Post on 06-Mar-2016
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AdiscussionclassatShimerCollege,ademocraticcollegeinChicago.
DemocraticeducationFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Democraticeducationisaneducationalidealinwhichdemocracyisbothagoalandamethodofinstruction.Itbringsdemocraticvaluestoeducationandcanincludeselfdeterminationwithinacommunityofequals,aswellassuchvaluesasjustice,respectandtrust.Democraticeducationisoftenspecificallyemancipatory,withthestudents'voicesbeingequaltotheteacher's.[1]
Contents
1History1.1Enlightenmentera1.219thcentury1.320thcentury
1.3.1DomSierot1.3.2Influentialdemocraticschools1.3.3Freeschoolsmovement1.3.4Networks
2Variety2.1Curriculum2.2Administrativestructure2.3Conflictresolution2.4Other
3Theory3.1Cognitivetheory
3.1.1Criticismbasedoncognitivetheory3.2Ethics
3.2.1Culturaltheory3.2.2Criticismbasedonculturaltheory
3.3Politicaltheory3.3.1Effectonqualityofeducation3.3.2Preparationforlifeinademocracy3.3.3Civiceducation3.3.4Economictheory
3.4Curriculumtheory4Democraticeducationinpractice
4.1Play4.2Reading,writingandarithmetic
5Educationinademocraticsociety6Trainingprograms7Legalissues
7.1TheUnitedNationsanddemocraticeducation7.2Summerhill
8Theorists9Seealso10References11Externallinks12Furtherreading
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Locke'sThoughts,1693.
12Furtherreading
History
Thehistoryofdemocraticeducationspansfromatleastthe1600s.Whileitisassociatedwithanumberofindividuals,therehasbeennocentralfigure,establishment,ornationthatadvocateddemocraticeducation.[2]
Enlightenmentera
In1693,JohnLockepublishedSomeThoughtsConcerningEducation.Indescribingtheteachingofchildren,hedeclares,
Noneofthethingstheyaretolearn,shouldeverbemadeaburthentothem,orimpos'donthemasatask.Whateverissopropos'd,presentlybecomesirksomethemindtakesanaversiontoit,thoughbeforeitwereathingofdelightorindifferency.Letachildbutbeorder'dtowhiphistopatacertaintimeeveryday,whetherhehasorhasnotamindtoitletthisbebutrequir'dofhimasaduty,whereinhemustspendsomanyhoursmorningandafternoon,andseewhetherhewillnotsoonbewearyofanyplayatthisrate.[3]
JeanJacquesRousseausbookofadviceoneducation,mile,wasfirstpublishedin1762.mile,theimaginarypupilheusesforillustration,wasonlytolearnwhathecouldappreciateasuseful.[4]Hewastoenjoyhislessons,andlearntorelyonhisownjudgementandexperience.Thetutormustnotlaydownprecepts,hemustletthembediscovered,[5]wroteRousseau,andurgedhimnotmakemilelearnscience,butlethimdiscoverit.[6]Healsosaidthatweshouldnotsubstitutebooksforpersonalexperiencebecausethisdoesnotteachustoreasonitteachesustouseotherpeoplesreasoningitteachesustobelieveagreatdealbutnevertoknowanything.[7]
19thcentury
WhileLockeandRousseauwereconcernedonlywiththeeducationofthechildrenofthewealthy,inthe19thcenturyLeoTolstoysetupaschoolforpeasantchildren.ThiswasonhisownestateatYasnayaPolyana,Russia,inthelate19thcentury.Hetellsusthattheschoolevolvedfreelyfromprinciplesintroducedbyteachersandpupilsthatinspiteofthepreponderatinginfluenceoftheteacher,thepupilhadalwayshadtherightnottocometoschool,or,havingcome,nottolistentotheteacher,andthattheteacherhadtherightnottoadmitapupil,andwasabletousealltheinfluencehecouldmustertowinoverthecommunity,wherethechildrenwerealwaysinthemajority.[8][9]
20thcentury
DomSierot
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MainbuildingoftheSummerhillSchool
