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DDeakin Research Online Research Online This is the published version (version of record) of: Lamp, John and Milton, Simon 2004, The reality of information systems research, in Information systems foundations: constructing and criticising, ANU E Press, Canberra, A.C.T., pp. 25-33. Available from Deakin Research Online: http://hdl.handle.net/10536/DRO/DU:30005431 Reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright owner. Copyright : 2004, ANU E Press

SystenlS Research

Milton

Department of Inf()!Tnation Systems Univl;rsilv ofM'elbourne

bourne S111 i ltol:rZ!)unime Ib.edu.au

The {'Y(lm/no/ion i:;slIC Fiih a li'eb site hos lead c/irectiy to the considcra!i(;ii and 1m/we! of (m appj'()(fcl7 hased UI1 .lime/wllental theories "'i,ho! is" !o ',',uminciF!7o{ i!1/iJr!l1otion rescorch is and the relation;' 7/'1' COI7l/KIlCII! (I:'(lS elldc{fi '0111 '. TIllS papc!jJl'('senfs on examination of

the lise .:,/ field of oilln/ogies, and \lJcci/icoLzv the lise of the ol7t%p:ica/ Iilj(j/!whic/7 {o base caregories ol injormmion sl'slems

reseal'cil I/('{ ivifies. T//.is /licoli'iieu! (I!wirsis is in/ended [0 he IIse.d as rhe hasis /i'ol1l lFhich to {icl'{!/op U . to Ifndertake the del'e!upmCI1! of the cOiegorial scheme.

Since 199j . .Iohn Lamp beer maintaining ;} reSOUL~r; on the world \-vide web whos(~ 'Ti is jCJ pre \It cenL";:d point hom which academic authors publishing in the ir ~lll 'j \'iiuill can llbUlin use I'll I in!<Jrlralioll on the publications serving (hell :loll1,lin (!,w'i' 99:'i). The database now cOlliains information on 349 journals em,! \vas over 7500 -times in Februai'V )004. As the number of journals iiFl'Jdeci ill relevant L; from fi.\cility lJ:ai imply common \\ ::h rnost j'.:xl facility rlll ) i. Jiniain result :;(;ls (linrnakri

/\. nurllh:~ 0,

and the r:' about the 1)::1 11.l'" ()f i he cL arlic/.:s p:'.I,!i:i!l,xl in JI':I1:

the infcJrlnz:'

of accuralely identifying ;11!1:1 !he database increases. !lwrc is a b,t'sic searching

:carch term to descriptive in (he database, but, in implemented on a relational DBMS. there is no

!ling searches through tbe manipulation of 'WOOl).

10 categorise the journals to a research thcfuU scope of

(l,amp '-~., Milton. 200;) 'J part ofvvhich is the cc:hemes l'or ir' !()rmation sy5tern~; research

It llils also \',1 :;ed ilnporlmll questions journals tilc:rllsclves, the

. finding ol'tlHll paper was any categorial e over the domain of

apparent con f1i clwith views expressed by inforn-'('j i(n '\';;1ens ,":'~:(:i;I(;)' \":.:. as and as jouli1al editms (Lamp 2002), supporl i be need

VVe aSSC1: iI'iil ;:l(' cP'l,

rcal, thai; s i, ./lfl)7 cli! (~\ L.

questi on th. ;" s(~·s cd' h(:"

The rnet!lo(i (11this paoer

schc!Y).c_

,; ,'C,,':UCi1. :llC ,journal article·) 'Lid other publications, arc !\' olltside lhe cognition of authors and readers. The

. 'an these

® 1"i L1iixlTl<!lion systems dornain is diverse

\\Ie ,lin ,1\)(; clpp!icability oj' philoscpll ontology as a tool to in jCJrm a1:ion systems

There [ltt: ;J ill,lIil

is !l

clTlerge:

/lVI::<,ln.

200'C\j'

The aul!lOI'~;

domain the:: il) iE:iIC'};,

any , ('~, (ii' Ihenrciicl[

Informal j'('::",'

tC)fJ1" 0 I :; Ii

SystCIY1S d In'l!ie or j)n discipiiw ( mp adopted 1992), l,c!I":

indic(:ti( lil Ii i

A II oritii:: \:i>:Cl Cli\'~O! i I;,

iniorrnai icn ' strllctun:, i '!

inberen< iil )

these sc Ii '11!

