Climate Change (cont’d) and Fossil Fuels

GEOG 101: DAY 17

Any questions, comments, or themes that emerged out of “Revolution” for you?

Any questions about the slides from Thursday on indoor air pollution and climate change?

Writing Strategies and Tips- Join Student Success Services in a FREE workshop on writing strategies and success. Three stages of writing, resources and tips will be explored. Thursday, March 12, 12-1 in 250, Room 110.

Today we will finish the slides on climate change and start in on fossil fuels.

On Thursday, I would like to do a role play modeling an international conference on climate change solutions. You will need to do some research on-line between now and then.

H O U S E K E E P I N G I T E M S

I will break you into four groups today: 1) the U.S. and Canada; 2) China; 3) developing countries most affected by climate change, and 4) leaders in renewable energy (Sweden and Germany, etc.).

Your job will be to first determine what your position would be at an international conference and why -- research it between now and then)? Prepare a short speech for everyone. Give your speech. Offer rebuttals to what you hear, and then offer what would acceptable solutions for you. I will give you time at the beginning of class to get organized in your group and decide who’s going to do what.

H O U S E K E E P I N G I T E M S

On 1 July 2008, BC brought in North America’s first carbon tax shift. It imposed a price on the use of carbon- based fuels, with all the revenues going to fund corresponding cuts in other taxes.

BC’s carbon tax infrastructure is still in place, and though Christy Clark signed a carbon agreement with Washington, Oregon, and California in October 2013 -- http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_24406734/california-oregon-washington-and-british-columbia-sign-climate. However, she recently eliminated the target for reducing greenhouse gas reductions by 33 percent below 2007 levels by 2020, and has abolished the independence of the BC Carbon Trust.

BC’S CARBON TAX

BC’s carbon tax shift was designed to be “revenue neutral”; all the revenues are to be used to reduce other taxes – mainly through cuts to income taxes (personal and corporate), as well as targeted tax relief for vulnerable households and communities – resulting in no overall increase in taxation • When introduced in 2008, the tax was initially set at $10 per tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). It was designed to rise by $5 per year thereafter until it reached $30 per tonne (roughly 7 cents per litre of gas) in 2012.

BC’S CARBON TAX

A recent report’s key findings are that:• Since the carbon tax took effect (July 1, 2008), BC’s fuel consumption has fallen by 17.4% per capita (and fallen by 18.8% relative to the rest of Canada). • These reductions have occurred across all the fuel types covered by the tax (not just vehicle fuel) • BC’s GDP kept pace with the rest of Canada’s over that time.

BC’S CARBON TAX

The tax shift has enabled BC to have Canada’s lowest income tax rates (as of 2012). • The tax shift has benefited taxpayers; cuts to income and other taxes have exceeded carbon tax revenues by $500 million from 2008-12.

Stewart Elgie, professor of law and economics at University of Ottawa, and the report’s lead author, says: “BC’s experience shows that it is possible to have both a healthier environment and a strong economy -- by taxing pollution and lowering income taxes.”

BC’S CARBON TAX

© 2010 Pearson Education Canada

16Fossil Fuels:

Energy Use and Impacts

PowerPoint® Slides prepared by Stephen Turnbull

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada Inc.

16-9

Identify the principal energy sources that we useDescribe the nature and origin of coal and

evaluate its extraction and useDescribe the nature and origin of natural gas and

evaluate its extraction and use Describe the nature and origin of oil and evaluate

its extraction, use, and future availabilityDescribe the nature, origin, and potential of

alternative fossil fuel types and technologiesOutline and assess environmental impacts of

fossil fuel useEvaluate political, social, and economic impacts

of fossil fuel use Specify strategies for conserving energy and

enhancing effi ciency16-10

UPON SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETING THIS CHAPTER, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO

Proposal to develop three major natural gas fieldsDelayed 10 years because of deep oppositionMany who opposed the pipeline became supportersPotential effects: fragmentation of habitat,

damage breeding areas, deforestation, increase GHG emissions

Natural gas from the region may go straight into the production of oil from Alberta’s tar sands

16-11

CENTRAL CASE: ON, OFF, ON AGAIN? THE MACKENZIE VALLEY NATURAL GAS

PIPELINE

“We’ve embarked on the beginning of the last days of the age of oil.”