In1912,JanuszKorczakfoundedDomSierot,theJewishorphanageinWarsaw,whichwasrunondemocraticlinesuntil1940,whenheaccompaniedallhischargestothegaschambersoftheTreblinkaexterminationcamp.[10][11][12]
Influentialdemocraticschools
TheoldestdemocraticschoolthatstillexistsisSummerhill,inSuffolk,England,foundedin1921.ItfeaturesvoluntaryclassattendanceandaSchoolMeetingwithbroadpowers.Inthe1960s,hundredsofschoolsopenedbasedonSummerhill,[13]howeverA.S.Neill,thefounderofSummerhill,distancedhimselffromAmericanSummerhillschoolsfornotsuccessfullyimplementingthephilosophyof"Freedom,notlicense."[14]
SudburyValleySchool,foundedinFramingham,Massachusettsin1968,hasfulldemocraticgovernance:TheSchoolMeetingmanagesallaspectsoftheschool,includingstaffhiringandfacilities.[15]
TheDemocraticSchoolofHadera,foundedinIsraelin1987,ispubliclyfunded.Itoffersvoluntaryclasses.[16]TherearenowmorethantwentydemocraticschoolsinIsrael.[17]
Freeschoolsmovement
Progressiveeducation(includingmanyschoolsbasedonSummerhill[18])becameabroadmovementinthe1960sand1970s,butwaslargelyrenouncedbythe1980s.[19]See:Freeschoolmovement
Networks
Networkssupportingdemocraticeducationinclude:
TheAlternativeEducationResourceOrganizationlaunchedin1989tocreatea"studentdriven,learnercenteredapproachestoeducation."[20]TheannualInternationalDemocraticEducationConference,firstheldin1993.TheAustralasianDemocraticEducationCommunity,whichhelditsfirstconferencein2002.[21]TheEuropeanDemocraticEducationCommunitywasfoundedin2008,atthefirstEuropeanDemocraticEducationConference.TheRseaudescolesdmocratiquesauQubec,orRDAQ,wasfoundedin2012inordertosponsorthecreationofdemocraticschoolsintheprovinceofQubec,Canada.
IDEC2005named2corebeliefs:selfdeterminationanddemocraticgovernance.[22]EUDEChasbothofthesebeliefs,andmutualrespectisalsointheirbeliefstatement.[23]IDENsupportsschoolsthatselfidentifyasdemocratic.[24]
Variety
Democraticeducationcomesinmanydifferentforms.Thesearesomeoftheareasinwhichdemocraticschoolsdiffer.
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Curriculum
Democraticschoolsarecharacterizedbyinvolvingstudentsinthedecisionmakingprocessthataffectswhatandhowtheylearn.Somedemocraticschoolshavenomandatorycurriculum,consideringforcedlearningtobeundemocratic.Mostdemocraticschoolsofficiallyoffervoluntarycourses,andmanyhelpinterestedstudentstopreparefornationalexaminationssotheygainqualificationsforfurtherstudyorfutureemployment.[25]Somedemocraticschoolshavenoofficialofferingofcourses,althoughcoursescanbeofferedorrequestedbyschoolmembers.[26]
Administrativestructure
Democraticschoolsoftenhavemeetingsopentoallstudentsandstaff,whereeveryonepresenthasavoiceandsometimesanequalvote.Someincludeparents.[27]Theseschoolmeetingscancoveranythingfromsmallmatterstotheappointmentordismissalofstaffandthecreationorannulmentofrules,ortogeneralexpenditureandthestructureoftheschoolday.Atsomeschoolsallstudentsareexpectedtoattendthesemeetings,atotherstheyarevoluntary.[28]Themainschoolmeetingmayalsosetupsubcommitteestodealwithparticularissues,suchasconflictresolution.[29]
Conflictresolution
Withinthepurviewofdemocraticvalues,thereiswidescopeforhowconflictsareresolved.Theremaybeaformalsystem,withdueprocessandtheruleoflaw.[29]Theremayberulesbutnopunishments.[30]Otherpossibilitiesinclude,butarenotlimitedto,aconsensusprocess,mediation,andinformaldialogue.