Il hw'

of the rcali:\

rUl alIe

!():;ophy upon which to build methods analysis.

ting IV ilb what is iii/i) t'f} W( iOil srstems and what Frmn papers a lHlil: oC comnlOll findings

()D what is iiliol'rnatioll systems (lvcs et aL 1980: Seddon, , :, Parker (t aL 1994: Holsapple et aL 1994);

disciplines (KCC:I1. ]991: Seddon. 1991; C( aL 1 VhdC/:ak. 1999; GatJiers,

\ nlCU ltir;.'s (Avison. 1993: Holsappie, 1(94);

(Keen. 199 I' A son., 1993; Straub et ai,

dominated (Hurt et 211, 19S6: Keen, i99L Avison,

n:C1hcldolopies. m Shnnks ct 1993; Ho :; Uilsktrvilk &

or frameworks ([ves et 1994: Parker et aI,

i hrper, 1998; Fitzgerald &

the infc)I'mat!uJ] systems svstems arc diverse:

';\':';[I'n1:S are divCI"c ;]ncl tha1 is a lack of () fin !C)J'fTiaiiml

,llcr;ii:urc is c h;li'acteJ'j~;cd

proposed as ',,;lih or \'iilhout adaptiol

OjllY tOkl',;l1 adoption of any to 1he inf()rmation

i"'lin one of the reference ZOOi), The 10 ,111 information systt:m is

:,uc:ess (DeLone &: McLean, :;een as an

ill scheme: \vhich have been Lipplieci to the illJCln1l[ltion iui! structures, c'lti1xcing Cl single view of it could be hy that slich a single lS Inadequate :0 capture the ciiversity resu II ing in ~!,f of uptake of any of

lhcorj~;t~; (Acioff 8:: ::nl\;",

identifL?d

di\'crsit\ analy:m. tbat

'\;Vithin prope rti :::;,

s

in a catcgc\n;;ation scheme? Systems 1981; Churdiillan. 1(79) have correctly

whether ex as perspectives or

:),cr! to stud v til wu]'lci

approaches reflect the \vith dim~rcnt units of

and entities thai exist in SLlch a study has i ls roots

:. thai exist: the:, objects,

phi losophers i; ''the : Ci:; the IJ(1il.:rc of existence

being in structure

lye catcgoriai schemes. A \\ith 'beiilg' or 'entity' as

that .. (Honderich. 1(95). This approach 10 i.he J I.ts!C~ of ontology has al~;() successfully used in inCormalicill in comparing and evaluating data rnodelling frarnewurk:; !!Vlilton. 200(): ,'vlilto!l &. KalJnicrezak. 2004).

fi.mdanlc:nt<j

when' ;1

could

(

. I of i q;, . :~; In i1 h

'eh aim 10 determine the s'.!'uctUf(~S. and dOlliain sp,~c i fic ontologies

!.lppiil:od to il proh dOlmlin. An analogy and cli\ia are conceptualised.

:ls!allCCS

19/');. 'hisholm (1996). Basic ligan,. I 9a;; :md (Gangemi et

) nH' !~unccrncd \\/ii.!l i!]f' rn~)~;t gcnerrJl 1,/hM there is in the world. property. In th.:; analogy

Relationship modelling proposed il i :; !Jur:: I. dIlL

At this Ii:

f • ~ ,

are u~;cc\in create a domain spcciflc in th,.: way that particular data

il) ITCJl,; zial,) models 0[' a Iud;;:,' project, :mch as a

Univcrs i;elent rccorcis fll or a banking sys1em, artificial intelligence (AI) !cled:;' alihis

ha ve a particular 0 r onto logy. referring to it as 'an a sqccific vl)cabuial'Y used 10 describe a ccrl iii! the intended meaning of the VOI,',,!Jid,j'V \\(mi:,; I., (i ,'ill(l, \ ()9g), ontologies

specific ~.:)i1 (H; :,li/!::1C!

