England and Constitutionalism

James VI (King of Scotland) becomes James I of England in 1603 (upon Elizabeth I death)

Believed in absolute monarchy

“a deo rex, a rege lex:

King’s power restricted due to Magna Carta & Parliament

Restriction important for 3 reasons:

the people once rose up in arms to defend their rights

king could not levy taxes w/out consent of people

restriction of royal power in administering justice

Tudor monarchs had reigned for 100 yrs. Independent of Parliament

good economy

careful collection of taxes

irregular expenditures

confiscation of religious property

tampering w/currency

Parliament held irregular meetings (3-4 weeks a year)

Conflict arises: James I extravagant: needs $ but does not empower parliament

Parliament refuses $ King requests

To raise needed $, James I imposed

customs duties

grants of monopolies

forced loans

Parliament protests: James I imprisons leaders of Parliament

1621—Commoners entered Protestation against the King; James dissolves Parliament

James I religious tendencies also anger the English

By 1625, majority of Parliament was Puritain

Charles I (1625-1649)

He was to marry Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France

1623: Charles jilted by his Spanish fiancé

Returns to England; wants war w/Spain

Charles I spent all $ and demands more

Charles I dissolved Parliament

Experiences:

difficulties in administration

fleet destroyed at Cadiz

Defeated by Huguenots in France

1628, Charles I calls 3rd Parliament:In return for funds, must sign

Petition of Right:

No taxes w/out Parliament’s consent

No quartering of soldiers in private homes

No martial law in time of peace

No arbitrary imprisonment

Charles agrees: Parliament also demands Buckingham’s removal—he was later assassinated

Parliament dissolved again!!

For 11 years: Charles I ruled w/out Parliament

revived old feudal dues

courts levied huge fines

monopolies of wine, salt, soap sold

ship money

Under William Laud: Catholic restrictions relaxed; Puritan restrictions increasedCatholic practices, vestments & dogmas were re-introduced to Anglican ChurchIn Scotland, tried to make Presbyterian church Episcopal1638: Scottish signed Great Covenant defend their religion; deposed bishops and revolted against Charles ICharles I defeated and forced to call Parliament for funds for an army

Short Parliament: only 3 weeks

Nothing resolved

Charles dissolved it, but desperate for $ to put down rebellion, he calls another Parliament

Long Parliament: 1640-1660John Pym

Archbishop Laud and Thomas Wentworth to Tower of LondonCourt of High Commission and Court of Star Chamber abolishedNo more irregular expenditures King could no longer dissolve Parliament Law required Parliament to meet at least one time every 3 yrs.Granted $ to fight Scots

English Civil War (1642-1649)

Charles and nobles, landed gentry, Roman Catholics, most Anglicans: Cavaliers

Parliamentarians: business classes, farmers, Puritan religious sects: Roundheads, led by Oliver Cromwell

Battle of Marston Moor (1644)

gave Roundheads control of northern England

After victory, Parliament abolished office of Bishop; removed altars; communion rails; allowed smashing of crucifixes, images, stained glass windows

New Model Army--Cromwell1645—Battle of Naseby—New Model army destroyed Cavalier forces1646—Charles surrendered to ScotsScottish Army invaded England to restore Charles I as kingPuritan forces split—smaller group supported by Cromwell’s armyCromwell’s army intimidated Presbyterian Parliament 1648—Battle of Preston Cromwell says Charles must die; executed military coup on Parliament—

143 Presbyterian members purged—known as Pride’s Purge

60 men—all independents, (Rump Parliament) determined fate of England

Rump Parliament: sentenced Charles to death as traitor, murderer, public enemy of the people

Charles beheaded January 30, 1649

Commonwealth 1649-1660

Officially England becomes republic—no monarchy or House of Lords

Cromwell—commander in chief of army, ruled as dictator

Rump Parliament did not call for new election

1653, Cromwell dissolved Rump ParliamentHe becomes military and religious dictator of England, Scotland, IrelandAppoints new members of ‘Legislative Body’Wrote Instrument of Government—1st modern constitution

Cromwell becomes ‘Lord Protector’ for life1655: Cromwell became military dictator; office becomes hereditary.Successful war against Spain (1656-59) gained Jamaica in West Indies & Port of Dunkirk on the Continent for England