Other
Finance:Somedemocraticlearningenvironmentsareparentfunded,somecharityfunded.[31][32]
Schoolsmayhaveaslidingscalebasedonfamilyincome.[33]PubliclyfundeddemocraticschoolsexistinCanada[34][35]andIsrael[36]
Size:Democraticschoolsvaryinsizefromafewstudentstoafewhundred.Evenanindividualunschoolercanbedescribedaslearningdemocratically,iftheyaretreatedwithdemocraticvalues.
Agerange:Agemixingisadeliberatepolicyinsomedemocraticschools.Itmayincludeveryyoungchildren,evenbabies.[37]Somedemocraticschoolsonlyenrollolderstudents.[38][39]
Location:Democraticeducationisnotlimitedtoanyparticularsetting.Settingsfordemocraticlearningcommunitiesincludeinanofficebuilding,[40]oncitystreets,[41]andinaruralarea.[42]
Theory
Whiletypesofdemocraticeducationareasnumerousastypesofdemocracy,ageneraldefinitionofdemocraticeducationis"aneducationthatdemocratizeslearningitself."[43]Thegoalsofdemocraticeducationvaryaccordingtotheparticipants,thelocation,andaccesstoresources.[44]
Thereisnounifiedbodyofliterature,spanningmultipledisciplines,ondemocraticeducation.However,therearetheoriesofdemocraticeducationfromthefollowingperspectives:
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Cognitivetheory
Duringthepracticetheorymovement,therewasrenewedinterestinchilddevelopment.JeanPiaget'stheoryofuniversalstepsincomprehensionandgeneralpatternsintheacquisitionofknowledgewaschallengedbyexperiencesatdemocraticschools."Notwokidsevertakethesamepath.Fewareremotelysimilar.Eachchildissounique,soexceptional."[45]
JeanLavewasoneofthefirstandmostprominentsocialanthropologiststodiscusscognitionwithinthecontextofculturalsettingspresentingafirmargumentagainstthefunctionalistpsychologythatmanyeducationalistsrefertoimplicitly.ForLave,learningisaprocessungonebyanactorwithinaspecificcontext.Theskillsorknowledgelearnedinoneprocessarenotgeneralizablenorreliablytransferredtootherareasofhumanaction.Herprimaryfocuswasonmathematicsincontextandmathematicseducation.
ThebroaderimplicationsreachedbyLaveandotherswhospecializeinsituatedlearningarethatbeyondtheargumentthatcertainknowledgeisnecessarytobeamemberofsociety(aDurkheimianargument),knowledgelearnedinthecontextofaschoolisnotreliablytransferabletoothercontextsofpractice.