(Grubel' ,I ~)()~i. (~nJb:~;L 1

Reccnt \\01'),

Upper i} that lhe: ~i: i .!

systems,

i 0 a :;pcci ric domain of 10 be impknKnted or defined witbin a

likes, [9(2), Onlolingua

('i"Olmd the S',:manlic W\'lJ and the IEEE Standard (Gangemi ei aL 2002) is encouraging in

of higher levei in information

It is the lql/wr level i'Ci(:['{'il"': Jl)l()i(lgie~, !)nci the basis fell tli(: selection Ei particular reference Cil!Oi' rlit.: of a domain unto logy directed towards infc)rmatioll

The b The i catege'!' various ! i

over 2000 years to Ari:;lotlr; and his Categories, I strllct lll'CS can be seen in many current

~ li'om the Lillnean schemes u';ed in lii~; sciences to the and tb;~ ) ,ibrary of Congress. The

one of ~;moolh progress, with for as a '.;did area of s1.uck Kant's exam:)lc,

atWucic w;)', \. h ;e, i J' i i '.~:' Lilli nnto Ie (1 priori knovvledge of pSI) 8S5(;1'i:; that I(:ani completely ncr{li. r r~J:L/, :j'(:iltDrlC

/\ 1'i:;loi!c "

~nu)'. Firs).I),

intenljo) ~;J i ';.l ~~;c<:c; ; If " sClund~i,;n iLi, In h

accornrn (;>:1:\1:,

i"'I"

iilg il without a sound DC iiil (f priori assumption. as

vve,'e hclsec! on clnp(i'ical observations of being

m;w be., :ii of tilt' objects () of {IS, 11 is

['i'garcling perception had of two f)-pes of

s about ourselves and our c;;;lcrnn) \vode!; colour,

to ::;ee (] 'Nay of

of the ideas are thought; they are also a

that lhe objects may idea ma v snv,,: 10 present either one of

: e,u:lwl {11(; sallle pre~;cnifd by two :;l [() (iv: objecL" (R',T'.i :0, 193, p40 [emphasis

One Bren the concep1 idea of \\

(.e; \;;1S Ldillund HusserL who cOlllinued investigations into in the course of this he created phenomenology. the key

Ii:, I LSSCTi identified problenls \\ ith Brental1o' s approach.

attentio,) particu !:, i u,\Lion s:;(-;

written parody

serio1l51.\ ,p,til tbe: rtlse

noenw IiiU:ii.·;hifl wilh 1."..;Ul

The rc~::

a

fundmnc nL', I

discovering ('·ihe!

altriblrU~:.;, '\ phdosorh

Rormm exanLJn:ll books ( 1960); which the enii· .. se~'inj

this

'(11, 'if litcr;][\'

(JI ,,:.\.:)1. 'l

hallucinatio,-Is. In Lhe:;e case:;. what then of consc ;;ness lhar make it as i/o!

he called acr S 110r'1J1CI. The noema perceived or unperceived. including

vvitholli havi ever reflected or paid i~; c'c1.errnined pcrceptioll. you could in a

but laLer realise it w;\:; a mannequin, with a 10 our !\':;I'arch area might be Isaac

(csub/ililated, ii/moline (1948). ''chis is of a chemistry papl~L hut was a scienti \vorJ; intended to establish and or the ccsearch cOinmunity took the paper

[iliS \vay, perception is always fallible and (Routledge. WOO, p3(9).

ems r;;seat ch are reported l:, research literature. For ind!');' :Jj" !njorl/l(J/ion SVSfCIl?S journal.l· can be considered

cri1~; rcscal'ch IlteraLure ;\hen considering relevant il\gwhat the research litc:.·ature consists of is

domain 01' innml1atioll research and for the literature which I!; lK; useflll as search

till!': I " rcsuHccl in a seminal

'I Hussleriw, , iJcinciing ::;cicntiJic works itS

phenmneno!ogy to the borderline cm;c. His two

(1%~) the lilcrm:r l!'ork of art (HI'; mdhodological lools with

i\i:-; \\;01'1-; \vas C(L:)l ;:md addressed limn classic 1 to. III his "the

,,'s llnoi\l l(w;~ po(?m" ))8). Forlunately for i[~c I "';;cientific " are] clearly

,'"iion II>( i: )i. o!'.'{)·:,:21:)"ci belles-lettres ... ,wei yet frequently spoken of as ,',c,', ;:: Ie' ,~:rlry or ilS being devoid of it" (1965, p9),

(( ,\ ,I

a number 'll' :,Lrata [md that it IS the 'iI'CCIl ~;L(;;; til which gen! J':lH: a polyp/wnic character

.' hirn as:

phone! ic c OJ. Older built

I'ilil'!.' and their vici::siluc/e:;; and

!:.'spec{s and con tin Li<l and :;cries.

