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CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL ADVERTISING SALES
REPRESENTATIVES
By
KATHLEEN VILLARUEL
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ADVERTISING
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2006
Copyright 2006
by
Kathleen Villaruel
This document is dedicated to the graduate students of the University of Florida.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my entire thesis committee for their help throughout the
course of my thesis. Without their support, I would not have been able to reach the level
of achievement that I did at the University of Florida. They have provided me with the
quality education necessary to attain success in my chosen career.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................ vii
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1
The Sales Industry ........................................................................................................1 Advertising Sales ..........................................................................................................2 Success in Sales ............................................................................................................3 Chapter Summary .........................................................................................................4
2 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................5
Sales..............................................................................................................................5 The Selling Process.......................................................................................................6 Advertising Sales Industry............................................................................................8 Adverting Sales vs. Other Selling.................................................................................9 Success in Sales ..........................................................................................................10
Predictors of Success...........................................................................................10 Measures of Success............................................................................................14
Assessments for Salespeople ......................................................................................16 Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP)................................................18
Origins of the Wonderlic CPP.............................................................................19 Wonderlic CPP Content ......................................................................................20 Wonderlic CPP Primary and Secondary Personality Traits ................................21 Other CPP Measures............................................................................................24 Wonderlic CPP Reliability and Validity .............................................................24 Reliability of the Wonderlic CPP ........................................................................25 Validity of the Wonderlic CPP............................................................................26 Normative Database for the Wonderlic CPP.......................................................27 Wonderlic CPP Study..........................................................................................28
Hypotheses..................................................................................................................29 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................30
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3 METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................................31
Wonderlic’s Involvement in the Study .......................................................................31 Survey Research Method............................................................................................32 Operational Definitions ..............................................................................................34
Independent Variables .........................................................................................34 Dependent Variables ...........................................................................................34
Study Design...............................................................................................................37 Participants ..........................................................................................................37 The Study.............................................................................................................38 Questionnaires .....................................................................................................39 Analysis ...............................................................................................................39
4 RESULTS...................................................................................................................41
Sample ........................................................................................................................41 Hypotheses Testing.....................................................................................................44 Hypothesis Results......................................................................................................45
5 DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................51
Summary of Results....................................................................................................51 Implications ................................................................................................................52 Contributions to Advertising Sales Literature ............................................................52 Limitations..................................................................................................................54 Future Research ..........................................................................................................54 Conclusions.................................................................................................................55
APPENDIX
A QUESTIONNAIRES..................................................................................................57
B RESEARCH AGREEMENT FOR WONDERLIC ASSESSMENTS .......................61
C IRB PROTOCOL AND INFORMED CONSENT FORMS......................................65
LIST OF REFERENCES...................................................................................................72
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .............................................................................................76
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LIST OF TABLES
Table page 2-1 Advertising Salespeople Number and Revenue for Each Media Type ......................9
2-2 CPP Normative Sample Characteristics ...................................................................20
2-3 Major Characteristics Mentioned by Most Authors and Similar CPP Traits ...........24
2-4 Advertising Salespeople CPP Norms for Primary Traits .........................................28
3-1 Success Indicators and Performance Level Groups .................................................37
3-2 Sales Managers and Representatives........................................................................37
4-1 Sample Profile of Sales Representatives ..................................................................41
4-2 Sample Means and CPP Norms for Primary Traits..................................................42
4-3 Success Indicators ....................................................................................................43
4-4 Statistics for Wonderlic Characteristics ...................................................................44
4-5 Accuracy Index Scores.............................................................................................45
4-6 Wonderlic Characteristics by Accounts Lost Groups ..............................................46
4-7 Wonderlic Characteristics by Accounts Gained Groups..........................................46
4-8 Wonderlic Characteristics by Total Sales 2005 Groups...........................................47
4-9 Wonderlic Characteristics by Total Sales 2006 Groups...........................................48
4-10 Wonderlic Characteristics by Sales Manager Rating Groups ..................................48
4-11 Wonderlic Characteristics’ Pearson Correlations with Success Indicators..............50
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Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Advertising
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL ADVERTISING SALES REPRESENTATIVES
By
Kathleen Villaruel
December 2006
Chair: John Sutherland Major Department: Advertising
The purpose of this study was to assess the utility of the Wonderlic Comprehensive
Personality Profile (CPP) in identifying successful advertising sales representatives. The
CPP is a widely used personality profiling system that tests personality characteristics
with job compatibility. Even though the CPP is a reliable and valid tool for testing
general salespeople, the CPP has not been shown to be a good tool for identifying the
characteristics of successful versus unsuccessful advertising sales representatives.
Further, previous research on the CPP’s ability to test advertising salespeople was
completed on a small sample. This thesis studies the Wonderlic CPP’s ability to identify
personality characteristics of successful advertising sales representatives.
Data were gathered from 67 advertising sales representatives and 17 sales managers
from print and broadcast media companies. The advertising sales representatives
completed the Wonderlic CPP online and a paper-pencil questionnaire. The instruments
measured levels of success and characteristics of their personalities. In order to study the
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sales managers, a different questionnaire was used. Sales managers answered questions
that reflected their opinions of individual sales representatives’ level of success and
personality characteristics for which they supervised. Thus, the study consisted of both
the sales managers and the sales representatives completing their own separate
questionnaires.
The results of this thesis indicate that although the Wonderlic Comprehensive
Personality Profile (CPP) is a reliable and valid tool for profiling the personalities of
general salespeople, the CPP does not differentiate successful from unsuccessful
advertising sales representatives. The results suggest that media companies should use the
CPP cautiously. Companies should also consider using other employee assessment tools
or success indicators in order to better identify the characteristics of successful
advertising salespeople. Overall, this thesis provides media companies and the entire
sales industry updated information on general sales, advertising sales, success in sales,
employee assessment tools, and other important relevant topics.
1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The Sales Industry
The sales industry is a business that encompasses a large range of occupations
including retail salespeople, insurance sales agents and advertising sales agents (Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 2006). Each type of selling is unique in the products it offers, the
selling techniques followed, and the responsibilities of the salespeople (Schiffman, 1994).