JohnLockearguesthatchildrenarecapableofreasoningatayoungage:Itwillperhapsbewonderd,thatImentionreasoningwithchildrenandyetIcannotbutthinkthatthetruewayofdealingwiththem.Theyunderstanditasearlyastheydolanguageand,ifImisobservenot,theylovetobetreatedasrationalcreatures,soonerthanisimagind,[46]Rousseaudisagreed:Useforcewithchildrenandreasoningwithmen."[47]
Humansareinnatelycurious,anddemocraticeducationsupportsthebeliefthatthedrivetolearnissufficientlystrongtomotivatechildrentobecomeeffectiveadults.[48]
Criticismbasedoncognitivetheory
Thehumanbrainisnotfullydevelopeduntiladulthood.[49]Adisadvantageofteenagersbeingresponsiblefortheirowneducationisthat"youngbrainshavebothfastgrowingsynapsesandsectionsthatremainunconnected.Thisleavesteenseasilyinfluencedbytheirenvironmentandmorepronetoimpulsivebehavior".[50]
Ethics
Democracycanbevaluedonethicalgrounds.[51]
Culturaltheory
Democraticeducationisconsistentwiththeculturaltheorythat"learninginschoolmustbecontinuouswithlifeoutsideofschool"andthatchildrenshouldbecomeactiveparticipantsinthecontrolandorganizationoftheircommunity.[52]
Researchonhuntergatherersocietiesindicatesthatfreeplayandexplorationwereeffectivetransmittersofthesocieties'culturetochildren.[53]
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AccordingtoGeorgeDennison,democraticenvironmentsaresocialregulators:Ourdesiretocultivatefriendships,engenderrespect,andmaintainwhatGeorgeDennisontermsnaturalauthorityencouragesustoactinsociallyacceptableways(i.e.culturallyinformedpracticesoffairness,honesty,congeniality,etc.).[54]
Criticismbasedonculturaltheory
Childrenareinfluencedbymanycurriculabeyondtheschoolcurriculum:TVcurricula,advertisers'curricula,curriculaofreligiouscommunities,GirlScoutsandBoyScouts,encyclopediasetc.andtherefore"oneofthemostsignificanttasksanyschoolcanundertakeistotrytodevelopinyoungstersanawarenessoftheseothercurriculaandanabilitytocriticizethemitisutternonsensetothinkthatbyturningchildrenlooseinanunplannedandunstructuredenvironmenttheycanbefreedinanysignificantway.Rather,theyaretherebyabandonedtotheblindforcesofthehucksters,whoseprimaryconcernisneitherthechildren,northetruth,northedecentfutureof...society."[55]
mileDurkheimarguesthatthetransitionfromprimitivetomodernsocietiesoccurredinpartaseldersmadeaconsciousdecisiontotransmitwhatweredeemedthemostessentialelementsoftheirculturetothefollowinggenerations.Heconcludesthatmodernsocietiesaresocomplexmuchmorecomplexthanprimitivehuntergatherersocietiesandtherolesthatindividualsmustfillinsocietyaresovaried,thatformalmasseducationisnecessarytoinstillsocialsolidarityandwhathetermssecularmorality.[56]
Politicaltheory
Thereareavarietyofpoliticalcomponentstodemocraticeducation.Oneauthoridentifiesthoseelementsasinclusivityandrights,equalparticipationindecisionmaking,andequalencouragementforsuccess.[57]TheInstituteforDemocraticEducation'sprinciplesofdemocraticeducationidentifiesseveralpoliticalprinciples,
Theinteractionbetweendemocraticphilosophyandeducation,Pluralisticeducation,Schooladministrationbymeansofdemocraticprocedures,Educationbasedonrespectforhumanrights,Dialogicevaluation,Dialogicrelationships,andCriticalsocialthinking.[58]
Effectonqualityofeducation
Thetypeofpoliticalsocializationthattakesplaceindemocraticschoolsisstronglyrelatedtodeliberativedemocracytheory.ClausOffeandUlrichPreuss,twotheoristsofthepoliticalcultureofdeliberativedemocraciesarguethatinitsculturalproductiondeliberativedemocracyrequiresanopenendedandcontinuouslearningprocessinwhichtherolesofbothteacherandcurriculumaremissing.Inotherwords,whatistobelearnedisamatterthatwemustsettleintheprocessoflearningitself."[59]
