
gas
emis
sion
s sa
ving
s. It
is e
xpec
ted
that
the
CTF
will
fin
ance
pro
gram
s in
15
to 2
0 co
untr
ies
or r
egio
ns.
Wha
t kin
d of
pro
gram
s do
es th
e C
TF p
rom
ote?
Pow
er S
ecto
r: R
enew
able
ene
rgy
and
high
ly
effic
ient
tech
nolo
gies
to r
educ
e ca
rbon
inte
nsity
Tran
spor
t Sec
tor:
Effi
cien
cy a
nd m
odal
shi
fts
Ener
gy E
ffici
ency
: Bui
ldin
gs, i
ndus
try,
and
ag
ricu
ltur
e H
ow d
oes
the
CTF
aim
to fi
nanc
e tr
ansf
orm
atio
nal
actio
ns?
Pro
vidi
ng p
ositi
ve in
cent
ives
for
the
dem
onst
ratio
n of
low
car
bon
deve
lopm
ent a
nd m
itiga
tion
of G
HG
em
issi
ons.
Thi
s w
ill b
e do
ne th
ough
pub
lic a
nd
priv
ate
sect
or in
vest
men
ts;
Scal
ing-
up d
evel
opm
ent t
hrou
gh fu
ndin
g lo
w
carb
on p
rogr
amm
es a
nd p
roje
cts
that
are
em
bedd
ed in
nat
iona
l pla
ns a
nd s
trat
egie
s.
In th
is w
ay, t
he d
iffus
ion
and
tran
sfer
of c
lean
te
chno
logi
es w
ill b
e ac
cele
rate
d;
Rea
lizin
g en
viro
nmen
tal a
nd s
ocia
l co-
bene
fits.
Th
is w
ill il
lust
rate
the
pote
ntia
l hel
d by
low
-ca
rbon
tech
nolo
gies
to c
ontr
ibut
e to
the
goal
s of
sus
tain
able
dev
elop
men
t and
the
Mill
enni
um
Dev
elop
men
t Goa
ls (M
DG
s);
Inte
rnat
iona
l coo
pera
tion
on c
limat
e ch
ange
and
su
ppor
ting
agre
emen
t on
the
futu
re o
f the
clim
ate
chan
ge r
egim
e;U
tiliz
ing
the
skill
s an
d ca
pabi
litie
s of
the
Mul
tilat
eral
Dev
elop
men
t Ban
ks (M
DB
s) to
rai
se
and
deliv
er n
ew a
nd a
dditi
onal
res
ourc
es. T
hese
w
ill in
clud
e of
ficia
l and
con
cess
iona
l fun
ding
, at
sign
ifica
nt s
cale
; Sh
arin
g ex
peri
ence
s an
d le
sson
s le
arne
d w
hile
re
spon
ding
to th
e ch
alle
nges
of c
limat
e ch
ange
.ht
tp:/
/ww
w.c
limat
einv
estm
entf
unds
.org
/cif/
node
/2
Ren
ewab
lee
nerg
yen
ergy
effi
cien
cyct
Ffu
ndin
gel
igib
ility
cri
teri
a -
To
be
elig
ible
for
CTF
fund
ing
a co
untr
y m
ust
be O
DA
elig
ible
and
hav
e an
act
ive
Mul
tilat
eral
D
evel
opm
ent B
ank
(MD
B) c
ount
ry p
rogr
amm
e.
Whe
n a
coun
try
expr
esse
s in
tere
st in
acc
essi
ng
CTF
fina
ncin
g, th
e M
ultil
ater
al D
evel
opm
ent B
anks
co
ncer
ned
will
con
duct
a jo
int m
issi
on in
volv
ing
othe
r re
leva
nt d
evel
opm
ent p
artn
ers.
MD
Bs
will
en
gage
with
gov
ernm
ent o
ffici
als,
pri
vate
indu
stry
an
d ot
her
stak
ehol
ders
on
how
the
fund
may
hel
p fin
ance
sca
led-
up, l
ow c
arbo
n ac
tiviti
es in
the
give
n co
untr
y. A
n in
vest
men
t pla
n w
ill b
e de
sign
ed
unde
r th
e le
ader
ship
of t
he r
ecip
ient
cou
ntry
. ht
tp:/
/ww
w.c
limat
einv
estm
entf
unds
.org
/cif/
node
/2
Clim
ate
Inve
stm
ent F
unds
Em
ail:
CIF
Adm
inU
nit@
wor
ldba
nk.o
rg
Pho
ne: (
202)
458
-182
87Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
nam
eof
Fun
d/
Fund
ing
org
aniz
atio
nth
emat
icA
reas
c
over
edb
yFu
ndP
rogr
amm
e(s)
wit
hin
Fund
App
licat
ion
Info
rmat
ion
Glo
bale
nvir
onm
ent
Faci
lity,
GeF
, ht
tp:/
/ww
w.t
hege
f.org
/
clim
ate
cha
nge,
Inte
rnat
iona
lwat
ers,
la
ndd
egra
dati
on,S
usta
inab
leF
ores
tm
gmt,
cap
acit
yd
evel
opm
ent,
cle
ane
nerg
yd
evel
opm
ent -
Th
e G
loba
l Env
iron
men
t Fac
ility
was
est
ablis
hed
in O
ctob
er 1
991
as a
$1
billi
on p
ilot p
rogr
am in
th
e W
orld
Ban
k to
ass
ist i
n th
e pr
otec
tion
of th
e gl
obal
env
iron
men
t and
to p
rom
ote
envi
ronm
enta
l su
stai
nabl
e de
velo
pmen
t. Th
e G
EF w
ould
pro
vide
ne
w a
nd a
dditi
onal
gra
nts
and
conc
essi
onal
fu
ndin
g to
cov
er th
e “i
ncre
men
tal”
or
addi
tiona
l co
sts
asso
ciat
ed w
ith tr
ansf
orm
ing
a pr
ojec
t w
ith n
atio
nal b
enefi
ts in
to o
ne w
ith g
loba
l en
viro
nmen
tal b
enefi
ts. T
he U
nite
d N
atio
ns
Dev
elop
men
t Pro
gram
me,
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
En
viro
nmen
t Pro
gram
, and
the
Wor
ld B
ank
wer
e th
e th
ree
initi
al p
artn
ers
impl
emen
ting
GEF
pro
ject
s. In
199
4, a
t the
Rio
Ear
th S
umm
it,
the
GEF
was
res
truc
ture
d an
d m
oved
out
of t
he
Wor
ld B
ank
syst
em to
bec
ome
a pe
rman
ent,
sepa
rate
inst
itutio
n. T
he d
ecis
ion
to m
ake
the
GEF
an
inde
pend
ent o
rgan
izat
ion
enha
nced
th
e in
volv
emen
t of d
evel
opin
g co
untr
ies
in th
e de
cisi
on-m
akin
g pr
oces
s an
d in
impl
emen
tatio
n of
the
proj
ects
. Sin
ce 1
994,
how
ever
, the
Wor
ld
Ban
k ha
s se
rved
as
the
Trus
tee
of th
e G
EF T
rust
Fu
nd a
nd p
rovi
ded
adm
inis
trat
ive
serv
ices
. As
part
of t
he r
estr
uctu
ring
, the
GEF
was
ent
rust
ed
to b
ecom
e th
e fin
anci
al m
echa
nism
for
both
the
UN
Con
vent
ion
on B
iolo
gica
l Div
ersi
ty a
nd th
e U
N F
ram
ewor
k C
onve
ntio
n on
Clim
ate
Cha
nge.