– Mike Bowlin, Chair, ARCO

SOURCES OF ENERGY

16-12

Renewable energy = supplies of energy will not be depleted by our use Sunlight, geothermal energy, and tidal energy

Nonrenewable energy = at our current rates of consumption we will use up Earth’s accessible store of these sources in a matter of decades to centuries Oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear energy (uranium)

To replenish the fossil fuels we have depleted so far would take millions of years (we have consumed half of what it took 50 to 300 million years to create in approximately 125 years!)

16-13

WE USE A VARIETY OF ENERGY SOURCES

Fossil fuels = highly combustible substances formed from remains of organisms from past geologic ages

Electricity = a secondary form of energy that is easier to transfer and apply to a variety of uses

16-14

WE USE A VARIETY OF ENERGY SOURCES (CONT’D)

Nonrenewable Crude oil see

http://www.vox.com/2014/8/1/5958943/nuclear-power-rise-fall-six-charts

Natural gas Coal Nuclear energy (uranium)

Renewable Biomass energy Hydropower Solar energy Wind Energy Geothermal energy Tidal and wave energy Chemical fuels (wood, dung, methane from biogas

digesters, biofuels) 16-15

WE USE A VARIETY OF ENERGY SOURCES (CONT’D)

Fossil fuels we burn today were formed from the tissues of organisms that lived 100-500 million years ago

Fossil fuels are produced only when organic materials is broken down in an anaerobic environment = one that has little or no oxygen Bottoms of deep lakes,

swamps, and shallow seas

Organic matter is eventually converted into crude oil, natural gas, or coal.

16-16

FOSSIL FUELS ARE INDEEDCREATED FROM FOSSILS

Fossil fuels were formed from plants and animals that lived 300 million years ago in primordial swamps and oceans (top). Over time the plants and animals died and decomposed under tons of rock and ancient seas (middle). Eventually, many of the seas receded and left dry land with fossil fuels like coal buried underneath it (bottom). Ten feet of prehistoric plant debris was needed to make one foot of coal.

Some regions have substantial reserves, whereas others have very few

How long a nation’s reserves will last depends on: How much the nation extracts, consumes How much it imports from and exports to other nations Nearly 67% of the world’s proven reserves of crude oil

lie in the Middle East The U.S. possesses more coal than any other nation

16-17

FOSSIL FUEL RESERVES ARE UNEVENLY DISTRIBUTED

Industrialized nationsUse energy for transportation, industry, and domestic and institutional uses

Developing nations Use energy for subsistence activities Agriculture, food preparation, and home heating

Often uses human manual or animal energy instead of fossil fuel-driven machines

16-18

DEVELOPED NATIONS CONSUME MORE ENERGY THAN DEVELOPING

NATIONS

16-19

REGIONS VARY GREATLY IN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Net energy = the difference between energy returned and energy invested Net energy = energy returned – energy invested

Energy returned on investment (EROI) = energy returned/energy invested Higher ratios mean we receive more energy

than we invest Ratios decline when we extract the easiest

deposits first and now must work harder to extract the remaining reserves

16-20

IT TAKES ENERGY TO MAKE ENERGY

COAL, NATURAL GAS, AND OIL

16-21

Coal = organic matter (woody plant material) that was compressed under very high pressure to form dense, solid carbon structures

16-22

COAL IS THE WORLD’S MOST ABUNDANT FOSSIL FUEL

The Romans used coal for heating in the second and third centuries in Britain

The Chinese have used coal for 2,000 - 3,000 years

Commercial mining began in the 1700sThe invention of the steam engine expanded coal’s market

Coal helped drive the Industrial Revolution and the steel industry

In the 1880s, people used coal to generate electricity

Fossil fuel dependence has allowed a temporary “economy on steroids”

16-23

COAL USE HAS A LONG H ISTORY

Subsurface mining = underground deposits are reached by digging networks of tunnels deep underground

Strip mining = heavy machinery removes huge amounts of earth to expose and extract the coal

Mountaintop removal = in some cases, entire mountaintops are cut off to obtain the coal

16-24

COAL IS MINED FROM THE SURFACE AND FROM BELOW GROUND

Coal varies from place to placePeat = organic material that is broken down

anaerobically but remains wet, near the surface and not well compressed Widely used as a fuel in Britain