CIS heinE (Ynificant- the order of ,;xaminalion of i:hc V8l'iOLlS strata IS

identi "I ,I 1> \\\l;ccn \lleiYL /, detailed cje-;u iplion 01' these strata and

their v2tiiu\I:': c:mlllcc1iol1' to lhe literary of art is beyond the scope il"! i: paper. )( is i ,';ll'lilnt 10 IlniC that lngarden SillY these aspects as being applicable' J(l \\ lh8t the scieillinc \vork diCfered in some

Id the j'() Ie:; Cl f the strata, The d i Cf(~rcnces res\! Ii from the e lcmen /:, () I' ; !!d i vi elu:1I Sl t:iI "

role transmitting , J 968, pp 146-153)

1. il'! (1 SCicnlL work arc ,ilrnos[ exclusively trlle

1'!iCCS mi!\ he li'UI' or 1:.1 but they lay claim to of CCirnpany A was

, and yet a "j

~:, ';ij'[clurc 0 r ,'e1l1 i '" ,)I'k naturally of purely in tentional ,;Cilii:;C: ,:OITcilmo:i (,;xciusivciy states c;ffz.irs) and represented

~i j ,:>m are c!irectcd t!trough the represented or r;, \ eel objccli',;iti,,: Of) to objects independent oj the scientillc work, eg the

reid \\'nclcL

3, (;CiCill i !II? :JI the stf(~i;;] of phonetic I(iliilation~; and the strata of

4,

5,

., ,J.

un! I.') 1,; f lYiC8n ir~v (' nri: (lesthet ic value qualitieso 'rhi,s is not cssentiaJ and rn(tY /';(: luxury. 'The cei-It purpose of a scientific \,/ork ive l\i,'iidligC., and everything else mi)),1 be subordinated to this

! \) tile portr8) ed objectivities (l!(: transparent to 1hi: n~ader ilndi i}(knt are seen iII i i Ie light 0 [' the meaning

'i'll' i i: \\"Jrk, h)[' exmnplc, info' technology is rich in :IC::: :,1 t!S,t: uftCI'(lS such as,':;", "windows" and "mice" ,;1 iii iitctalur:; a~;s;sts in cogrJill\'e eXdli:Ulgc,

s I'~iil I :>nLtin, ,IS il special stratullL manifolcl~; of schematized !CI'i:C, prCl\ :h,,: ~jen1f:nc, ':i :\:: fer to objects tIlE'll can

111ilnir()il rr they cs.ist 'ole is 10 ill the I" l',;:;ul1;. The presenee ,~!' J1;ornents is

mi1ri.,~ "lUll; nl:'iapllysical qualiil('~ is esscl1tilli only when a II',;)C \il\ IS f a subject of [hI: cognitive result that is

,:,:[ ur <it It,,,:;! contributes to I,mnsm ission, In this case nol ci)!lti::, . 1)8, I') [h(-: ac);lileiic value 01' tiw scientific '\Vork in the

\V,I\.' (;Iat they emi:': li<;; 10 a literary vvorlc Scienti literature tends to stick to

three important til

li.<ents of the all\!

I' /'

and

) ';:i~'; IY!cnlioiicd in acticles :l"'; also renl but must be ve »f the aurhor awl the in1entions revealed in

The " i )-If!" is applicabk 10 :;cientif,( \;,orks including works in the 111:ld u' :>/'I<:)S the question ni' an appropriate reference

ontoio,g\ iJ'

iDformatiol! :i

acis ofi,ll(lIf,j;ilion

\Ve h;lV'; scparatf~

ot'vvTi!1'X,,\

a In i IC)f linking the resl of the analysis of the dw rcal with perceptions and intentional

c,ltdliTS using these arld'ac[,;,

reference

and have an existence on the nature

in which \\c me interest r, cI \lve note 1h<lt rnany see inf()iTnai inn ~~;v:;tt~nlS :y:; h\.'\;i ,Ji'/erst: c;onll'l1unily \\ ith iWlIlY dirJ(;renl perspectives and disH' onlo1og'. whichlii": presentui,

A numbcI' systcrns, /\ onto!o.2'!!': COt1sidcf'S way, i)/:1licl

stuciic3 (i!'