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006) reports that approximately 13,930,320 total
employees work in the sales industry, with an average annual wage of $32,800. Hisrich
and Jackson (1993) note that a sales career can lead to high income levels, placing
salespeople among the most highly paid employees. Most salespeople are paid a base
salary plus commission, and other salespeople work on a commission and bonus
compensation plan. Many workers choose a sales career because of its high
compensation levels and the opportunities to promote to an upper level management
position (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993).
Schmidt (2000) suggests that technological advancements are influencing the
employment opportunities in the sale industry by increasing the usage of the Internet.
Salespeople are improving their computer skills and are completing more sales tasks
online. Sales appointments, presentations, and follow-ups are completed via e-mail
(Schmidt, 2000). Companies are taking advantage of technological advancements such
as video conferencing and cell phones in order to make their sales pitches more creative
and vivid (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993). As a result of technological advancements, the
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nature of customer-relationship management is changing. Salespeople need to know
when personal interaction with their customers is needed to close a sale (Schmidt, 2000).
With new industry trends, the roles of salespeople are changing because
salespeople are becoming more important in their companies’ overall marketing
strategies (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993). Brooks (2006) proposes that salespeople’s
consumers and managers now have new demands and expectations of their salespeople.
With customers becoming more knowledgeable of the business and sales managers are
expecting more from their salespeople, salespeople are expected to know their clients
better and have a deeper understanding of their client’s wants and needs (Hisrich &
Jackson, 1993). Salespeople must also learn important skills and traits in order to
succeed in sales. These skills include goal setting, time management, planning, listening
and scheduling. The traits include proactive, positive and truthful (Brooks, 2006).
Advertising Sales
The main purpose of advertising sales is to help clients reach their sales and
marketing goals through communication of an advertising message (Shane, 1999). The
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006) reports that a total of 153,890 advertising sales agents
work in the industry, with an average annual wage of $50,400.
The advertising sales industry’s total industry revenue equals $231.3 billion, and
125,000 total salespeople work in the industry (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Advertising
sales representatives are responsible for selling media services to the advertising
community (Pattis, 2004). Sales representatives can sell through various media formats
including print, broadcast, outdoor, and internet (Shane, 1999). For all media formats,
sales representatives should be knowledgeable of their media’s offerings and client’s
needs. Sales representatives should be able to maintain current clients and build new
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business by suggesting ways to improve the sales and marketing of their clients’
companies (Pattis, 2004).
Success in Sales
It takes a certain type of person to achieve success in the sales profession. For
some salespeople, this task can often result in failure (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993).
Rasmusson (1999) identified the top ten traits of successful salespeople. Successful
salespeople are believed to have the following traits: assertiveness, ego drive, empathy,
ego strength, sense of urgency, willingness to take risks, sociable, abstract reasoning,
healthy sense of skepticism, and creativity (Rasmusson, 1999). Warner and Buchman
(2004) present the AESKOPP system, which is a simplified sales framework. They
believe that an advertising salesperson’s success level depends on the characteristics of
Attitude (A), Emotional Intelligence (E), Skills (S), Knowledge (K), Opportunities (O),
Preparation (P), and Persistence (P) (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Further, if a
salesperson is motivated (Bartkus & Howell, 1999), assertive (Rasmusson, 1999), and
trustworthy (Macintosh, Anglin, Szymanski, & Gentry, 1992), the seller is expected to be
able to achieve success in sales.
Success in sales can be directly measured through different indicators such as sales
volume, sales manager evaluations and salesperson self-evaluations (Levy & Sharma,
1993). Salespeople are often evaluated and compensated based on their ability to close
sales, achieve revenue and meet quotas (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993). Companies set
quotas, which are pre-set sales goals that managers evaluate their salespeople based on
whether or not the quota was met or exceeded (Schiffman, 2006). Salespeople are
evaluated and compensated based on their performance levels of success (Hisrich &
Jackson, 1993).
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In order to identify job candidates that are most likely to be successful in sales,
several companies use employee assessment tools (Borofsky, 1993). One company that
specializes in employee recruitment and assessment is Wonderlic (2006). Wonderlic’s
Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) is a personality profiling system that tests
personality and job fit (Wonderlic, 1999). The CPP is known for being a reliable and
valid tool for assessing the personality characteristics of salespeople. The tool can assist
companies in finding the best candidates for a career in general sales. Companies turn to
Wonderlic to measure a salesperson’s level of success and to pinpoint how individual
salespeople can improve (Wonderlic, 1999). By understanding a salesperson’s ability to
succeed, the strengths and weaknesses of a seller can be found (Costell, 2004).
Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced the main topics that this thesis will discuss. This thesis is
specifically studying the important characteristics of successful advertising sales
representatives in terms of the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP). The
main purpose of this study is to determine the characteristics of successful advertising
sales representatives and to assess Wonderlic’s ability to identify characteristics of
successful advertising salespeople. Further, this thesis adds to theoretical knowledge in
the fields of sales and advertising sales through information on characteristics, success,
and assessments. A literature review, methodology, results and discussion section is
included in this paper.
5
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews various literatures on the sales and advertising sales
industries. The importance of understanding the characteristics of successful advertising
sales representatives is discussed through several topics, including the selling process,
advertising sales, success in sales, personality characteristics, and employee assessments.
This literature review describes and analyzes previous material on these subjects in order
to create a theoretical framework for this thesis on the characteristics of leading
advertising salespeople.
Sales
According to Shane (1999) sales is an “economic exchange, not day-to-day human
interaction” (p. 3). Salespeople sell products or services by explaining to the customer
the benefits of the purchase. It is a process of identifying and fulfilling customer needs in
a profitable manner (Shane, 1999). Sales can either be traditional or consultative selling.
Graziano and Flanagan (2005) describe traditional selling as a sales approach where the
product or service is the main focus of the sales process. During traditional selling,
salespeople are directly responsible for selling a product or service to buyers that need it
(Graziano & Flanagan, 2005).