In
par
tner
ship
with
the
Mon
trea
l Pro
toco
l of t
he
Vien
na C
onve
ntio
n on
Ozo
ne L
ayer
Dep
letin
g Su
bsta
nces
, the
GEF
sta
rted
fund
ing
proj
ects
th
at e
nabl
e th
e R
ussi
an F
eder
atio
n an
d na
tions
in
Eas
tern
Eur
ope
and
Cen
tral
Asi
a to
pha
se o
ut
thei
r us
e of
ozo
ne-d
estr
oyin
g ch
emic
als.
The
G
EF s
ubse
quen
tly
was
als
o se
lect
ed to
ser
ve a
s fin
anci
al m
echa
nism
for
two
mor
e in
tern
atio
nal
conv
entio
ns: T
he S
tock
holm
Con
vent
ion
on
Per
sist
ent O
rgan
ic P
ollu
tant
s (2
001)
and
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Con
vent
ion
to C
omba
t Des
ertifi
catio
n (2
003)
.
Pro
gram
me
fund
ing
avai
labl
e fo
r
each
The
mat
ic A
rea
- ht
tp:/
/ww
w.t
hege
f.org
/gef
/Are
as_w
ork
Rel
evan
t pub
licat
ion:
Ste
p-by
-Ste
p G
uige
to N
APA
D
esig
n an
d Im
plem
enta
tion,
ht
tp:/
/unf
ccc.
int/
reso
urce
/doc
s/pu
blic
atio
ns/
ldc_
napa
2009
App
licat
ion
tem
plat
es
and
Gui
delin
es -
B
efor
e dr
aftin
g a
proj
ect p
ropo
sal,
the
appl
ican
t sh
ould
con
tact
the
Cou
ntry
Ope
ratio
nal F
ocal
P
oint
and
ver
ify th
at th
e pr
opos
al c
ompl
ies
with
th
e cr
iteri
a m
entio
ned
abov
e. If
ther
e ar
e do
ubts
ab
out t
he e
ligib
ility
of t
he p
roje
ct, i
t is
advi
sabl
e to
hav
e an
info
rmal
con
sult
atio
n w
ith th
e G
EF
Secr
etar
iat (
Cou
ntry
Rel
atio
n O
ffice
rs in
the
Exte
rnal
Aff
airs
team
). G
EF A
genc
ies
assi
st e
ligib
le
appl
ican
ts in
the
deve
lopm
ent,
impl
emen
tatio
n,
and
man
agem
ent o
f GEF
pro
ject
s. T
hey
are
the
chan
nel b
etw
een
coun
trie
s an
d th
e G
EF fo
r th
e pr
ojec
t app
rova
l pro
cess
and
par
ticip
ate
in G
EF
gove
rnan
ce a
s w
ell a
s in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f GEF
po
licie
s an
d pr
ogra
ms.
The
cho
ice
on th
e A
genc
y sh
ould
be
base
d on
its
resp
ectiv
e co
mpa
rativ
e ad
vant
ages
as
stat
ed in
the
docu
men
t Com
para
tive
Adv
anta
ges
of th
e G
EF A
genc
ies
(GEF
/C.3
1/5
Cor
r.1, 2
007)
. O
nce
thes
e pr
epar
ator
y st
eps
are
take
n, th
e pr
opon
ent s
houl
d de
velo
p th
e P
roje
ct Id
entifi
catio
n Fo
rm (P
IF),
in c
lose
coo
rdin
atio
n w
ith th
e G
EF
Age
ncy
and
follo
win
g th
e in
tern
al p
roje
ct c
ycle
pr
oced
ures
. Onc
e th
e P
IF is
rea
dy, t
he A
genc
y w
ill s
ubm
it it
to th
e G
EF S
ecre
tari
at fo
r ap
prov
al.
Tem
plat
es a
nd G
uide
lines
GEF
Pro
gram
me
Stra
tegy
on
Ada
ptat
ion
2010
-14,
ht
tp:/
/ww
w.t
hege
f.org
/gef
/site
s/th
egef
.org
/file
s/do
cum
ents
/Pro
gram
%20
stra
tegy
%20
V.2.