:2UI i i, /\ Il appropri(.';lc \,'oJl)prdKIlSlvC rel'ercnce ,;istCi,li JhH11C\Voi'k within

literature can be

an ul'!e).rstand ing of in ['ormation of Mario Bnnrc (1977, ! 979), Bunge's

is characteri'sd by an approach which ,<Win 10 sci cnc: and procced if, a clear and systematic

:\i HiC:r:ld others. have used this ontology in many :em 110wevcL it been noted that Bunge's i.he \1, arId and tlirre does not pmvide for

19(6). Bunge's ontology, can (;~H ii' 'it \\; ilh 1 he nh i !osoph kal s i i'(,~l!n of naturalism "v'here it

is held '.na! Ihe best lnqu in the social or philosophy are ... those scien;e and Sose,

,jatttrc;;

ill::: it ins ~;C!,: .. " r'iaturalism is ontoiogiCi" I:' sU(JpOlted by natural

111;;1 be used "in recopnising what is real" (Kim ! )5) and

We tn.1e jIICL.' .lil

hurna!; (Jl,:)'!:, ;): ;cn~; ('

rnose iJ' n/~'! ;\;; uftl"lc/,;c

al pl'e~;f

for lYlC!ll\ ,vide!v I

" "

, 1:; constrained by result that all physical 'Ibis position is also

sla.tes, " arc said to be inconsistent with the

'" ('I c, -)"" '10(5) dil" :)l .,(\, ,7

as those II ii,~(mila(ion report ,i Ii the WOl'ks, Fml her, that

,h;.]i :)(,(:111:; jO more anw; t, j"c;dis)'.). Common';

i, ,; o'din,H')! people kno '.! I"i /1Il' body. I knot\

philo'ophy COl'!llytitted 10

1)le to use !ll area of holds thai we know

, ! know thRI. there exists lhat the earth existed

"i. Iii'!Mnh expressiOl.hc nwaning or which is is abo or ,'!tirely c1iflercni question

'Ui'U/',\', Il1 die sense l11al \' ' ,Fe able to (! correct ',re, scnS1S" i' oot concerned with that

JaHer q'l' . l. '''he Co ilL'"

happen:·; "11:\(; n~!ii

:,cn,;c ,Vi): k' is deline8ted 'i' 0111' be!ids about what "i /,JOS/ C:. yes uno' lJiOst of iilliC (~)lnith" J 995).

of tl'ii~ wedel il!

lhe \"'orid '.', III C0I111110fl-

sense reali:;;;lt, have included treating the conmlOil·sensc: world as trlllv C1U!</]OIT10US or pll\sics as a cuil111rll artif~\Ct. Smith (1995) propose:; there is :,In () l,)l[lP bG1v'iccn the common·,sens!;' world and the v.;orld of physics ;,! :;',;ncc impact Oil our common··:,I:!lse understanding of the physical \volld,.1 (';linmOrl,,:;ensc ontology does not necessarily need to be rewrrt::Cii In 'h \\ake shills. contrasting with I Ilclturaiist ontology such as Bungs,'':;.

ComnlO cognition fl,' I it. It COj

ven

An in forrna! iun

rea tS only one towards which natural and 1. i cxisi.:; indcpendenlly 0 OlJf cognitive relations to

that our lui, i c(Y'nitive (~:perjcnces arc in mnny cases unable to be '1 ,I )"']Il\on ~;en'·;c i:; awarE' of ene,' ill efforts, "The

\\hidt natural el'>;; lib):: ""ith the thesis that are many diff(:;rent ways

subjects in din(~((!!1 sorts circumstances"

sens,: realism which II;]:: received sorne attention in "I' Hoderid Mi110n (:l1isholrn (1996), l-Iis ontology is

in this pape: ihrough HusserL lngarden, and Wit located in th"C; comrnOil':,cnsc realism school of thoug,ht. ::tilcl deais \",i1::: :;L~" , ;'lid dY\lanlic ;)()pccts, lmpOrl",)ily fc;!' the work proposed ill ihis lXI)<'l idie; (he qllciiio!] of perception and the intentional point of view, :k Uut' of our O\\\! ,;iates 0 f mind i:i a source of ce:-tn \(:r:'i1ces of external perc;;;}O(\11 should be treated as

hav!~ pmitive reason call them into question" (1996: l'P'1 ~ is also able to accnm!llodatc 'nocma' through 'appeawi1:.'c;; in how 'Jeople (and ()i'UUpS of people) can have perspec!!v\;;; lin over [irne and appcm in he not quite what they really an,~, . the sensing of Clj)[.{'mances --- is subjective in being un Ihi: ('xistence of tJJi~ subject of experience"

hishoilli. p, I Ii) ,', !..11,~ ihll coverage oi Chisholrri's ontology is beyond the s(ope o!' tiii:, PP I,. bllt hi~; ~'mphasis on the of the intentional" (Chisholri1. II. hi:; Ina." apPt'opriate fi'amework for research,

rnay be able to research.