Stuart Restoration (1660-1680)Charles II swore to uphold Magna Carta and Petition of RightNobles paid Charles 100,000 Pounds annually Charles wanted more 1670: Secret Treaty of Dover

Charles’ religious policiesacts passed against Puritans

English saw his favoritism of Catholics

1672, Prince James (Charles II brother) converted to Catholicism

Charles issued ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ Rumors spread about Dover

1673: Test Act

Tales of ‘Popish’ plot

1679 Exclusion Bill

The Exclusion Bill caused much dissent in Parliament, and the two factions split into Whigs—supporters of Parliament, Protestantism and merchant class—motto: life, liberty, property

Tories—court faction motto: the king, the church, and the land

1685-1688 James II

James II openly Catholic, wants to make England CatholicTries to create standing army w/Catholic officersKing’s right to suspend laws and statutes enacted by Parliament1687 ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ exempting Catholics and dissenters from punishment for infractions of the laws

Appointed Catholics to office in army and civil government

1688: second ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ ordered to be read in all Anglican Churches

Glorious Revolution (1688-89)Whigs and Tories extend invitation to Mary and William to “invade” England from Holland and take the throne1688—William’s armies enter London/James’ armies desert him/he flees to FranceEarly 1689—Parliament offered crown to William III and Mary II jointly,

Declaration of RightsSupremacy of Parliament (rulers denied

right to make or suspend laws, levy money, or maintain a standing army w/out consent of Parliament)

Free elections

Freedom of debate for members of Parliament, who would meet frequently

Reasonable bail and trial by jury for the people

The Bill of Rights (Dec, 1689)

additional provisions, including the barring of a Catholic as ruler

1689—Toleration Act granted dissenters freedom of conscience, legal right to worship in public, but tightened restrictions on Catholics

1690—James II forces in Ireland defeated by William III

Other Developments to 1715

Lloyd’s of London insurance company founded 1688

Bank of England (commercial bank) founded 1694

London Stock Exchange founded 1698

Mary II dies, 1694William III ruled alone until his death in 1702

Queen Anne 1702-1714:last of Stuarts

Act of Settlement 1702 passed, to ensure succession of crown would pass to German House of Hanover 1707—Act of Union combined Scotland and England into Great Britain

Age of Walpole

1714: Hanoverian dynasty came to the throne

George I faced challenge to his title

Stuart James Edward (1688-1766) son of James II landed in Scotland 1715

Troops marched southward, but were defeated by George I troops

Robert Walpole (1676-1745)Debt in England controlled by South Sea Company

Gov’t bonds traded for stock in company

Stock price soared; then crashed in 1720

Investors sold holdings; exchanged profits

Parliament intervened

Under Walpole, parliament honored national debt

Saved England’s financial integrity

Walpole=England’s 1st prime minister

Originator of Cabinet system of gov’t

Not chosen by House of Commons

Real source of power: personal support of King

Ability to handle House of Commons

Ironfisted control of government patronage:

Bought support for himself/his policies

He supplied people jobs, appointments, favor, gov’t contracts

Corruption=glue of political loyalty

“Let sleeping dogs lie”—peace abroad; status quo home

Parliament, 1700’s: House of Commons: not democratic nor representative

Members elected from boroughs: only a few were large enough to hold elections

Most had few electors

Rotten boroughs: Old Sarum—Pitt family

Supremacy of Parliament=strong unity

British monarch & parliament could raise tax revenues and loans to wage warAll Britons paid taxes—no exemptionsBank of England secured credit marketStrong finances=cornerstone of British powerFreedom of political beliefs—debate in newspapers flourished; speech/associationNo large standing army

Netherlands:

UP—led by William of Orange; William III of England

Gov’t was republic: States General

Provinces had authority

States General negotiated w/provinces

Holland dominated States General

Dutch religiously tolerant

Calvinist Reformed Church—official church of nation

Catholics and Protestants also lived in UP

Haven for Jews

All people lived peacefully together

Urban Prosperity: enriched themselves and had high standard of living

Urban consolidation; transformation of agriculture—drained & reclaimed much land from sea—steady supply of grain—cheap grain = land for meat and dairy; tulips extensive trade and finance; overseas commercial empire; manufacture; shipbuilding; 1675: More people lived in cities than anywhere else in Europe; 60%Decline: began in 18th centuryUpon William III death in 1702, various local provinces prevented the emergence of another strong Stadtholder