Thepoliticalcultureofadeliberativedemocracyanditsinstitutions,theyargue,wouldfacilitatemoredialogicalformsofmakingonesvoiceheardwhichwouldbeachievedwithinaframeworkofliberty,withinwhichpaternalismisreplacedbyautonomouslyadoptedselfpaternalism,andtechnocraticelitismbythecompetentandselfconsciousjudgmentofcitizens."[60]
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Asacurricular,administrativeandsocialoperationwithinschools,democraticeducationisessentiallyconcernedwithequippingpeopletomake"realchoicesaboutfundamentalaspectsoftheirlives"[61]andhappenswithinandfordemocracy.[62]Itcanbe"aprocesswhereteachersandstudentsworkcollaborativelytoreconstructcurriculumtoincludeeveryone."[57]Inatleastoneconception,democraticeducationteachesstudents"toparticipateinconsciouslyreproducingtheirsociety,andconscioussocialreproduction."[63]Thisrolenecessitatesdemocraticeducationhappeninginavarietyofsettingsandbeingtaughtbyavarietyofpeople,including"parents,teachers,publicofficials,andordinarycitizens."Becauseofthis"democraticeducationbeginsnotonlywithchildrenwhoaretobetaughtbutalsowithcitizenswhoaretobetheirteachers."[64]
Preparationforlifeinademocracy
The"strongest,politicalrationale"fordemocraticeducationisthatitteaches"thevirtuesofdemocraticdeliberationforthesakeoffuturecitizenship."[65]Thistypeofeducationisoftenalludedtointhedeliberativedemocracyliteratureasfulfillingthenecessaryandfundamentalsocialandinstitutionalchangesnecessarytodevelopademocracythatinvolvesintensiveparticipationingroupdecisionmaking,negotiation,andsociallifeofconsequence.[66]
Civiceducation
Theconceptofthehiddencurriculumincludesthebeliefthatanythingtaughtinanauthoritariansettingisimplicitlyteachingauthoritarianism.Thusciviceducation,iftaughtinacompulsorysetting,underminesitsownlessonsindemocracy.[67]Acommonbeliefindemocraticschoolsisthatdemocracymustbeexperiencedtobelearned.[68][69][70]ThisargumentconformstothecognitionincontextresearchbyLave.
Anothercommonbelief,whichsupportsthepracticeofcompulsoryclassesinciviceducation,isthatpassingondemocraticvaluesrequiresanimposedstructure.[71]
Argumentsabouthowtotransmitdemocracy,andhowmuchandhowearlytotreatchildrendemocratically,aremadeinvariousliteraturesconcerningstudentvoice,youthparticipationandotherelementsofyouthempowerment.[72][73]
Economictheory
Corefeaturesofdemocraticeducationalignwiththeemergingconsensuson21stcenturybusinessandmanagementpriorities.Suchfeaturesincludeincreasedcollaboration,decentralizedorganization,andradicalcreativity.[74]
Curriculumtheory
Whiledemocraticschoolsdon'thaveanofficialcurriculum,whateachstudentactuallydoesmightbeconsideredtheirowncurriculum.[75]
Democraticschoolsmaynotconsiderreading,writingandarithmetictobetherealbasicsforbeingasuccessfuladult.[76]A.S.Neillsaid"Tohellwitharithmetic."[77]Nonetheless,thereisacommonbeliefthatpeoplewilleventuallylearn"thebasics"whentheydevelopinternalmotivation.[78][79]
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Democraticeducationinpractice
Play
Astrikingfeatureofdemocraticschoolsistheubiquityofplay.Studentsofallagesbutespeciallytheyoungeronesoftenspendmostoftheirtimeeitherinfreeplay,orplayinggames(electronicorotherwise).Allattemptstolimit,controlordirectplaymustbedemocraticallyapprovedbeforebeingimplemented.[80]Playisseenasactivityeverybitasworthyasacademicpursuits,oftenevenmorevaluable.Playisconsideredessentialforlearning,particularlyinfosteringcreativity.[81]