88 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
APPENDICESn
ame
ofF
und/
Fu
ndin
go
rgan
izat
ion
them
atic
Are
as
cov
ered
by
Fund
Pro
gram
me(
s)w
ithi
nFu
ndA
pplic
atio
nIn
form
atio
n
leas
tdev
elop
edc
ount
ries
Fun
d -
Th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
Cou
ntri
es F
und
(LD
CF)
was
es
tabl
ishe
d un
der
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Fra
mew
ork
Con
vent
ion
on C
limat
e C
hang
e (U
NFC
CC
) at i
t se
vent
h se
ssio
n in
Mar
rake
ch in
200
1, a
nd it
is
man
aged
by
the
GEF
. The
Fun
d ad
dres
ses
the
spec
ial n
eeds
of t
he L
east
Dev
elop
ed C
ount
ries
(L
DC
s), w
hich
are
esp
ecia
lly v
ulne
rabl
e to
the
adve
rse
impa
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
. Thi
s in
clud
es
prep
arin
g an
d im
plem
entin
g N
atio
nal A
dapt
atio
n P
rogr
ams
of A
ctio
n (N
APA
s), w
hich
aim
is to
id
entif
y “u
rgen
t and
imm
edia
te n
eeds
” of
eac
h LD
C
acco
rdin
g to
spe
cific
gui
delin
es p
rovi
ded
by th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
Cou
ntri
es E
xper
t Gro
up (L
EG).
Rel
evan
t pub
licat
ion:
GEF
: Fin
anci
ng A
dapt
atio
n A
ctio
n.
http
://w
ww
.the
gef.o
rg/g
ef/s
ites/
theg
ef.o
rg/fi
les/
publ
icat
ion/
adap
tati
on-a
ctio
ns_0
Acc
essi
ng F
inan
cing
und
er L
DC
F -
In o
rder
to
assi
st th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
Cou
ntri
es in
acc
essi
ng
fund
s un
der
the
LDC
F, th
e fo
llow
ing
tool
s ha
ve
been
dev
elop
ed w
ith th
e su
ppor
t of t
he G
EF:
1. S
tep-
by-S
tep
Gui
de: T
his
guid
e ha
s be
en
wri
tten
to s
uppo
rt le
ast d
evel
oped
cou
ntri
es
(LD
Cs)
in d
esig
ning
the
impl
emen
tatio
n of
na
tiona
l ada
ptat
ion
prog
ram
s of
act
ion
(NA
PAs)
, an
d to
gui
de c
ount
ry te
ams
in a
cces
sing
exi
stin
g fu
ndin
g fr
om th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
Cou
ntri
es
Fund
(LD
CF)
for
impl
emen
ting
thei
r N
APA
s. T
he
guid
e ha
s be
en w
ritt
en b
y th
e LD
C e
xper
t gro
up
(LEG
), un
der
the
coor
dina
tion
of U
NFC
CC
and
in
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith th
e G
EF a
nd it
s ag
enci
es.
A s
igni
fican
t por
tion
of th
e gu
ide
is d
evot
ed to
ac
cess
ing
the
LDC
F, w
hich
is m
anag
ed b
y th
e G
EF. P
artie
s ha
ve c
omm
unic
ated
the
diffi
cult
ies
they
face
in a
cces
sing
the
LDC
F an
d th
e LE
G h
as
asse
mbl
ed th
is fe
edba
ck th
roug
h a
stoc
ktak
ing
mee
ting
in S
epte
mbe
r 20
07, s
urve
ys c
ondu
cted
on
the
mar
gins
of t
he S
ubsi
diar
y B
odie
s m
eetin
gs o
f th
e U
NFC
CC
, and
thro
ugh
inte
ract
ion
with
Par
ties
and
agen
cies
dur
ing
its m
eetin
gs in
diff
eren
t re
gion
s of
the
wor
ld. T
he g
uide
was
dev
elop
ed to
ad
dres
s al
l the
obs
tacl
es id
entifi
ed th
roug
h th
ese
cons
ulta
tions
. 2.
Reg
iona
l Wor
ksho
ps: T
he C
OP
by
its d
ecis
ion
8/C
P.13
ext
ende
d th
e m
anda
te o
f the
LEG
in
supp
ortin
g pr
epar
atio
n an
d im
plem
enta
tion
stra
tegy
of N
APA
s. U
nder
its
activ
ities
for
2008
-20
10, t
he L
EG s
elec
ted
trai
ning
wor
ksho
ps fo
r im
plem
entin
g N
APA
s as
one
of t
he p
rior
ities
. A
tota
l of fi
ve tr
aini
ng w
orks
hops
hav
e th
eref
ore
be
plan
ned
by th
e LE
G in
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith th
e G
EF
and
its a
genc
ies.
The
obj
ectiv
e of
the
trai
ning
is:
to p
rovi
de te
chni
cal s
uppo
rt to
LD
C te
ams
in th
e de
sign
of a
n im
plem
enta
tion
stra
tegy
for
the
NA
PAs,
and
to b
uild
cap
acity
of t
hese
team
s in
the
prep
arat
ion
and
subm
issi
on o
f pro
ject
doc
umen
ts
(PIF
, PP
G a
nd F
SP d
ocum
ent)
to th
e G
EF u
nder
the
LDC
F; to
pro
vide
whe
re n
eede
d te
chni
cal s
uppo
rt
to th
ose
LDC
Par
ties
that
are
stil
l pre
pari
ng
thei
r N
APA
s. T
hree
reg
iona
l wor
ksho
ps h
ave
take
n pl
ace,
as
of J
une
20th
, 201
0. T
his
incl
udes
a
wor
ksho
p th
at w
as h
eld
from
19-
23 O
ctob
er
2009
in T
anza
nia
for
Ang
loph
one
Afr
ican
LD
Cs
com
pris
ing
12 P
artie
s to
the
UN
FCC
C, f
rom
8-1
2 Fe
brua
ry 2
010
in M
ali
for
Afr
ican
Fra
ncop
hone
LD
Cs,
com
pris
ing
16
coun
trie
s, a
nd fr
om 4
-8 M
ay to
in L
ao P
DR
for
Asi
an L
DC
s in
volv
ing
10 c
ount
ries
. An
addi
tiona
l w
orks
hop
targ
etin
g Lu
soph
one
LDC
s (5
cou
ntri
es)
is s
et to
take
pla
ce in
Sep
tem
ber
2010
. 3.