Unified political leadership vanished

Naval supremacy passed to British

Fishing industry declined

Dutch lost technological superiority in shipbuilding

Countries traded w/each other directly, not using Dutch ships

Disunity in provinces hastened economic decline

BUT maintained financial dominance

Emergence of Prussia

1415—received Brandenburg (Berlin)

1618—inherited duchy of Prussia, but size=weakness—geographical separation

Legacy of Frederick William Great Elector of Brandenburg (1640-1688)

1660—E. Prussia independent of Polish rule

Monarchy allied w/Junkers

1701: Brandenburg becomes Prussia—recognized in 1713 Treaty of Utrecht

Frederick King in Prussia:

Built palaces

Founded Halle University 1694

Patronized the arts

Lived luxuriously

1701: War of Spanish Succession

King in Prussia”Becomes Frederick I, passed on title to Frederick William I in 1713

Frederick William I King of Prussia (r.1713—1740)

Eccentric

One of most effective Hohenzollerns

Imposed strict austerity

Some jobs abolished

Salaries lowered

Kabinettall lower officials submitted relevant documents to Frederick William IFWI examined papers, made decisions, issued ordersOrganized bureaucracy along military linesAll departments united: General-Ober-Finanz-Kriegs-und-Domanen-Direktorium(General Directory)Imposed taxed on noblesMade remaining feudal dues monetary paymentsAdministrative loyalties=duties to monarch as political institution

Army

grew from 39,000 to 80,000 by 1740

Third/fourth largest army in Europe

Each local district (canton) supplied quota of soldiers

1725: FWI wore officer’s uniform

One regiment=tallest soldiers in Europe

Laws, customs, royal attention made officer corps highest social class in state

Junker nobility, army, monarchy=one political unit

FWI had best army in Europe; but avoided conflict

1740—FWI dies; son Frederick II (the Great) inherits the throne

Sweden:Elevated to rank of first class power by Vasa dynasty

Gustavus I, successfully revolted against Danish rule in 1520

Swedish kings, incl. Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII established absolute rule

Sweden’s population and resources insufficient to maintain position during many wars; Sweden becomes second-class powerBy disastrous Great Northern War, Sweden’s supremacy in Baltic ended1720-21—Treaties of Stockholm—Sweden lost holdings in Germany (Prussia)1721—Treaty of Nystadt w/Russia—Sweden lost Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, and part of Finland (including Karelian Isthmus and Viborg)

Ottoman Empire

Greatest empire in Europe at death of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1566, state of tremendous decline since 1585;

Corrupt administration

Intrigues among court officials

Many wars w/Austria, Russia, Venetians—still possessed extensive empire

In Europe, most of the Balkans, most of the Aegean Islands, island of Crete

In Near East: modern Turkey, Mesopotamia, area of Syria and Palestine; part of Persia, part of Arabia; island of Cyprus

In Africa: Egypt and N. African Coast

European holdings were coveted by both Austria and Russia—led to continuous enmity between the two countries

Poland

Late 10th century, Western Slavic tribes united under Piast familyForced to develop a militaristic state to defend against Prussians, Germans, Bohemians, Hungarians, and later RussiansPolish state expanded in all directions: became kingdom by early 11th century

Many wars, both internal and external

13th century, Poles came into contact w/Teutonic Knights, who conquered Prussia and blocked Polish access to Baltic Sea

1410—Battle of Tannenberg: Poland defeated Teutonic Knights

1456-66—Poles won other battles and gained access to Baltic

Made Teutonic Order a vassal of Polish king

Poland allied w/Lithuania, which was three times the size of Poland

1569—Union of Lublin officially merged Poland and Lithuania—it was the strongest state in Eastern Europe

Under Jagiello dynasty (1386-1572) Poland at its zenith

After 1572, nobility had gained so much power that it was in fact a ‘royal republic’, with its king elected by the entire nobility

By early 18th century, Poland was extremely weak, dominated by Russia

Had fought numerous wars w/Sweden and Russia, capped w/disastrous Great Northern War, fought mainly on Polish territory

Jealous nobility did not allow authority or national army for effective national security

AustriaAbsolute rule of Hapsburgs, held rule over HRE, but authority was really limitedThrough warfare, obtained most of Hungary from Ottomans by 16991703-1711—revolt of Hungarians forced Hapsburgs to make concessions to Francis II Rakoczy (of Transylvanian nobility)