Reading,writingandarithmetic
Interestinlearningtoreadhappensatawidevarietyofages.[79]
Educationinademocraticsociety
AsEnglisharistocracywasgivingwaytodemocracy,MatthewArnoldinvestigatedpopulareducationinFranceandothercountriestodeterminewhatformofeducationsuitedademocraticage.[82]Arnoldwrotethat"thespiritofdemocracy"ispartof"humannatureitself",whichengagesin"theefforttoaffirmone'sownessence...todevelopone'sownexistencefullyandfreely."[83]
Duringtheindustrialage,JohnDeweyarguedthatchildrenshouldnotallbegiventhesamepredeterminedcurriculum.InDemocracyandEducationhedevelopsaphilosophyofeducationbasedondemocracy.Hearguesthatwhilechildrenshouldbeactiveparticipantsinthecreationoftheireducation,andwhilechildrenmustexperiencedemocracytolearndemocracy,theyneedadultguidancetodevelopintoresponsibleadults.[84]
AmyGutmannarguesinDemocraticEducationthatinademocraticsociety,thereisaroleforeveryoneintheeducationofchildren.Theserolesarebestagreeduponthroughdeliberativedemocracy.[85]
ThejournalDemocracyandEducationinvestigates"theconceptualfoundations,socialpolicies,institutionalstructures,andteaching/learningpracticesassociatedwithdemocraticeducation."By"democraticeducation"theymean"educatingyouth...foractiveparticipationinademocraticsociety."[86]
Trainingprograms
Israel'sInstituteforDemocraticEducationandKibbutzimCollegeinTelAvivcollaboratetoofferaBachelorofEducation(B.Ed.)degreewithaSpecializationCertificateinDemocraticEducation.Studentteachingplacementsareinbothregularschoolsanddemocraticschools.[87]
Legalissues
TheUnitedNationsanddemocraticeducation
UnitedNationsagreementsbothsupportandplacerestrictionsoneducationoptions,includingdemocraticeducation:
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Article26(3)oftheUnitedNationsUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsstatesthat"Parentshaveapriorrighttochoosethekindofeducationthatshallbegiventotheirchildren."[88]Whilethisinitselfmayallowparentstherighttochoosedemocraticeducation,Articles28and29oftheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChildplacerequirementsoneducationalprograms:Primaryeducationiscompulsory,allaspectsofeachstudentmustbedevelopedtotheirfullpotential,andeducationmustincludethedevelopmentofrespectforthingssuchasnationalvaluesandthenaturalenvironment,inaspiritoffriendshipamongallpeoples.[89]
Furthermore,whileArticle12(1)oftheConventionmandatesthatchildrenbeabletohaveinputonallmattersthateffectthem,theirinputwillhavelimitedweight,"dueweightinaccordancewiththeageandmaturityofthechild."[89]
Summerhill
In1999,Summerhillreceiveda'noticeofcomplaint'overitspolicyofnoncompulsorylessons,aprocedurewhichwouldusuallyhaveledtoclosureSummerhillcontestedthenotice[90]andwentbeforeaspecialeducationaltribunal.Summerhillwasrepresentedbyanotedhumanrightslawyer,GeoffreyRobertsonQC.Thegovernment'scasesooncollapsed,andasettlementwasoffered.Thisofferwasdiscussedandagreedataformalschoolmeetingwhichhadbeenhastilyconvenedinthecourtroomfromaquorumofpupilsandteacherswhowerepresentincourt.ThesettlementguaranteedthatfutureinspectionsofSummerhillwouldbeconsistentwithSummerhill'seducationalphilosophy.[91]
Theorists