Acc
essi
ng F
inan
cing
und
er th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
C
ount
ries
Fun
d (G
EF/L
DC
F.SC
CF.
8/3)
: Add
ition
al
sim
plifi
ed g
uide
lines
, pre
pare
d by
the
GEF
Se
cret
aria
t, on
acc
essi
ng fi
nanc
ing
unde
r th
e LD
CF
wer
e pr
esen
ted
to th
e LD
CF/
SCC
F C
ounc
il in
Ju
ly 2
010
(cur
rent
ly u
nder
rev
isio
n.)
http
://w
ww
.the
gef.o
rg/g
ef/s
ites/
theg
ef.o
rg/fi
les/
docu
men
ts/A
cces
sing
%20
Res
ourc
es..p
df
Cont
act:
GEF
Eva
luat
ion
Offi
ce
Pho
ne: +
1 (2
02) 4
73-4
054
E-m
ail:
gef
eo@
theg
ef.o
rg
Spec
ialc
limat
ec
hang
eFu
nd -
The
Spe
cial
C
limat
e C
hang
e Fu
nd (S
CC
F) w
as e
stab
lishe
d un
der
the
UN
Fra
mew
ork
Con
vent
ion
on C
limat
e C
hang
e (U
NFC
CC
) in
2001
to fi
nanc
e ac
tiviti
es,
prog
ram
mes
, and
mea
sure
s re
latin
g to
clim
ate
chan
ge th
at a
re c
ompl
emen
tary
to th
ose
fund
ed
by th
e re
sour
ces
allo
cate
d to
the
Clim
ate
Cha
nge
Foca
l Are
a of
the
GEF
and
by
bila
tera
l and
m
ultil
ater
al fu
ndin
g.
The
SCC
F ha
s fo
ur d
iffer
ent w
indo
ws:
1.
Ada
ptat
ion
2.
Tra
nsfe
r of
tech
nolo
gies
3.
Ene
rgy,
tran
spor
t, in
dust
ry, a
gric
ultu
re, f
ores
try,
an
d w
aste
man
agem
ent
4. A
ctiv
ities
to a
ssis
t dev
elop
ing
coun
trie
s w
hose
ec
onom
ies
are
high
ly d
epen
dent
on
inco
me
gene
rate
d fr
om th
e pr
oduc
tion,
pro
cess
ing,
an
d ex
port
or
on c
onsu
mpt
ion
of fo
ssil
fuel
s an
d as
soci
ated
ene
rgy-
inte
nsiv
e pr
oduc
ts in
di
vers
ifyin
g th
eir
econ
omie
s. T
he P
artie
s to
th
e C
limat
e C
onve
ntio
n id
entifi
ed a
dapt
atio
n to
cl
imat
e ch
ange
as
the
top
prio
rity
of t
he S
CC
F. T
he
SCC
F se
rves
as
a ca
taly
st to
leve
rage
add
ition
al
reso
urce
s fr
om b
ilate
ral a
nd o
ther
mul
tilat
eral
so
urce
s. A
dditi
onal
gui
danc
e on
how
to o
pera
te th
e SC
CF
was
pro
vide
d by
the
CO
P a
t its
nin
th s
essi
on
in M
ilan.
ht
tp:/
/unf
ccc.
int/
coop
erat
ion_
and_
supp
ort/
finan
cial
_mec
hani
sm/s
peci
al_c
limat
e_ch
ange
_fu
nd/i
tem
s/36
57.p
hp
Pro
gram
min
g P
aper
for
SCC
F Fu
ndin
g -
In b
rief
, th
e ov
erar
chin
g cr
iteri
a fo
r gr
antin
g fu
nds
unde
r th
e SC
CF
are
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch th
e pr
opos
ed
proj
ect r
espo
nds
to (a
) the
elig
ibili
ty c
rite
ria
as
spel
led
out u
nder
the
Pro
gram
min
g P
aper
s fo
r SC
CF
as m
entio
ned
abov
e, a
nd (b
) the
pri
oriti
es
in th
e N
APA
s, th
e N
atio
nal C
omm
unic
atio
ns
and
othe
r re
gion
al p
rogr
ams,
and
nat
iona
l pr
ogra
mm
es, p
lans
and
oth
er d
ocum
enta
tion
the
non-
Ann
ex I
coun
trie
s ar
e re
quir
ed to
pro
vide
to
the
CO
P o
n co
untr
y’s
vuln
erab
ility
to c
limat
e ch
ange
. The
tem
plat
es th
at a
re u
sed
for
appl
ying
fo
r SC
CF
fund
ing
refle
ct th
ese
in a
com
pres
sed
form
at fo
r pr
actic
al r
easo
ns, a
nd th
e pr
ojec
t pr
opos
als
are
judg
ed a
ccor
ding
to th
e cr
iteri
a ex
plai
ned
in th
e re
leva
nt S
CC
F do
cum
ents
as
prev
ious
ly d
iscu
ssed
. A
full
size
d pr
ojec
t is
post
ed o
nlin
e fo
r th
e C
ounc
il re
view
bot
h du
ring
the
PIF
(pro
ject
con
cept
) sta
ge,
and
CEO
End
orse
men
t (Fu
ll P
roje
ct D
ocum
ent)
re
view
sta
ge. T
he a
ppro
val p
roce
ss fo
r th
e pr
ojec
ts
cons
titut
es a
ppro
val o
f jus
tifica
tions
sta
ted
with
in
proj
ect d
ocum
ents
. Whi
le th
e pr
ojec
t rev
iew
she
ets
for
indi
vidu
al p
roje
cts
are
inte
rnal
doc
umen
ts,
proj
ect d
ocum
ents
are
pub
licly
ava
ilabl
e fr
om th
e G
EF P