Four types of coal Lignite = least compressed Sub-bituminous and bituminous Anthracite = most compressed; has the most

energy

16-25

COAL VARIES IN ITS QUALITIES

Coal contains impurities

Sulfur, mercury, arsenic, and other trace metals

Sulfur content depends on whether coal was formed in salt

water or freshwater

Coal in eastern Canada (and China) is high in sulfur because

it was formed in marine sediments

When high-sulfur coal is burned, it released sulfate air

pollutants, which contribute to smog and acidic deposition, in

addition to greenhouse gases

Mercury can bioaccumulate

Ways to reduce pollution must be found

16-26

COAL VARIES IN ITS QUALITIES (CONT’D)

Natural gas consists primarily of methane, CH4, and varying amounts of other volatile hydrocarbons

Can be liquid at ambient pressures and temperatures in subsurface reservoirs (Christy Clark’s fantasy is to link the province’s entire economy to LNG exports)

Provides 25% of global commercial energy consumption

World supplies are projected to last about 60 more years, but we’re already increasingly relying on “fracking” to get the gas out.

16-27

NATURAL GAS IS THE FASTEST-GROWING FOSSIL FUEL IN USE

TODAY

Biogenic gas = created at shallow depths by bacterial anaerobic decomposition of organic matter “swamp gas”

Thermogenic gas = results from compression and heat deep underground

Kerogen = organic matter that results when carbon bonds begin breaking Source material for natural gas and crude oil

Coalbed methane = methane from coal seams, leaks to the atmosphere during mining

16-28

NATURAL GAS TAKES A VARIETY OF FORMS

The first commercial extraction occurred in 1821 but was only used locally, because it could not be transferred safelyFirst used to light street lamps, then for

heating and cookingAfter thousands of miles of pipes were laid,

natural gas transport became safer and more economical

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) = liquid gas that can be shipped long distances in refrigerated tankers; BC is betting its economic and financial future on LNG exports

Canada is the world’s third-largest producer of natural gas

16-29

NATURAL GAS HAS ONLY RECENTLY BEEN WIDELY USED

The first gas fields simply required an opening and the gas moved upward

Most remaining fields require pumping by horsehead pumps

Gas is accessed by sophisticated techniques such as fracturing technique, which pumps high-pressure salt water and toxic chemicals into rocks to crack themFracking – extensive environmental impacts, including potentially on local water tables

16-30

NATURAL GAS EXTRACTION BECOMES MORE CHALLENGING

WITH TIME

FRACKING IS CONTROVERSIAL AS WITH THE RECENT CONFRONTATIONS IN NEW

BRUNSWICK BETWEEN MIKMAQ AND THE POLICE OVER THE ISSUE

Drilling takes place on land and in the seafloor on the continental shelves

Platforms are either strong fixed platforms or floating platforms, as with Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico

16-32

OFFSHORE DRILLING PRODUCES MUCH OF OUR

GAS AND OIL

People have used solid forms of oil (i.e., tar) for thousands of years

Modern extraction and use began in the 1850s First bottled and sold as a

healing aid, but it is carcinogenic

This “rock oil” could be used lamps and as a lubricant

Edwin Drake drilled the world’s first oil well, in Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859

Canadians – less than 0.005% of the world’s population – consume 2.5% of the oil – 500 times the global average 16-33

OIL IS THE WORLD’S MOST-USED FUEL

Oil, crude oil, or petroleum (oil and natural gas)

Crude oil = a mixture of hundreds of different types of hydrocarbon molecules Formed 1.5 - 3 km (1 - 2 mi) underground Dead organic material was buried in marine

sediments and transformed by time, heat, and pressure

Refineries separate crude oil into components such as gas, tar, and asphalt

16-34

HEAT AND PRESSURE UNDERGROUND FORM PETROLEUM

Geologists map underground rock formationsTechnically recoverable oil reveals the oil

that could be extracted with current technologyEconomically recoverable oil recognizes the

balance between the costs of extraction, transportation and current price of oil

Proven recoverable reserve = oil that is technologically and economically feasible to remove under current conditions

16-35

PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS INFER THE LOCATION AND SIZE OF

DEPOSITS

Exploratory drilling = small, deep holes to determine whether extraction should be done

Oil is under pressure and often rises to the surface Primary extraction = the initial drilling and

pumping of available oil Secondary extraction = solvents, water, or stream

is used to remove additional oil; expensive We lack the technology to remove every bit of oil As prices rise, it can become economical to reopen a

well16-36

WE DRILL TO EXTRACT OIL

16-37

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OIL EXTRACTION

BP’s Deepwater Horizon could operate in 10,000 feet of water.