Hanan (2004) describes consultative selling as a sales approach that focuses on the
impact a sale has on the customer’s business. Consultative salespeople explain to their
customers how the buy will benefit their company in terms of value and profit (Hanan,
2004). Graziano and Flanagan (2005) explained that the customers’ needs and wants are
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the main focus in consultative selling process. Consultative selling is considered to be
more customer-oriented and non-manipulative because salespeople focus on
understanding clients’ wants and needs (Graziano & Flanagan, 2005). By being non-
manipulative, consultative selling is effective at developing and maintaining customer
relationships (Warner & Buchman, 2004). They must be able to identify and solve
clients’ issues, while maintaining relationships with their clients. Further, the sales
representative must have strong listening and problem solving abilities. By focusing on
the client, consultative sellers make their clients feel more secure and involved in the
sales process. Clients are more likely to show interest in the product or service if they are
more involved in the selling process. Consultative selling is becoming more popular in
the sales industry, with several salespeople making the transition from traditional to
consultative selling (Graziano & Flanagan, 2005).
Siguaw and Bojanic (2004) explain that consultative selling is used heavily
throughout the selling process, while the traditional selling approach is not used as
commonly. Salespeople practice consultative selling when identifying customers,
gathering information, analyzing customer needs, building customer relationships, and
dealing with customer objections. On the contrary, salespeople use the traditional selling
approach less frequently and during the last stages of the selling process (Siguaw &
Bojanic, 2004).
The Selling Process
For the consultative approach, there are four sales models that exist and can be
applied to advertising sales. The Sequential Model includes ten steps of selling:
Attitude, Planning, Prospecting, Rapport, Discovery, Presentation, Confirm, Negotiate,
Action, and Follow Up (Breithaupt, 2003). Hisrich and Jackson (1993) proposed six
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main stages. His model includes the stages of Prospecting, Preapproach, Sales
Presentation, Handling Objections, Closing the Sale, and Service after the Sale.
Shane’s (1999) sales cycle condenses the steps of selling into seven primary stages.
The steps include Prospecting, Qualifying, Needs Analysis, Presentation, Answering
Objections, Closing/Implementation and Relationship Management. The first step,
Prospecting, is the act of gathering a list of potential clients. During this step, salespeople
search and identify new customers. Strong prospects are found based on their needs and
purchasing abilities. After the prospects have been identified, the information gathering
of the prospects begins. Qualifying, the second step, allows salespeople to develop a file
for prospect information. The files help salespeople ensure that the clients are qualified
to do business based on their financial and payment history. Following qualifying is the
third step of needs analysis, which is an extension of the cycle’s information gathering.
Salespeople must analyze the needs of their clients and match them with their product or
service’s benefits. During the fourth step, Presentation, the salesperson completes a sales
presentation. The salesperson should demonstrate in the presentation how well he/she
understands the client’s needs found in the needs analysis step. The salesperson should
be able to effectively communicate how their product or service can benefit the prospect.
A good sales presentation is informative, persuasive and convincing. The fifth step,
Answering Objections, handles objections and answers questions. Salespeople should
fully understand the objections and questions before responding. Once all questions and
objections are cleared, the salesperson reaches the sixth step, Closing/Implementation.
This is when sales are closed. How and when the salesperson chooses to close the sale is
important. The salesperson should be prepared to make trial closes and handle more
8
objections, in case the prospect rejects the first order. After closing a sale, the seventh
and final step is Relationship Management. This step is when the salesperson follows up
with the customer to ensure that the customer is satisfied and thank them for their
business. This helps maintain strong relationships with the customer and should be used
to handle any issues that the customer is having. This step is vital in relationship building
and creating repeat customers. According to Shane (1999), the level of importance of all
seven stages may fluctuate depending on each salesperson’s personal preference and the
situation.
Advertising Sales Industry
Advertising sales involves helping clients reach their sales and marketing goals
through the communication of an advertising message (Shane, 1999). The advertising
sales industry’s U.S. ad sales expenditures have increased from 2001 to 2004, totaling
$145,585 million sales dollars over all media forms (Macleod, 2006). Total industry
revenues equal $231.3 billion, and there are 125,000 total salespeople working in the
industry (Warner & Buchman, 2004).
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006) describes advertising salespeople as either
inside or outside sellers. Outside salespeople sell to clients at their business, while inside
salespeople sell to clients on a phone or walk-in basis. These sales representatives sell
anything from advertising space, to time, to art work. However, most ad sales employees
work for media companies, such as television stations or magazine publications (Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 2006).
Advertising salespeople can be involved in selling print, broadcast, interactive or
outdoor media formats. Print and broadcast are the most dominant media because they
have the highest number of salespeople and revenue dollars compared to other media
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types (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Magazines, newspapers and directories are
considered print media, while broadcast media is made up of television and radio
(Croteau & Hoynes, 2003). Warner and Buchman (2004) say that newspaper leads all
media with $44.3 billion advertising revenue, followed by television with $38.9 billion
advertising revenue, and radio with $17.9. In terms of the number of salespeople, radio is
on top with 45,000 total salespeople, followed by newspaper with 30,000, and television
with 15,000. The magazine medium is also significant with 10,000 total advertising
salespeople and $11.1 billion advertising revenue (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Table 2-1
below shows the number of salespeople and revenue for the print and broadcast media
types.
Table 2-1. Advertising Salespeople Number and Revenue for Each Media Type
Media Type # of Salespeople Revenue $ (in billion dollars)
% of Total
Print 53,000 69.00 29.90 Broadcast 67,000 72.30 31.20 Other 5,000 10.90 4.70 (Warner & Buchman, 2004, p. 9)
Adverting Sales vs. Other Selling
Advertising sales has its similarities and differences compared to other areas of
sales. Shane (1999) proposes that advertising sales is different from most types of selling
because it can involve selling intangibles rather than only tangible products. Examples of
electronic media intangibles are airtime, impressions and rating points (Shane, 1999).
For print media, salespeople sell intangibles such as circulation, markets and readership
(Pattis, 2004). However, the tangible value of print media can be found. For example, a
newspaper or magazine ad displayed in a store window shows the tangible value of the
medium. The tangible value of advertising is the actual, physical newspaper or magazine
10
ad. The main difference between intangibles and tangible products is that tangible
products can be counted when inventory is conducted. Advertising sales does not sell
tangible products, such as clothing or automobiles from retail sales (Shane, 1999).