roje
ct D
atab
ase
http
://w
ww
.the
gef.o
rg/g
ef/s
ites/
theg
ef.o
rg/fi
les/
docu
men
ts/A
cces
sing
%20
Res
ourc
es..p
df
Cont
act:
GEF
Eva
luat
ion
Offi
ce
Pho
ne: +
1 (2
02) 4
73-4
054
E-m
ail:
gef
eo@
theg
ef.o
rg
89Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
nam
eof
Fun
d/
Fund
ing
org
aniz
atio
nth
emat
icA
reas
c
over
edb
yFu
ndP
rogr
amm
e(s)
wit
hin
Fund
App
licat
ion
Info
rmat
ion
leas
tdev
elop
edc
ount
ries
Fun
d -
Th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
Cou
ntri
es F
und
(LD
CF)
was
es
tabl
ishe
d un
der
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Fra
mew
ork
Con
vent
ion
on C
limat
e C
hang
e (U
NFC
CC
) at i
t se
vent
h se
ssio
n in
Mar
rake
ch in
200
1, a
nd it
is
man
aged
by
the
GEF
. The
Fun
d ad
dres
ses
the
spec
ial n
eeds
of t
he L
east
Dev
elop
ed C
ount
ries
(L
DC
s), w
hich
are
esp
ecia
lly v
ulne
rabl
e to
the
adve
rse
impa
cts
of c
limat
e ch
ange
. Thi
s in
clud
es
prep
arin
g an
d im
plem
entin
g N
atio
nal A
dapt
atio
n P
rogr
ams
of A
ctio
n (N
APA
s), w
hich
aim
is to
id
entif
y “u
rgen
t and
imm
edia
te n
eeds
” of
eac
h LD
C
acco
rdin
g to
spe
cific
gui
delin
es p
rovi
ded
by th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
Cou
ntri
es E
xper
t Gro
up (L
EG).
Rel
evan
t pub
licat
ion:
GEF
: Fin
anci
ng A
dapt
atio
n A
ctio
n.
http
://w
ww
.the
gef.o
rg/g
ef/s
ites/
theg
ef.o
rg/fi
les/
publ
icat
ion/
adap
tati
on-a
ctio
ns_0
Acc
essi
ng F
inan
cing
und
er L
DC
F -
In o
rder
to
assi
st th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
Cou
ntri
es in
acc
essi
ng
fund
s un
der
the
LDC
F, th
e fo
llow
ing
tool
s ha
ve
been
dev
elop
ed w
ith th
e su
ppor
t of t
he G
EF:
1. S
tep-
by-S
tep
Gui
de: T
his
guid
e ha
s be
en
wri
tten
to s
uppo
rt le
ast d
evel
oped
cou
ntri
es
(LD
Cs)
in d
esig
ning
the
impl
emen
tatio
n of
na
tiona
l ada
ptat
ion
prog
ram
s of
act
ion
(NA
PAs)
, an
d to
gui
de c
ount
ry te
ams
in a
cces
sing
exi
stin
g fu
ndin
g fr
om th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
Cou
ntri
es
Fund
(LD
CF)
for
impl
emen
ting
thei
r N
APA
s. T
he
guid
e ha
s be
en w
ritt
en b
y th
e LD
C e
xper
t gro
up
(LEG
), un
der
the
coor
dina
tion
of U
NFC
CC
and
in
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith th
e G
EF a
nd it
s ag
enci
es.
A s
igni
fican
t por
tion
of th
e gu
ide
is d
evot
ed to
ac
cess
ing
the
LDC
F, w
hich
is m
anag
ed b
y th
e G
EF. P
artie
s ha
ve c
omm
unic
ated
the
diffi
cult
ies
they
face
in a
cces
sing
the
LDC
F an
d th
e LE
G h
as
asse
mbl
ed th
is fe
edba
ck th
roug
h a
stoc
ktak
ing
mee
ting
in S
epte
mbe
r 20
07, s
urve
ys c
ondu
cted
on
the
mar
gins
of t
he S
ubsi
diar
y B
odie
s m
eetin
gs o
f th
e U
NFC
CC
, and
thro
ugh
inte
ract
ion
with
Par
ties
and
agen
cies
dur
ing
its m
eetin
gs in
diff
eren
t re
gion
s of
the
wor
ld. T
he g
uide
was
dev
elop
ed to
ad
dres
s al
l the
obs
tacl
es id
entifi
ed th
roug
h th
ese
cons
ulta
tions
. 2.
Reg
iona
l Wor
ksho
ps: T
he C
OP
by
its d
ecis
ion
8/C
P.13
ext
ende
d th
e m
anda
te o
f the
LEG
in
supp
ortin
g pr
epar
atio
n an
d im
plem
enta
tion
stra
tegy
of N
APA
s. U
nder
its
activ
ities
for
2008
-20
10, t
he L
EG s
elec
ted
trai
ning
wor
ksho
ps fo
r im
plem
entin
g N
APA
s as
one
of t
he p
rior
ities
. A
tota
l of fi
ve tr
aini
ng w
orks
hops
hav
e th
eref
ore
be
plan
ned
by th
e LE
G in
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith th
e G
EF
and
its a
genc
ies.