16-38

PETROLEUM PRODUCTS HAVE MANY USES

Some people calculate that we have used up about 1.1 trillion barrels of oil

Reserves-to-production ratio (R/P ratio) = the amount of total remaining reserves divided by the annual rate of production (extraction and processing) At current levels of production (30 billion

barrels/year), we have about 40 years of oil leftWe will face a crisis not when we run out of oil,

but when the rate of production begins to decline (i.e. ‘peak oil’)

16-39

WE MAY HAVE ALREADY DEPLETED HALF OUR OIL RESERVES

PEAK OIL

production de

man

d

peak oil

crunch time

See http://www.oildecline.com/

Hubbard’s peak = Geologist M. King Hubbard predicted that U.S. oil production would peak around 1970 (it did)

16-41

Geologist Kenneth Deffeyes contends that we already passed peak global production in 2005

16-42

How do you think your life would be affected if our society were to suffer a 50% decrease in oil avail-ability over the next 10 years, as some observers have predicted? (see National Geographic’s “Aftermath: A World Without Oil” – possibly on Youtube.com)

What steps would you take to adapt to these changes?

What steps should our society take to deal with the coming depletion of oil?

Do you think the recent surges in the price of oil and gasoline are an indication that such changes are beginning?

16-43

THE END OF OILweighing

the issues

“UNCONVENTIONAL” FOSSIL FUELS

16-44

Oil sands (tar sands) = sand deposits with 1 - 20% bitumen, a thick form of petroleum rich in carbon, poor in hydrogenDegraded and chemically altered crude oil deposits

Removed by strip miningRequires special extraction and refining processes to become useful

16-45

CANADA OWNS MASSIVE DEPOSITS OF OIL SANDS

Oil shale = sedimentary rock fi lled with kerogen (organic matter) that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum Can be burned like coal or baked in hydrogen

(called prylosis) to produce liquid petroleumMore than 40% is found in the U.S., mostly on

federally owned lands in the westLow prices for crude oil have kept investors

away As oil prices increase, oil shale is attracting

attention

16-46

OIL SHALE IS ABUNDANTIN THE AMERICAN WEST

Methane hydrate (methane ice) = molecules of methane in a crystal lattice of water ice molecules

Occurs in arctic locations and under the seafloor

Formed by bacterial decomposition in anaerobic environments

Immense amounts could be present, from twice to 20 times the amount of natural gas

Extraction could destablize marine ecosystemsLandslides and tsunamis release large amounts of methane (a greenhouse gas)

16-47

METHANE HYDRATE IS ANOTHER FORM OF NATURAL GAS

Low Energy Returned on Energy Invested (EROI) ratios: about 3:1 compared to the 5:1 ratio on crude oil – definitely not the “low hanging fruit”

These fuels exert severe environmental impacts Devastate landscapes Pollute waterways

Combustion pollutes the atmosphere just as much as crude oil, coal, and gas

16-48

ALTERNATIVE FOSSIL FUELS HAVE SIGNIFICANT ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACTS

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF FOSSIL FUEL USE

16-49

Alter flux rates in Earth’s carbon cycleRelease more carbon dioxide then they burn

Pollutants and hydrocarbons cause severe health problemsMercury from coal-fired power plants

Contaminates water supplies and freshwater ecosystemsRun-off into water supplies, enter groundwater supplies

16-50

FOSSIL FUEL EMISSIONS CAUSE POLLUTION AND DRIVE CLIMATE

CHANGE

FIGURE 15.15

Carbon capture and storage (CCS)Sequestration = storage of materials in geologic reservoirs on a long timescale

Many environmentalists are skeptical about CCSTechnology unprovenTrue impacts are not knownCan increase acidification of ocean water (if carbon is stored in the deep ocean)

16-51

SOME EMISSIONS FROM FOSSIL FUEL BURNING CAN BE

“CAPTURED”

FIGURE 15.15

Strip mining causes severe soil erosion and chemical runoffAcid drainage = sulfide minerals on exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric acid

Mountaintop removal causes enormous damage Material slides downhill, destroying immense

areas of habitat

16-52

COAL MINING AFFECTS THE ENVIRONMENT

Subsurface mining is harmful to human health Inhalation of coal dust can lead to fatal black lung disease

Mining companies in theory must restore landscapes (often they don’t), but the impacts are still severe

Costs to repair damages of mining are very highThese costs are not included in the market prices of fossil fuels, which are kept inexpensive by government subsidies 16-53