Similar to other types of selling, advertising sales representatives follow similar
stages of the selling process. Shane (1999) claims that his sales cycle for selling
electronic media is made up of seven steps that are presented in most other sales lists.
The main goal of an advertising sales representative is also similar to other types of
salespeople. Advertising salespeople and other types of salespeople succeed in sales by
identifying customer needs, fulfilling those needs, and closing the sale (Shane, 1999).
Success in Sales
Predictors of Success
A salesperson’s level of success can depend on their personality characteristics.
Bartkus and Howell (1999) found that salespeople who are motivated and able to get
along with others make successful salespeople for the travel industry. To develop these
conclusions, Bartkus and Howell (1999) administered a questionnaire to 78 travel
agencies. Their study’s results suggest that achievement motivation was related to sales
performance.
Rasmusson (1999) also identified traits that are critical determinants of success in
sales. In order to find the top ten traits of leading salespeople he surveyed 209
individuals. These respondents suggested that the top ten traits of successful sellers
include assertiveness, ego drive, empathy, ego strength, sense of urgency, willingness to
take risks, sociable, abstract reasoning, healthy sense of skepticism, and creativity.
An article from the Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management (1992) found
that the traits of successful versus unsuccessful salespeople varied. The more successful
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salespeople were more likely to establish the trait of trust by first learning about their
customer, while less successful salespeople first shared information about themselves
before learning about their customers (Macintosh, Anglin, Szymanski, & Gentry, 1992)
Further, time management was also found to be an important trait in achieving success in
sales. The data results from 102 salespeople suggested that time management predicts
car sales performance when motivation is high (Barling, Kelloway, & Cheung, 1996).
Warner and Buchman (2004) present the AESKOPP system, which is a simplified
sales method. If a salesperson has the personality characteristics of Attitude (A),
Emotional Intelligence (E), Skills (S), Knowledge (K), Opportunities (O), Preparation
(P), and Persistence (P), he/she will succeed in sales (Warner & Buchman, 2004). The
seven elements and their core competencies help define the responsibilities of a
salesperson and what is required to be successful. All seven elements of the AESKOPP
system are made up of a set of core competencies.
The element of Attitude includes the core competencies of honesty, optimism,
commitment, confidence, competitiveness, motivation, assertiveness and nurture (Warner
& Buchman, 2004). Emotional Intelligence is made up of the core competencies of self-
awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Warner &
Buchman, 2004). The element of Skills deals with a salesperson’s ability to
communicate, listen, present, negotiate, close and service (Warner & Buchman, 2004). A
salesperson who has the element of Knowledge understands their market, product, and
competitive media (Warner & Buchman, 2004). The element of Opportunities includes
the core competencies of prospecting and identifying problems, while the element of
Preparation includes the competencies of strategic thinking, problem-solving,
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organization, planning, and time management (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Last, if a
salesperson has the element of Persistence he/she is determined to close sales and follows
up on completed sales (Warner & Buchman, 2004). In order to achieve success in sales,
salespeople are expected to have the AESKOPP elements and their core competencies
(Warner & Buchman, 2004).
In one study that tested the roles and characteristics of advertising sales
representatives, Bichard and Chambers (2006) used an electronic questionnaire
administered on the World Wide Web to assess how different media buyers perceived
advertising sales representatives. The results found that knowledgeable, informative,
reliable and honest were all rated as important characteristics of advertising salespeople.
Other responses expressed how being able to understand client needs was important in
the advertising sales process, while creativity, pleasantness, likeableness and
aggressiveness were not important characteristics (Bichard & Chambers, 2006).
Pickens (2003) suggests that every successful salesperson shares similar
characteristics based on his opinion rather than research. He explains how every
salesperson’s personality is made up 51% enthusiasm, 25% empathy, 10%
manners/charm, 7% fun, and 7% product knowledge. More specifically, Pickens (2003)
believes that all successful salespeople have the following nine traits:
• Know how to convince customers that their product is of high quality • Are creative with how they describe the benefits of their products • Are entrepreneurs who sell their own way • Have strong customer service skills • Ambitious and motivated to reach sales goals • Care about their customers’ wants and needs • Are self-starters that are aggressive and positive • Enjoy being team players • Personable and able to win customers over with their personality
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Hopkins and Edwards (1982) presents another list of 12 sources of successful
selling. His list explains the 12 most important characteristics of top sellers based on his
opinion. The 12 traits are as follows:
• Reflect individuality and self-worth through their appearance • Prideful in themselves and their career • Are confident • Care about their customers and satisfy customers’ needs in order to close sales • Depend on themselves for self-assurance and focus on goals that are achievable • Are motivated by money to make sales • Have a strong desire to achieve • Are able to conquer their fears • Are able to deal with failure • Personable with their clients and able to build relationships • Do not take rejection personally • Believe in continuing education and are always willing to learn new skills
According to Gitomer (2003), credibility is an important characteristic necessary
for success because it helps the customer trust the salesperson. When a salesperson is
credible, customers are more likely to take his/her business seriously and are more likely
to favor the product (Gaizo, 2004). A salesperson must build their credibility first by
convincing the customer that they are a trustworthy person selling a great product
(Gitomer, 2003). If salespeople convince their customers that they are trustworthy and
honest, they will more easily build a successful business relationship. Customers are
more likely to buy and continue to buy from salespeople they can trust (Gaizo, 2004).
Further, a salesperson that is personable is believed to be able of achieving success in a
career in sales. Salespeople who are personable have the ability to relate to their
customers through speaking, listening and conversation skills (Garner, 1997). A
salesperson must also have a competitive drive. A competitive salesperson is someone
who strives to succeed over other salespeople and takes advantage of every sales
opportunity (Eades, 2004).
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After reviewing previous literature on the important characteristics of sales success,
a list of the ten most commonly mentioned characteristics can be developed. The ten
major traits mentioned by most authors include sociability, motivation, assertiveness,
trust, ego drive, interpersonal skills, empathy, independence, aggressiveness and
efficiency. Based on this literature review, successful salespeople are expected to have
these ten personality traits.