JosephAgassiIsraeliphilosopherandproponentofdemocracyMichaelAppleSocialscientist,democraticeducationscholar,UniversityofWisconsinMadisonMatthewArnoldWroteabouteducationinanageofdemocracyPierreBourdieuAnthropologist,socialtheorist,CollegedeFranceGeorgeDennisonAmericanwriter,authorJohnDeweySocialscientist,progressiveeducationtheorist,UniversityofChicagomileDurkheimSociologist,functionalisteducationtheoristMichelFoucaultPostmodernphilosopher,UniversityofCalifornia,BerkeleyPeterGrayPsychologist,democraticeducationscholar,BostonCollegeDanielGreenbergOneofthefoundersoftheSudburyValleySchoolAmyGutmannPoliticalscientist,democraticeducationscholar,PresidentoftheUniversityofPennsylvaniaJohnHoltCriticofconventionaleducationandproponentofhomeschoolingIvanIllichPhilosopher,priest,authorof"DeschoolingSociety"LawrenceKohlbergProfessor,pioneerinmoralanddemocraticeducationHomerLaneDemocraticeducationpioneer,founderoftheFordRepublic(190712)andtheLittleCommonwealth(191317)DeborahMeierFounderofdemocraticschoolsinNewYorkandBoston,writerA.S.NeillDemocraticeducationpioneer,founderoftheSummerhillSchoolClausOffePoliticalScientist,theoristofdeliberativedemocraticculture,HertieSchoolofGovernanceKarlPopperPhilosopherattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsBertrandRussellPhilosopher,authorofOnEducationandfounderofBeaconHouseSchool
Seealso
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ListofdemocraticschoolsListofSudburyschoolsConstructivism(learningtheory)EuropeanDemocraticEducationCommunityInternationalDemocraticEducationConferenceEuropeanDemocraticEducationConferenceRougeForumHiddencurriculumHumanrightseducationProgressiveeducation
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61. Blacker,D.J.(2007)DemocraticEducationStretchedThin:HowComplexityChallengesaLiberalIdeal.SUNYPress.p126.
62. Bridges,D.(1997)Education,AutonomyandDemocraticCitizenship:PhilosophyinaChangingWorld.Routledge.p76.
63. Gutmann,A.(1987)DemocraticEducation.PrincetonUniversityPress.p321.64. Gutmann,A.(1987)p99.65. Curren,R.(2007)PhilosophyofEducation:AnAnthology.BlackwellPublishing.p163.66. "DemocraticEducationinPractice:InsidetheMissionHillSchool"(http://www.amazon.com/Democratic
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67. Portis,E.(2003)"DemocraticEducationandPoliticalParticipation,"(http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p63746_index.html)PaperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation,PhiladelphiaMarriottHotel,Philadelphia,PA.Retrieved1/15/09.
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70. seealsoAristotle:"Forthethingswehavetolearnbeforewecandothem,welearnbydoingthem."inBynum,W.F.andPorter,R.(eds)(2005)OxfordDictionaryofScientificQuotations.OxfordUniversityPress.21:9.
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76. DanielGreenberg(1January1992)." "TheBasics"ReExamined".EducationinAmerica:AViewfromSudburyValley(http://books.google.com/books?id=YQn_BA76TF4C).TheSudburyValleySchool.pp.pp1922.ISBN9781888947076.Retrieved7June2013.
77. conversationbetweenA.S.NeillandMarioMontessori,RedbookMagazine,Dec1964,reprintedas"RadicalPrivateSchools"inThisMagazineisAboutSchools1(1),Apr1966,p16
78. DanielGreenberg(1995).FreeatLast:TheSudburyValleySchool(http://books.google.com/books?id=es2nOuZE0rAC&pg=PA2).TheSudburyValleySchool.pp.2.ISBN9781888947007.Retrieved7June2013.
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80. http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radioarchives/episode/424/kidpolitics81. http://sudval.org/05_underlyingideas.html#0282. "MatthewArnold:DemocraticEducationreviewedbyRussellKirk"(http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?