The
obj
ectiv
e of
the
trai
ning
is:
to p
rovi
de te
chni
cal s
uppo
rt to
LD
C te
ams
in th
e de
sign
of a
n im
plem
enta
tion
stra
tegy
for
the
NA
PAs,
and
to b
uild
cap
acity
of t
hese
team
s in
the
prep
arat
ion
and
subm
issi
on o
f pro
ject
doc
umen
ts
(PIF
, PP
G a
nd F
SP d
ocum
ent)
to th
e G
EF u
nder
the
LDC
F; to
pro
vide
whe
re n
eede
d te
chni
cal s
uppo
rt
to th
ose
LDC
Par
ties
that
are
stil
l pre
pari
ng
thei
r N
APA
s. T
hree
reg
iona
l wor
ksho
ps h
ave
take
n pl
ace,
as
of J
une
20th
, 201
0. T
his
incl
udes
a
wor
ksho
p th
at w
as h
eld
from
19-
23 O
ctob
er
2009
in T
anza
nia
for
Ang
loph
one
Afr
ican
LD
Cs
com
pris
ing
12 P
artie
s to
the
UN
FCC
C, f
rom
8-1
2 Fe
brua
ry 2
010
in M
ali
for
Afr
ican
Fra
ncop
hone
LD
Cs,
com
pris
ing
16
coun
trie
s, a
nd fr
om 4
-8 M
ay to
in L
ao P
DR
for
Asi
an L
DC
s in
volv
ing
10 c
ount
ries
. An
addi
tiona
l w
orks
hop
targ
etin
g Lu
soph
one
LDC
s (5
cou
ntri
es)
is s
et to
take
pla
ce in
Sep
tem
ber
2010
. 3.
Acc
essi
ng F
inan
cing
und
er th
e Le
ast D
evel
oped
C
ount
ries
Fun
d (G
EF/L
DC
F.SC
CF.
8/3)
: Add
ition
al
sim
plifi
ed g
uide
lines
, pre
pare
d by
the
GEF
Se
cret
aria
t, on
acc
essi
ng fi
nanc
ing
unde
r th
e LD
CF
wer
e pr
esen
ted
to th
e LD
CF/
SCC
F C
ounc
il in
Ju
ly 2
010
(cur
rent
ly u
nder
rev
isio
n.)
http
://w
ww
.the
gef.o
rg/g
ef/s
ites/
theg
ef.o
rg/fi
les/
docu
men
ts/A
cces
sing
%20
Res
ourc
es..p
df
Cont
act:
GEF
Eva
luat
ion
Offi
ce
Pho
ne: +
1 (2
02) 4
73-4
054
E-m
ail:
gef
eo@
theg
ef.o
rg
Spec
ialc
limat
ec
hang
eFu
nd -
The
Spe
cial
C
limat
e C
hang
e Fu
nd (S
CC
F) w
as e
stab
lishe
d un
der
the
UN
Fra
mew
ork
Con
vent
ion
on C
limat
e C
hang
e (U
NFC
CC
) in
2001
to fi
nanc
e ac
tiviti
es,
prog
ram
mes
, and
mea
sure
s re
latin
g to
clim
ate
chan
ge th
at a
re c
ompl
emen
tary
to th
ose
fund
ed
by th
e re
sour
ces
allo
cate
d to
the
Clim
ate
Cha
nge
Foca
l Are
a of
the
GEF
and
by
bila
tera
l and
m
ultil
ater
al fu
ndin
g.
The
SCC
F ha
s fo
ur d
iffer
ent w
indo
ws:
1.
Ada
ptat
ion
2.
Tra
nsfe
r of
tech
nolo
gies
3.
Ene
rgy,
tran
spor
t, in
dust
ry, a
gric
ultu
re, f
ores
try,
an
d w
aste
man
agem
ent
4. A
ctiv
ities
to a
ssis
t dev
elop
ing
coun
trie
s w
hose
ec
onom
ies
are
high
ly d
epen
dent
on
inco
me
gene
rate
d fr
om th
e pr
oduc
tion,
pro
cess
ing,
an
d ex
port
or
on c
onsu
mpt
ion
of fo
ssil
fuel
s an
d as
soci
ated
ene
rgy-
inte
nsiv
e pr
oduc
ts in
di
vers
ifyin
g th
eir
econ
omie
s. T
he P
artie
s to
th
e C
limat
e C
onve
ntio
n id
entifi
ed a
dapt
atio
n to
cl
imat
e ch
ange
as
the
top
prio
rity
of t
he S
CC
F. T
he
SCC
F se
rves
as
a ca
taly
st to
leve
rage
add
ition
al
reso
urce
s fr
om b
ilate
ral a
nd o
ther
mul
tilat
eral
so
urce
s. A
dditi
onal
gui
danc
e on
how
to o
pera
te th
e SC
CF
was
pro
vide
d by
the
CO
P a
t its
nin
th s
essi
on
in M
ilan.
ht
tp:/
/unf
ccc.