Measures of Success
Success can generally be defined as a performance and self-confidence level that
results from execution and achievement (Hopkins & Edwards, 1982). In terms of success
in sales, there are three commonly used measures: sales volume, sales manager
evaluations and salesperson self-evaluations (Levy & Sharma, 1993). Sales volume is
defined as a level of achievement in terms of total sales revenue or units sold by a
salesperson (Colt, 2004). An evaluation is defined as a tool for measuring performance
that provides feedback on ways to improve the strengths and weaknesses of employees
(Cleveland, Murphy, & Williams, 1989; Ilgen, Fisher, & Taylor, 1979; Jaworski & Kohli,
1991; Taylor, Taylor, Renard, Harrison, & Carroll, 1995, as cited in Sharma, Rich, &
Levy, 2004).
Sharma, Rich and Levy (2004) suggest that salesperson self-evaluations and
manager evaluations can be used to measure success. In their research, self-evaluations
were completed by a salesperson to compare his/her performance to other salespeople on
staff, and managers completed evaluations to evaluate salespeople’s performance for the
last annual period. When compared to sales manager evaluations, self-evaluations are
less biased and more highly related to objective performance. Both types of evaluations
had the weakness of overestimation, meaning that both salespeople and sales managers
15
tend to overestimate success levels (Sharma, Rich, & Levy, 2004). Huffman and Cain
(2000) suggest that it is important to ensure the accuracy, fairness and usefulness of
performance evaluations because poorly designed evaluations can result in a decrease in
success levels. In order to improve evaluations, Huffman sales managers can make
adjustments to sales territory (Huffman & Cain, 2000). Sales territory is defined as the
assignment of customers to salespeople (Zoltners, Sinha, & Zoltners, 2001). Huffman
and Cain (2000) believe that sales territory effects sales performance evaluations. They
wrote that sales managers can subjectively make changes to territory difficulty by
calculating sales divided by territory size. These territory difficulty adjustments improve
the fairness and usefulness of the salesperson and sales manager evaluations (Huffman &
Cain, 2000).
Schiffman (2006) suggests that success can be measured through whether or not the
sales team has met quota. A quota, which is a pre-set sales goal, can be set in number of
accounts or amount of sales dollars. Sales managers can evaluate based on whether or
not a salesperson has met or exceeded quota (Schiffman, 2006). Further, Ziglar (2003)
proposes that a salesperson’s level of happiness and satisfaction in their chosen career
can also be used to measure success. He believes that happiness and satisfaction can be
achieved if a salesperson enjoys their job. If a salesperson is satisfied completing sales
tasks and reaching their sales goals, they have achieved success through their own
personal perspective. They accomplish what they need to do by their set deadlines, while
being happy and satisfied at the same time. From a salesperson’s perspective, success in
sales can be achieved if they enjoy helping clients get what they want (Ziglar, 2003).
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Assessments for Salespeople
In order to find top performing salespeople, many organizations rely on pre-
employment testing (Borofsky, 1993). Various psychological, personality or sales tests
help companies select and hire the best employees by assessing cognitive ability,
personality, and other non-demographic variables. (Cron, Marshall, Singh, Spiro, &
Sujan, 2005).
One company that specializes in employee assessment is Profiles International, Inc.
(2006). Profiles International claims that their Profiles Sales Indicator can help
companies identify successful salespeople. The Profiles Sales Indicator measures five
characteristics of successful salespeople that Profiles International believes are important:
Competitiveness, Self-reliance, Persistence, Energy, and Sales Drive (Profiles
International, 2006). It also tests seven critical sales behaviors that Profiles International
(2006) suggests are predictors of success: Prospecting, Closing Sales, Call Reluctance,
Self-starting, Teamwork, Building and Maintaining Relationships, and Compensation
Preference. Profiles Sales Indicator’s report explains if the candidate is likely to succeed
in sales (Profiles International, 2006).
Salestestonline.com (2001) is a service that tests the personalities of sales
candidates on the web. The company’s online test is designed to study the suitability of
potential sales employees for a career in sales. Salestestonline.com measures personality
traits based on a company’s specified job criteria. Salestestonline.com works with
companies to identify the traits of successful salespeople, who currently work for the
company. Based on the company’s most commonly found traits of successful
salespeople, Salestestonline.com measures the traits of Assertiveness, Sociability,
Patience, Dependence, Emotional Control, and Stamina (Salestestonline.com, 2001). The
17
degree of importance for each trait may be higher or lower depending on the company’s
profile of successful salespeople. Salestestonline.com also studies the sales skills of
Prospecting, Closing, Organization, Response to Incentives, Need for Direction, and
Turnover Propensity (Salestestonline.com, 2001). Salestestonline.com does not publicly
provide information on studies that explain how the traits or tasks are related to success
because the information is for private company consumption only (Salestestonline.com,
2001).
Shane (1999) presented the Omnia Profile, which is another tool used for employee
assessment. The profile helps select the best job candidates and analyzes the strengths
and weakness of the employees. The Omnia Profile rates behavioral characteristics,
which include needs to win, needs security, needs acceptance, needs proof, needs change,
needs stability, needs autonomy, and needs structure. Shane wrote that Omnia’s vice
president for marketing and communication claimed that successful salespeople have
high levels of the “needs to win” behavioral characteristic and low levels of the “needs
security” characteristic. The Profile also places salespeople into groups based on their
sales personalities. Salespeople can end up as a part of the Persuasive, Problem Solver,
Persistent, Passive Charmer, or Technician groups (Shane, 1999). Shane says that
Omnia’s vice president for marketing and communication also claimed that Passive
Charmer salespeople are not the most successful.
18
Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP)
Wonderlic (2006) is a service that specializes in employee recruitment and
assessment. Wonderlic helps companies identify, hire and keep the right employees.
Their services include employment screening, testing, hiring, evaluation, and workforce
development. Companies can benefit from Wonderlic’s services when looking for the
most suitable people for a specific career. Wonderlic’s tests supposedly measure a
person’s personality, behaviors, strengths and weaknesses (Wonderlic, 2006).