u"eci to huild a sensible ion remains of how

metlludologkii! Iv based on inlrospection used to

ith and JVlark in lhe use of' t', me1.ilOd:;, based 011

cf'rill onlol.ogicalllwc i ry of geographic objects, [':'Ill is based on iiS(' of nmth;~lYialjeal set

1,;' cepi'cscntativl of a :':d, and it is "" individual item is OJ ii ;',01 a member of a set. In

::, 1 h i~,; cl;lri ty i.'; not cvidcn i. geographiull terms " I ,ore close:',' I ... ~semble r{1("'~ on;\ continuum, rather

than rcqllilerw;nt:i

,

in formal coverirw categori!:; F as ST.siClI!S

between lh

ind

'luaJty with

geographic!! comparison of publ some of the

rc'!c;:d a similar

objcct~; do not ;iatis(v the papers in the field of proposed ill schemes

in distinguishing rn igllt be C<Jtcgorised

thought to lie ~'omewhere f;nphiBis of the p:::pc!', In these cases we are

(,i(; ~,hc products of ht::TlaD cogni1.iOlL ralher than

ill, clifin I'c/cliionsi1ip

J,)sitions.

between objects and better i han other

as k lVere ,good and bad ',ll,.:; bed categorics with a

radial SinH. ii' \\ pH,I:;, mcrnbcrs ~;unoLlndcd by more or less tbe apprc<'::ii of Fn1l17 Brentano to typic<t/ Ir!,~i ,i,)us. Thi:;;

mcreClIOi~" ' at diffel:: whole

j\lost of the

'.:; CGIlllII on

ClJ'k don!.: entities cd 1:<,1:' top sincr and d Smith apprC:lc1w ,[ , :c! be ~

i~; ':ornpkx and is in diflE'l'cnt ways and C'1m~;;rns n,l: b::'!sic organi:;iilg relationships of part to

; ,: Ie , cd'idel1tity, overlapping and discreteness.

j r; :ch cognitive SCicT!i;~o1S is based on studies of or 0 f items such as colours

(!~'i,'rmining whether these ~'il experimental h'amework

traditional tolugical work (largely dedlwtil f,; Drill l',.:search with subjects ([:mpirical, inducti ': as the starting points for the design of experim.'i\L' j>'ctoco l.:: 1.: ", ji'e (!egret' 01' fit of the ()Jj,\(\iugicaJ theories. This data can tor; , [,erai:i(jJ);:,

have ;1

ROllle>,l ;

espou~~:t c'l provid('s !(;r

rcsc'\i.'ch Ii, \,

It is!i \ 'I

\)n ihcories to I','m tl1;:: ba~:i~i fCII' further

;]

,,:;crnpl::!'; of a \()ul1cL

r';":'Cil:'.:i dornain i:: diverse, Vie a sui \vayto

rca] world :lrtc[~lcts of H't ii) of riction,

ii,:lllClchlogy zlpplying his

tlil. Comrnoll"sellse realism () rhe inforcnalion systems

i 1Ia I idarion underlaken by Sinith ;\I(!":[(I< ([9')',} f i ;, ,. in theil ('esearch vvere not based on inteii\]olicll elf , \VI.' believe that no 111(;1110(\ is ciil'ectiy applicable to

The },(':,1 ii'

llsinp: i.!

,( i'Liull, I ]'ernains an <:lei.' line ufenquiry,

I:! 3i'''; prcn,i:;ing, in thai (] !.Jrber of diflerF.:nl studies, 1 :iprvoach have been [olin:] \A/hen the~;t' studies are

novel dhodoiogy fCll' deVeloping

in a domain by diversity, and

AldineAtherlcfl. Chicago. 1912

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