C O A L M I N I N G A F F E C T S T H E E N V I R O N M E N T ( C O N T ’ D )

EFFECTS

Road networksExtensive

infrastructureHousing for workersAccess roadsTransport pipelinesWaste piles for removed soil

Ponds constructed for collecting toxic sludge that remains after oil removed

16-55

OIL AND GAS EXTRACTION CAN ALTER THE ENVIRONMENT

POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS

16-56

OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) resolved to stop selling oil to United States in 1973 as a consequence of U.S. support for IsraelCreated panic and oil prices skyrocketedSpurred inflationHuge impacts in North America, but even more so in Europe and developing countries

OIL SUPPLY AND PRICES AFFECT THE ECONOMIES OF NATIONS (CONT’D)

16-57

Our economies are utterly tied to fossil fuels

We are vulnerable to supplies becoming suddenly unavailable or extremely costly

Gives seller nations control In Canada, imports still outweigh exports

OIL SUPPLY AND PRICES AFFECT THE ECONOMIES OF NATIONS

16-58

Hurricanes Katrina and Rita destroyed offshore drilling systems and spiked oil prices, not to mention causing extensive ecological damage

Because the politically volatile Middle East has the majority of oil reserves, crises are a constant concern for the U.S.

Despite political disagreements, the U.S. has a close relationship with Saudi Arabia because Saudi Arabia owns 22% of the world’s oil reserves 16-59

OIL SUPPLY AND PRICES AFFECT THE ECONOMIES OF NATIONS (CONT’D)

16-60

Extraction of fossil fuels can be extremely lucrative Jobs to thousands of employees Supply dividends to thousands of

investors Government assistance to residents of the area

Local residents have frequently suffered Money often has not trickled down Few environmental regulations leads

to environmental degradation

16-61

RESIDENTS MAY OR MAY NOT BENEFIT FROM THEIR FOSSIL FUEL RESERVES (E.G. NIGERIA)

Ken Sarawiwo- hanged by the Nigerian government

Energy conservation (“negawatts”)= the practice of reducing energy use to:Extend the life of our nonrenewable energy supplies

Be less wastefulReduce environmental impact

2008: 83% of Canadians planned to buy a more fuel-effi cient car next time around, 51% had been cutting down on drivingImpacted on SUV and light truck industry

16-62

WE NEED TO CONSERVE ENERGY AND FIND RENEWABLE SOURCES

Norway, with a healthy royalty on fossil fuel extraction, helps fund its extensive social programs through this means (see http://thetyee.ca/Opinion/2014/01/15/If-Every-Norwegians-a-Millionaire-Whys-Alberta-in-Hock/)

In Canada, jurisdictions like Alberta demand almost nothing of oil companies and the Heritage Fund is now virtually defunct

Some have advocated that, since fossil fuel extraction is non-renewable, it should at least subsidize the development of alternatives for future generations. 16-63

SHOULD NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCE REVENUES BE USED TO SUBSIDIZE RENEW

RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT OF OTHER SOCIAL GOALS?

Individuals can reduce energy consumption

Society can make energy-consuming devices more effi cient Increase fuel efficiency Improve the efficiency of power plantsCogeneration = excess heat produced during electrical generation is used to heat buildings and produce other types of power

16-64

PERSONAL CHOICE AND INCREASED EFFICIENCY ARE TWO ROUTES TO

CONSERVATION

Improvements in home design can reduce energy required to heat and cool them

Scores of appliances have been re-engineered to increase energy effi ciency

Consumers need to vote with their wallets by buying energy-effi cient products

But, ultimately, these personal initiatives – while important – will be of limited value unless governments and the corporations they serve are brought to heel.

16-65

PERSONAL CHOICE AND INCREASED EFFICIENCY ARE TWO ROUTES TO

CONSERVATION (CONT’D)

Conserving energy is better than finding a new reserve as it lessens impacts on the environment while extending access to fossil fuels

The only sustainable way of guaranteeing a reliable long-term supply of energy is to ensure suffi ciently rapid development of renewable energy sources

Fossil fuels have helped us build our complex industrialized societies but now fossil fuel production will begin to decline

We can encourage conservation and develop alternative energy sources or wait until fossil fuels are depleted

Renewable energy sources are becoming feasible and economical Easier to envision giving up on our reliance on fossil fuels Win-win future for humanity and the environment 16-66

CONCLUSION