One of Wonderlic’s (2006) tests is the Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP).
The CPP is a personality test that assesses personality and job compatibility. The
purpose of the CPP is to help companies find candidates with personality characteristics
that are suitable for a particular job. The CPP can be used to improve employee
selection, development, and team building (Wonderlic, 2006). The main benefit of the
CPP is that it improves employee performance while decreasing the costs of employee
turnover (Wonderlic, 1999).
Wonderlic (1999) measures seven CPP primary personality traits and ten CPP
secondary traits. The primary traits include Emotional Intensity, Intuition, Recognition
Motivation, Sensitivity, Assertiveness, Trust and Exaggeration. The secondary traits
include Ego Drive, Interpersonal Warmth, Stability, Empathy, Objectivity, Independence,
Aggressiveness, Decisiveness, Tolerance and Efficiency (Wonderlic, 1999).
Wonderlic’s Comprehensive Personality Profile test is a reliable and valid tool for
screening general sales candidates. The CPP is a helpful tool for sales and other
occupations that involve client interaction. When used to test salespeople, the CPP
assesses sales style and effective management techniques (Wonderlic, 2006).
19
Origins of the Wonderlic CPP
The CPP was developed to test individuals’ personality characteristics in terms of
job compatibility (Wonderlic, 1999). In order to understand job candidate’s behavior, the
seven primary personality traits were chosen to represent the core personality traits of the
general population. Wonderlic began with 400 items, which represented a broad range of
personality types. Factor analysis was conducted on these items to find the relationships
among the variables, group similar variables, and reduce the number of variables
represented. CPP questions then underwent principal axis factor analysis to narrow the
variables down to seven factors that corresponded to the seven CPP scales. The purity of
the factors was kept by changing items that were strongly correlated with more than one
factor. In the end, each scale represented only one factor (Wonderlic, 1999).
After this factor analysis was completed, each item’s ability to function
appropriately and item content was evaluated. This process eliminated extraneous
sources of variance in order to strengthen the CPP. Last, comparative norm data was
developed by administering the CPP to individuals from various occupations and
industries. Individuals were chosen from 1,350 employees, job applicants and college
students (Wonderlic, 1999). Table 2-2 shows the occupational representativeness of the
normative sample.
20
Table 2-2. CPP Normative Sample Characteristics
Occupation # of People in the Sample
Accounting/Bookkeeping 41 Artistic Design 4 Data Processing 28 Engineers/Drafting 32 Farming/Agricultural 2 Financial Management 5 Health/Human Services 82 Legal Profession 4 Manual Labor/Construction 19 Mechanical/Technical 45 Office Management 17 Personnel Administration 49 Personnel Consulting 267 Purchasing/Buying 8 Reception/Secretarial 73 Sales (Inside) 124 Sales (Outside) 168 Sales Management 87 Science and Research 5 Teaching/Training 29 Other 261 (Wonderlic, 1999, p. 53)
Wonderlic CPP Content
The CPP questionnaire consists of 88 True/False questions that are designed to
describe the job candidates’ personality (Wonderlic, 1999). The CPP prompts candidates
to provide Ideal and Real responses based on their job. These responses help understand
what is important for success in a specific career (Wonderlic, 1999).
Wonderlic (1999) allows candidates to complete the CPP either online or in paper
format. After completion, a 37-page report of the results is sent to the administrator. The
results are explained numerically, verbally and graphically. The report is divided into
five main sections: selection criteria, supervisory considerations, sales performance,
sales training and personal development. The CPP report describes the participant’s
21
personality in terms of their characteristics, strengths and weaknesses. Management
reports are also provided that suggest ways to improve the workforce (Wonderlic, 1999).
The Ideal/Real Match Percentage is provided on the first page of the result printout
(Wonderlic, 1999). The Ideal/Real Match Percentage is calculated by dividing the
number of CPP items with identical Ideal and Real responses by the number of items
with different responses. This percentage describes how the candidates’ ideal and real
understandings of the job match. High percentages confirm that the candidates’
personality matches the demands of the job (Wonderlic, 1999).
Wonderlic (1999) also presents a CPP Accuracy Index on the first page of the
results. This number shows the validity of the CPP results. If respondents fake,
contradict or exaggerate their test items, the validity of the CPP results can be affected.
High Accuracy Index scores demonstrate that the candidate was honest when completing
the CPP. The accuracy scores range from 0 to 10: 7 to 10 representing high accuracy, 4
to 6 representing questionable accuracy, and 0 to 3 representing low accuracy. High
Accuracy Indexes are better because low Accuracy Indexes may not be valid due to
probable participant response bias. Wonderlic recommends not using low Accuracy
Indexes because the respondents may have been ‘faking’ their answers (Wonderlic,
1999).
Wonderlic CPP Primary and Secondary Personality Traits
The CPP results are further described through seven primary and ten secondary
personality traits. According to Wonderlic (1999), traits are trends in an individual’s
personality in terms of feelings, actions and thoughts. The seven primary personality
traits were chosen through a factor analytical process and include Emotional Intensity,
22
Intuition, Recognition Motivation, Sensitivity, Assertiveness, Trust, and Exaggeration
(Wonderlic, 1999).
Emotional Intensity measures a salesperson’s energy level. A salesperson’s
physical, mental and social energy is measured through this primary trait (Wonderlic,
1999). The primary trait of Intuition measures how a salesperson makes their decisions.
For example, the salesperson could base their decisions on experience and feelings
(Wonderlic, 1999). Recognition Motivation measures how a salesperson is motivated by
status, prestige or acknowledgement (Wonderlic, 1999). Sensitivity measures how a
salesperson is loving or helpful to others (Wonderlic, 1999). Assertiveness is a
salesperson’s ability to control others (Wonderlic, 1999). The primary trait of Trust deals
with how a salesperson is conscious of what is occurring around him/her (Wonderlic,
1999). Last, Exaggeration measures if a salesperson presents an inaccurate portrayal of
his/her strengths or weaknesses (Wonderlic, 1999).