Transylvania joined the rest of Hungary as an Austrian possession

Austrian Hapsburgs had acquired Spain’s holdings in the Netherlands (Union of Arras)

and Italy by the Treaty of Rastadt (1714) following the War of Spanish Succession

Vast land holdings and diverse minority groups were source of weakness, but Austria continually sought more territory: at the expense of the Ottoman Empire

Russia

Ivan III (1462-1505) ended Mongol domination and laid foundations for Russian State

Succeeded by his son Basil III (1505-33 )

1589—Russian church becomes independent of Constantinople

Ivan IV (the Terrible) 1533-84

1549, marries Anastasia Romanova Zakarina

1552—Conquered Tatars at Kazan

1557-1571—Livonian War

1571—Tatars sack Moscow

1578-79—Swedes defeated Ivan in Baltic

1582—Poles defeated Ivan

Time of Troubles (1604-13)

Ivan’s son Fyodor I (1584-98)

Boris Godunov

1591—Fyodor’s brother, Dmitri, age 10, found dead

Boris Godunov tsar (1598-1605)

False Dmitri I

Poland, and Catholic support

1604—“Dmitri” invades w/force of Cossacks, Polish warriors, peasants

1605, victory at hand and Godunov dies

Dmitri crowned tsar—reigned 13 months

Prince Shuisky elected tsar (1606-1613)

1670-71—Ivan Bolotnikov,

Other Pretenders come to throne

Sweden and Poland seized territories

Russian people rallied together

Novgorod

Zemsky Sobor and elected tsar: 16 yr old Michael Romanov

Michael not strong tsar, nor was his son Alexis, or grandson Fyodor III;

Society up to Peter I

Serfdom of peasants firmly established

Local self-government disappeared

National assembly ceased to meet regularly

Russian adventurers crossed Siberia and reached Pacific in 1637

Vast areas of Ukraine won by war w/Poland (1654-67)

Cities of Smolensk and Kiev returned—primarily due to Cossacks

Bolotnikov’s revolt crushed

First of Russo-Turkish wars over Ukraine fought successfully 1677-81

Peter I (the Great) 1689-1725

1) Make power of tsar absolute

curbed nobility and enforced state service for all landowners: army, civil service, or courts

when Alexis, his son, opposed his policies, he was imprisoned and tortured to death

abolished the patriarchate and made Russian church a department of the State

2) To westernize Russia

1) made long tour of w. Europe early in his reign

2) fascinated by western dress, technology, and customs

3) decrees of westernization were only temporarily successful—did not

last after his rule (beard tax, forced western dress)

3)Obtain Window on the West

1) successful in Baltic against Sweden (Great Northern War 1700-21)

a) 1700: fought Charles XII at Narva—Sweden outnumbered 4-by Russians, but Charles XII attacks anyway and wins

b) Russia open to invasion; Peter retreats to Moscow

c) melts church bells for cannons

2) 1701, Charles XII turns to Poland, defeating Poland and deposing the king and installing his own candidate on the throne

3) 1703—Peter attacks Swedish forts at Naenskance and wins

4) Peter decides to build a city: St. Petersburg, on this land

5) all materials imported; all nobles had to build a palace here

6) 1708—Charles XII returns; Peter adopts a ‘scorched earth policy’ as winter takes its toll on Swedes;

7) 1709-armies meet at Poltava; Swedes outnumbered 5-1 Charles becomes wounded in heel; can’t lead his troops

Peter wins and Sweden never strong enough to challenge Russia again.

Turks entered war against Russia (Charles sought sanctuary in Turkish territory)

From 1710-11;

1714, new coalition of England, Hanover, Denmark, Saxony, and Prussia joined Russia against Sweden and shortly after Charles XII was killed in action (1718)

Sweden forced to accept defeat

1721—Treaty of Nystadt: Russia gained Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, part of Finland (Karelian Isthmus and Viborg) from Sweden

In wars against Ottoman Empire, Peter not successful

Russian expeditions captured Azov on the Black Sea in 1696

In war of 1710-11, Turks captured Peter I and was forced to ransom himself and return Azov to the Turks

Russian expansion to Amur River, bordering Manchuria and Siberia was halted by Chinese with Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) forcing Russia to evacuate its occupied territory