int/
coop
erat
ion_
and_
supp
ort/
finan
cial
_mec
hani
sm/s
peci
al_c
limat
e_ch
ange
_fu
nd/i
tem
s/36
57.p
hp
Pro
gram
min
g P
aper
for
SCC
F Fu
ndin
g -
In b
rief
, th
e ov
erar
chin
g cr
iteri
a fo
r gr
antin
g fu
nds
unde
r th
e SC
CF
are
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch th
e pr
opos
ed
proj
ect r
espo
nds
to (a
) the
elig
ibili
ty c
rite
ria
as
spel
led
out u
nder
the
Pro
gram
min
g P
aper
s fo
r SC
CF
as m
entio
ned
abov
e, a
nd (b
) the
pri
oriti
es
in th
e N
APA
s, th
e N
atio
nal C
omm
unic
atio
ns
and
othe
r re
gion
al p
rogr
ams,
and
nat
iona
l pr
ogra
mm
es, p
lans
and
oth
er d
ocum
enta
tion
the
non-
Ann
ex I
coun
trie
s ar
e re
quir
ed to
pro
vide
to
the
CO
P o
n co
untr
y’s
vuln
erab
ility
to c
limat
e ch
ange
. The
tem
plat
es th
at a
re u
sed
for
appl
ying
fo
r SC
CF
fund
ing
refle
ct th
ese
in a
com
pres
sed
form
at fo
r pr
actic
al r
easo
ns, a
nd th
e pr
ojec
t pr
opos
als
are
judg
ed a
ccor
ding
to th
e cr
iteri
a ex
plai
ned
in th
e re
leva
nt S
CC
F do
cum
ents
as
prev
ious
ly d
iscu
ssed
. A
full
size
d pr
ojec
t is
post
ed o
nlin
e fo
r th
e C
ounc
il re
view
bot
h du
ring
the
PIF
(pro
ject
con
cept
) sta
ge,
and
CEO
End
orse
men
t (Fu
ll P
roje
ct D
ocum
ent)
re
view
sta
ge. T
he a
ppro
val p
roce
ss fo
r th
e pr
ojec
ts
cons
titut
es a
ppro
val o
f jus
tifica
tions
sta
ted
with
in
proj
ect d
ocum
ents
. Whi
le th
e pr
ojec
t rev
iew
she
ets
for
indi
vidu
al p
roje
cts
are
inte
rnal
doc
umen
ts,
proj
ect d
ocum
ents
are
pub
licly
ava
ilabl
e fr
om th
e G
EF P
roje
ct D
atab
ase
http
://w
ww
.the
gef.o
rg/g
ef/s
ites/
theg
ef.o
rg/fi
les/
docu
men
ts/A
cces
sing
%20
Res
ourc
es..p
df
Cont
act:
GEF
Eva
luat
ion
Offi
ce
Pho
ne: +
1 (2
02) 4
73-4
054
E-m
ail:
gef
eo@
theg
ef.o
rg
90 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSESSMENT
APPENDICESn
ame
ofF
und/
Fu
ndin
go
rgan
izat
ion
them
atic
Are
as
cov
ered
by
Fund
Pro
gram
me(
s)w
ithi
nFu
ndA
pplic
atio
nIn
form
atio
n
the
Ada
ptat
ion
Fund
,u
nFc
cc
:Ada
ptat
ion
Fund
B
oard
clim
ate
cha
nge
-
The
Ada
ptat
ion
Fund
, est
ablis
hed
by th
e P
artie
s to
th
e U
N F
ram
ewor
k C
onve
ntio
n on
Clim
ate
Cha
nge
(UN
FCC
C),
is m
anda
ted
to fi
nanc
e co
ncre
te
adap
tatio
n pr
ojec
ts a
nd p
rogr
amm
es in
dev
elop
ing
coun
trie
s th
at a
re P
artie
s to
the
Kyo
to P
roto
col a
nd
to a
llow
dir
ect a
cces
s to
the
Fund
by
thos
e P
artie
s.
The
tota
l am
ount
of f
unds
to b
e m
ade
avai
labl
e fo
r el
igib
le d
evel
opin
g co
untr
y P
artie
s w
ill d
epen
d on
the
mar
ket-
base
d m
onet
izat
ion
of C
ertifi
ed
Emis
sion
Red
uctio
ns (C
ERs)
whi
ch a
re th
e A
F’s
mai
n so
urce
of r
even
ue. T
he to
tal a
vaila
ble
reso
urce
s is
exp
ecte
d to
be
betw
een
USD
250
-350
m
illio
n by
201
2. F
undi
ng fr
om o
ther
sou
rces
suc
h as
don
atio
ns m
ay a
lso
supp
lem
ent t
he p
roce
eds
of
the
mon
etiz
atio
n of
CER
s.
the
Ada
ptat
ion
Fund
Rel
evan
t pub
licat
ion:
Acc
essi
ng R
esou
rces
from
th
e A
dapt
atio
n Fu
nd, h
ttp:
//w
ww
.ada
ptat
ion-
fund
.or
g/sy
stem
/file
s/H
andb
ook.
Engl
ish_
0.pd
f
App
licat
ion
tem
plat
esa
ndG
uide
lines
-
http
://w
ww
.ada
ptat
ion-
fund
.org
/nod
e/7
Inte
rnat
iona
lclim
ate
and
Fore
stIn
itia
tive
(G
over
nmen
t of N
orw
ay)
clim
ate
cha
nge
Sust
aina
ble
Fore
st
mgm
tlan
dd
egra
dati
on -
In
200
7, d
urin
g th
e in
tern
atio
nal c
limat
e ne
gotia
tions
in B
ali,
Nor
way
ple
dged
sub
stan
tial
fund
ing
tow
ards
eff
orts
to r
educ
e em
issi
ons
from
de
fore
stat
ion
and
fore
st d
egra
datio
n in
dev
elop
ing
coun
trie
s. T
he G
over
nmen
t of N
orw
ay´s
In
tern
atio
nal C
limat
e an
d Fo
rest
Initi
ativ
e w
as
esta
blis
hed
in 2
008,
to im
plem
ent t
he p
ledg
e fr
om B
ali.
Mos
t act
iviti
es a
re b
eing
coo
rdin
ated
th
roug
h m
ultil
ater
al c
hann
els.
In a
dditi
on, N
orw
ay
supp
orts
a fe
w c
ount
ries
bila
tera
lly in
thei
r ef
fort
s to
red
uce
fore
st lo
ss, a
nd p
rovi
des
fund
ing
for
civi
l soc
iety
act
ors
in r
elev
ant a
reas
. Thr
ough
its
supp
ort,
Nor
way
is a
ssis
ting
deve
lopi
ng c
ount
ries
to
red
uce
gree
nhou
se g
as e
mis
sion
s fr
om th
e fo
rest
sec
tor.
Nor
way
is a
lso
wor
king
tow
ards
a
new
inte
rnat
iona
l clim
ate
regi
me
that
rew
ards
de
velo
ping
cou
ntri
es fo
r re
duci
ng e
mis
sion
s fr
om
defo
rest
atio
n an
d fo
rest
deg
rada
tion.
The
initi
ativ
e se
eks
to a
chie
ve c
ost-
effe
ctiv
e an
d ve
rifia
ble
redu
ctio
ns in
gre
enho
use
gas
emis
sion
s fr
om
defo
rest
atio
n an
d fo
rest
deg
rada
tion
in d
evel
opin
g co
untr
ies
(RED
D),
and
appl
ies
to a
ll ty
pes
of
trop
ical
fore
sts.