Unlike the primary traits, the ten secondary personality traits come from
observation, experience and literature review (Wonderlic, 1999). The secondary traits are
mixes of the primary traits and include Ego Drive, Interpersonal Warmth, Stability,
Empathy, Objectivity, Independence, Aggressiveness, Decisiveness, Tolerance, and
Efficiency (Wonderlic, 1999).
A salesperson with an Ego Drive is motivated to achieve short-term goals. They
are determined, impatient, creative and inventive (Wonderlic, 1999). The secondary trait
of Interpersonal Warmth measures how a salesperson shows love and concern for others
(Wonderlic, 1999). A salesperson with Stability is patient, calm and predictable
(Wonderlic, 1999). The trait of Empathy measures if a salesperson is intuitive and
23
sensitive to others (Wonderlic, 1999). Objectivity deals with how a salesperson makes
decisions without being bias. A salesperson that is objective makes decisions without
being personally involved or prejudice (Wonderlic, 1999). An Independent salesperson
is the leader of a group and is not dependent upon others (Wonderlic, 1999). A
salesperson that has Aggressiveness is also likely to lead and control. An aggressive
salesperson aims to complete tasks and achieve results (Wonderlic, 1999). The
secondary trait of Decisiveness measures how a salesperson is confident in their
decisions. Decisive salespeople make quick decisions by using their intuition
(Wonderlic, 1999). The trait of Tolerance measures how a salesperson is supportive,
trustworthy and patient (Wonderlic, 1999). Last, Efficiency measures how a salesperson
is self-disciplined. Efficient salespeople are organized and have strong time management
skills (Wonderlic, 1999).
As mentioned previously, the CPP traits are all believed to be typical of most
salespeople based on normative statistical analyses. Wonderlic’s (1999) normative data
provide general population averages for each personality trait and specific jobs. The
traits are core personality characteristics of the general population and are influencers of
success (Wonderlic, 1999).
Moreover, a majority of the CPP traits are similar to the characteristics of
successful salespeople mentioned by most authors, which were previously presented in
Table 2-2. Ten of the CPP traits share similar meanings to the major traits mentioned
before. This makes Wonderlic a good tool because it measures a majority of traits that
are believed to be important for successful salespeople. Table 2-3 lists each major
characteristic next to its similar CPP trait.
24
Table 2-3. Major Characteristics Mentioned by Most Authors and Similar CPP Traits
Other CPP Measures
Further, Wonderlic (1999) assigns a percentile score to each primary and secondary
CPP trait and then places the participant into a common personality types: Driver,
Supporter, Thinker or Motivator. The CPP also measures combinations of the primary
traits that foresee management, sales and administrative performance. These traits
include a salesperson’s ability to perceive buyers' needs, ability to close the sale, desire to
provide after-the-sale service, desire to conform to management objectives, and tolerance
for staying at one work station (Wonderlic, 1999). Interaction profiles are also presented
in the CPP. Interaction profiles show how the job candidate is likely to work with other
employees. The three main interaction traits include Temperament, Ego Style and Social
Style (Wonderlic, 1999)
Wonderlic CPP Reliability and Validity
The Wonderlic CPP has been used by thousands of companies for years
(Wonderlic, 1999). A variety of leading companies such as American First Credit Union,
North Mississippi Medical Center, and Automotive Training Institute use Wonderlic
tests. A few companies in the sales industry that use the Wonderlic CPP include
Mastercraft Interiors, Wheel City Auto, and Apple Chevrolet. These companies use the
Characteristics Mentioned by Most Authors CPP Traits that Matched
Social Skills Emotional Intensity Motivation Recognition Motivation Assertiveness Assertiveness Trust Trust Ego Drive Ego Drive Interpersonal Skills Interpersonal Warmth Empathy Empathy Independence Independent Aggressiveness Aggressive Efficiency Efficiency
25
CPP to improve their employment decision-making process (Wonderlic, 2006).
Companies remain loyal to Wonderlic’s services because its assessments are successful
in finding the best candidates for a job, hiring quality employees, and reducing turnover
rates (Wonderlic, 1999).
Wonderlic (2006) claims that all tests meet the following Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) guidelines:
• The test must be valid. • The test must be fair. • The test must be job-related. Reliability of the Wonderlic CPP
Wonderlic (1999) used two methods to test the reliability of the CPP. First,
internal consistency was checked by administering the CPP to 30,826 people.
Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was used for standardized variables in order to examine
each scale, divide the scale in half, and find how strongly the two halves were related.
Coefficient alpha tests reliability based on the average correlation among scale items
(Wonderlic, 1999).
Another reliability test required a total of 128 participants to take the CPP
(Wonderlic, 1999). The same participants retook the CPP six weeks later. The two sets
of questionnaire scores were then compared. This method allowed Wonderlic to test the
CPP’s test-retest reliability, which determines the stability of the test results over time.
For this test-retest process, Wonderlic (1999) used 1.00 to represent perfect reliability and
.00 to indicate unreliability. The results of the test-retest reliability showed that the CPP
was consistent when measuring personality. Coefficient alpha internal consistency
reliability fell between .73 and .85. For students and consultants, the reliabilities fell
26
between .65 and .85. These high scores suggest that the CPP is reliable by yielding
consistent results over time (Wonderlic, 1999).
Validity of the Wonderlic CPP
Wonderlic (1999) also tested the validity of the CPP. Exploratory factor analysis
checked the validity of the test’s seven scales (Wonderlic, 1999). This was done by
assessing the cohesiveness and purity of the scales. Wonderlic (1999) also checked the
CPP’s construct validity by testing the relationships between the CPP and other tests’
personality measures. The CPP’s scale scores were compared with the 16 PF, the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI), and
the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) test’s results. The CPP was administered
with these tests in order to gather construct validity results (Wonderlic, 1999).