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Externallinks
PeterGray@PsychologyToday(http://blogs.psychologytoday.com/blog/freedomlearn/)AlternativeEducationResourceOrganization(AERO)(http://www.educationrevolution.org/)ComprehensiveGlobalListofDemocraticSchools(viaAERO)(http://www.educationrevolution.org/lisofdemscho.html/)EuropeanDemocraticEducationCommunity(EUDEC)(http://www.eudec.org/)InstituteforDemocraticEducationinAmerica(IDEA)(http://www.democraticeducation.org)
Furtherreading
Apple,M.(1993)OfficialKnowledge:DemocraticEducationinaConservativeAge.Routledge.Bourdieu,Pierre.(1984)Distinction:ASocialCritiqueoftheJudgmentofTaste.London:Routledge.Bourdieu,PierreandJeanClaudePasseron.(1990)ReproductioninEducation,SocietyandCulture.Theory,CultureandSocietySeries.Sage.Carlson,D.andApple,M.W.(1998)Power,Knowledge,Pedagogy:TheMeaningofDemocraticEducationinUnsettlingTimes.WestviewPress.Carr,W.andHartnett,A.(1996)EducationandtheStruggleforDemocracy:Thepoliticsofeducationalideas.OpenUniversityPress.Dennison,George.(1999)TheLivesofChildren:TheStoryoftheFirstStreetSchool.Portsmouth,NH:Boynton/CookPublishers.Dewey,John.(1997)ExperienceandEducation.NewYork:Touchstone.Durkheim,mile.(2002)MoralEducation.Mineola,NY:Dover.Foucault,Michel.(1991)DisciplineandPunish:TheBirthofthePrison.NewYork:RandomHouse.Gatto,JohnTaylor.(1992)DumbingUsDown:TheHiddenCurriculumofCompulsoryEducation.Philadelphia,PA:NewSociety.Giroux,H.A.(1989)'SchoolingforDemocracy:Criticalpedagogyinthemodernage.Routledge.Gutmann,A.(1999)DemocraticEducation.PrincetonUniversityPress.Habermas,Jrgen.(1997)"PopularSovereigntyasProcedureDeliberativeDemocracy".Bohman,JamesandWilliamRehg,eds.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.Held,David.(2006)ModelsofDemocracy.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.Jensen,KnudandWalker,Stepheneds.(1989)"TowardsDemocraticSchooling:EuropeanExperiences".OpenUniversityPressKahn,RobertL.andDanielKatz.(1978)TheSocialPsychologyofOrganizations.NewYork:JohnWileyandSons.Kelly,A.V.(1995)EducationandDemocracy:Principlesandpractices.PaulChapmanPublishers.Knoester,M.(2012)DemocraticEducationinPractice:InsidetheMissionHillSchool.TeachersCollegePress.
86. Democracy&Education(http://democracyeducationjournal.org/home/)87. TheInstituteforDemocraticEducationatKibbutzimCollege(http://www.smkb.ac.il/en/democratic)88. "UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights"(https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/).UnitedNations.10Dec
1948.Retrieved14May2013.89. UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly(Nov20,1989)."TextoftheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChild"
(http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CRC.aspx).http://www.ohchr.org.UNOfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights.RetrievedMay11,2013.
90. "Summerhillontrial"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/683649.stm).BBCNews.20March2000.Retrieved20080128.
91. "Summerhillclosurethreatlifted"(http://news.bbc.co.uk./1/hi/education/688152.stm).BBCNews(BBC).23March2000.
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Manin,Bernard."OnLegitimacyandPoliticalDeliberation"EllySteinandJaneMansbridge,trans.PoliticalTheory.Vol.15,No.3,Aug.1987:338368.Miller,Ron.(2002)"FreeSchools,FreePeople:EducationandDemocracyAfterthe1960s".SUNYPressNeill,A.S.(1995)SummerhillSchool:ANewViewofChildhood.Ed.AlbertLamb.NewYork:St.Martin'sGriffin.Sadofsky,MimsyandDanielGreenberg.(1994)KingdomofChildhood:GrowingupatSudburyValleySchool.HannaGreenberg,interviewer.Framingham,MA:SudburyValleySchoolPress.Schutz,Aaron.(2010).SocialClass,SocialAction,andEducation:TheFailureofProgressiveDemocracy.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan.introduction(http://educationaction.org)
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