Red
d+
91Natural resources management and climate change in South Sudan
nam
eof
Fun
d/
Fund
ing
org
aniz
atio
nth
emat
icA
reas
c
over
edb
yFu
ndP
rogr
amm
e(s)
wit
hin
Fund
App
licat
ion
Info
rmat
ion
Fore
stc
arbo
nPa
rtne
rshi
pFa
cilit
y, W
orld
bank
,
FCP
FSec
reta
riat
@w
orld
bank
.or
g,
http
://w
ww
.fo
rest
carb
onpa
rtne
rshi
p.or
g/fc
p/
clim
ate
cha
nge
Sust
aina
ble
Fore
st
mgm
tlan
dd
egra
dati
on -
Th
e FC
PF
is c
ompr
ised
of t
wo
sepa
rate
m
echa
nism
s. E
ach
mec
hani
sm in
clud
es a
trus
t fu
nd fo
r w
hich
the
Wor
ld B
ank
will
act
as
Trus
tee:
1.
Rea
dine
ss M
echa
nism
(Rea
dine
ss F
und)
: Und
er
this
mec
hani
sm, t
he F
acili
ty in
tend
s to
ass
ist
deve
lopi
ng tr
opic
al a
nd s
ub-t
ropi
cal c
ount
ries
pr
epar
e th
emse
lves
to p
artic
ipat
e in
a fu
ture
, la
rge-
scal
e sy
stem
of p
ositi
ve in
cent
ives
for
RED
D. T
his
will
incl
ude,
but
is n
ot li
mite
d to
: (i)
dete
rmin
ing
a na
tiona
l ref
eren
ce s
cena
rio
base
d on
his
tori
cal e
mis
sion
s fr
om d
efor
esta
tion
and
degr
adat
ion
and,
whe
re n
eede
d an
d fe
asib
le,
an a
sses
smen
t of h
ow th
ese
emis
sion
s w
ould
ev
olve
in th
e fu
ture
; (ii)
pre
pari
ng a
nat
iona
l RED
D
stra
tegy
; and
(iii)
est
ablis
hing
a m
onito
ring
sys
tem
fo
r em
issi
ons
from
def
ores
tatio
n an
d fo
rest
de
grad
atio
n.
2. C
arbo
n Fi
nanc
e M
echa
nism
(Car
bon
Fund
): Th
e Fa
cilit
y w
ill s
uppo
rt a
few
cou
ntri
es th
at w
ill
have
suc
cess
fully
par
ticip
ated
in th
e R
eadi
ness
M
echa
nism
to jo
in, o
n a
volu
ntar
y ba
sis,
a s
econ
d m
echa
nism
thro
ugh
whi
ch th
e Fa
cilit
y w
ill te
st
and
eval
uate
ince
ntiv
e pa
ymen
ts fo
r R
EDD
pr
ogra
mm
es in
app
roxi
mat
ely
five
deve
lopi
ng
coun
trie
s. T
he C
arbo
n Fu
nd w
ill r
emun
erat
e th
e se
lect
ed c
ount
ries
in a
ccor
danc
e w
ith n
egot
iate
d co
ntra
cts
for
veri
fiabl
y re
duci
ng e
mis
sion
s be
yond
the
refe
renc
e sc
enar
io. T
he C
arbo
n Fu
nd’s
pay
men
ts a
re in
tend
ed to
pro
vide
an
ince
ntiv
e to
the
reci
pien
t cou
ntri
es a
nd th
e va
riou
s st
akeh
olde
rs w
ithin
eac
h of
thes
e co
untr
ies
to
achi
eve
long
-ter
m s
usta
inab
ility
in fi
nanc
ing
fore
st
cons
erva
tion
and
man
agem
ent.
Such
adv
ance
s w
ill
redu
ce th
e ne
gativ
e im
pact
s on
the
glob
al c
limat
e fr
om th
e lo
ss a
nd d
egra
datio
n of
fore
sts.
The
C
arbo
n Fu
nd w
ould
del
iver
em
issi
on r
educ
tions
fr
om R
EDD
. The
se w
ill p
rovi
de e
vide
nce
that
gr
eenh
ouse
em
issi
on r
educ
tions
res
ultin
g fr
om
the
RED
D a
ctiv
ities
laun
ched
by
the
part
icip
atin
g co
untr
ies
have
bee
n re
aliz
ed a
nd v
erifi
ed a
s pe
r m
etho
dolo
gies
dee
med
acc
epta
ble
by th
e co
untr
ies
and
entit
ies
part
icip
atin
g in
the
Faci
lity.
Rea
dine
ssF
und
-
Und
er th
is m
echa
nism
, the
Fac
ility
inte
nds
to a
ssis
t dev
elop
ing
trop
ical
and
sub
-tro
pica
l co
untr
ies
prep
are
them
selv
es to
par
ticip
ate
in a
fu
ture
, lar
ge-s
cale
sys
tem
of p
ositi
ve in
cent
ives
fo
r R
EDD
. Thi
s w
ill in
clud
e, b
ut is
not
lim
ited
to: (
i) de
term
inin
g a
natio
nal r
efer
ence
sce
nari
o ba
sed
on h
isto
rica
l em
issi
ons
from
def
ores
tatio
n an
d de
grad
atio
n an
d, w
here
nee
ded
and
feas
ible
, an
ass
essm
ent o
f how
thes
e em
issi
ons
wou
ld
evol
ve in
the
futu
re; (
ii) p
repa
ring
a n
atio
nal
RED
D s
trat
egy;
and
(iii)
est
ablis
hing
a m
onito
ring
sy
stem
for
emis
sion
s fr
om d
efor
esta
tion
and
fore
st
degr
adat
ion.
ope
rati
onal
Gui
danc
e -
ht
tp:/
/ww
w.fo
rest
carb
onpa
rtne
rshi
p.or
g/fc
p/no
de/2
55
SouthSudan
Published by the Government of the Republic of South Sudan
Ministry of Environment
With support from the United Nations Development Programme, South Sudan office
January 2012