Wonderlic (1999) showed significant correlations at the .05 level, and the majority
was also significant at the .01 level. The results from the Wonderlic tests showed
convergent and discriminant validity of the CPP’s seven scales. When Wonderlic tested
the CPP and the 16PF, a positive relationship between the 16PF personality measures of
Social Boldness (r=.23) and Liveliness (r=.39) and the CPP trait of Recognition
Motivation was found. The Assertiveness CPP scale was also positively related with the
16 PF Dominance (r=.33) and Social Boldness (r=.37) scales. On the other hand, a
negative relationship was found between the CPP scale of Assertiveness and the 16 PF
scales of Privateness (r=.22) and Apprehension (r=-.38). Recognition Motivation was not
significantly related to the 16 PF scales of Reasoning, Emotional Stability, Vigilance,
Abstractedness and Apprehension (Wonderlic, 1999). For Wonderlic’s Millon Clinical
Multiaxial Inventory study, the Antisocial (r=-.28) and Paranoid (r=-.30) personality
traits had negative relationships with the CPP trait of Trust (Wonderlic, 1999).
27
In addition, Wonderlic (1999) compared the CPP to other accurate questionnaires.
Hundreds of people took these questionnaires and the CPP (Wonderlic, 1999). The
questionnaires tested items such as Locus of Control, Type A Behavior, and Social
Desirability. The results found significant relationships, convergent validity, and
discriminant validity. Criterion related validity was also checked through several
research studies that found the CPP to be a valid tool in predicting sales, productivity and
work quality (Wonderlic, 1999).
Normative Database for the Wonderlic CPP
In addition to proving reliability and validity of the CPP, Wonderlic (1999)
developed normative databases. The normative databases provide general population
averages by job positions. The CPP’s normative data provides the primary personality
tendencies for different jobs. Individuals and companies who take the CPP can compare
their results to these norms (Wonderlic, 1999).
Wonderlic (1999) has a database that includes personality profiles for more than
42,000 employees, 500 jobs and 500 companies. The normative sample is made up of
about 63% males and 37% females. Further, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
(D.O.T.) provides occupational codes for the different CPP job titles. Individuals taking
the CPP can use the D.O.T. to compare their results to other job positions (Wonderlic,
1999).
In terms of advertising sales, Wonderlic (1999) included media sales
representatives from publications, radio and television in the normative sample. A total
of 51 advertising sales representatives are included in the normative sample; 26
publication sales representatives and 25 radio/television sales representatives. Wonderlic
found that compared to salespeople from print media companies, broadcast salespeople
28
have higher CPP trait percentile averages for Emotional Intensity, Sensitivity and
Exaggeration. Print media salespeople have higher means for the CPP traits of Intuition,
Recognition Motivation, Assertiveness and Trust (Wonderlic, 1999). Table 2-4 lists the
CPP primary traits average percentile scores for the broadcast and print sample norms.
Table 2-4. Advertising Salespeople CPP Norms for Primary Traits CPP Primary Traits Broadcast
CPP Norms
Print CPP Norms
Emotional Intensity 51.00 49.00 Intuition 38.00 52.00 Recognition Motivation 44.00 49.00 Sensitivity 71.00 67.00 Assertiveness 63.00 70.00 Trust 62.00 69.00 Exaggeration 66.00 47.00 (Wonderlic, 1999, p. 103)
Wonderlic CPP Study
Several case studies have been conducted on the CPP and sales performance.
According to Wonderlic (1999), a study was conducted in order to examine the
relationships among the CPP scores, sales performance and job tenure. Job tenure was
the number of months each salesperson was employed, and sales performance was
measured through total sales commissions divided by number of months working. This
study tested 124 insurance agents within the U.S. from an insurance company
(Wonderlic, 1999).
In order to analyze the data, a correlation was tested based on the CPP scores, job
tenure and performance. Multiple regression analysis checked the statistical significance
of the correlations between high accuracy CPP scores and sales performance, and another
regression analysis tested job tenure as an independent variable (Wonderlic, 1999).
29
The Wonderlic (1999) study’s results showed that a significant relationship
between high accuracy CPP scores and sales performance existed. The regression
analysis found a significant relationship between sales performance and the seven
primary CPP traits (r=.38, p<.01). For high accuracy scores, the CPP traits explained
almost 15% of sales performance variance. Thus, high accuracy CPP scores were
positively related to sales performance. The results propose that companies should
consider how accurately personality tests measure traits. Moreover, job tenure was
shown to be predictive of job performance (Wonderlic, 1999).
Hypotheses
After assessing the information gathered during the literature review, it can be
concluded that literature on the important characteristics of successful advertising
salespeople needs to be updated (Bichard & Chambers, 2006). Further, although the CPP
was previously found to be a reliable and valid tool for testing general salespeople, the
CPP’s ability to test advertising sales representatives’ needs to be studied further.
Wonderlic’s ability to identify important characteristics of successful versus unsuccessful
advertising salespeople needs to be studied (Wonderlic, 1999). Thus, this has developed
a basis for research opportunities of the following hypothesis (H1):
H1: The Wonderlic CPP is an appropriate tool for identifying successful advertising sales representatives.
H1 suggests that as the CPP was found to be an appropriate tool for testing general
salespeople, it should also be an appropriate test for identifying the characteristics of
successful advertising salespeople. If there are significant relationships, the hypothesis
will be supported.
30
Chapter Summary
Success in sales can be measured through sales volume, sales manager evaluations,
and salesperson self-evaluations (Levy & Sharma, 1993). Among the various factors
affecting success, personality characteristics such as assertiveness, ego drive and empathy
have been suggested to be important (Rasmusson, 1999). In order to find top performing
salespeople with similar traits, companies have turned to employee assessments
(Borofsky, 1993). The Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) is a tool for
testing salespeople because it measures most traits of successful salespeople, and it is
reliable and valid (Wonderlic, 1999).
Although some literature discusses the Wonderlic CPP’s reliability and validity for
testing general salespeople, no literature discusses whether or not the CPP is a good tool
for testing successful versus unsuccessful advertising sales representatives (Wonderlic,
1999). Further, previous research on the CPP’s ability to test advertising salespeople was
conducted on a small sample (Wonderlic, 1999). Thus, this thesis further examines the
Wonderlic CPP’s ability to identify the important characteristics of successful advertising
sales representatives.
31
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
Wonderlic’s Involvement in the Study
This study involved a cooperative effort with Wonderlic. A Research Agreement
for Wonderlic Assessments application was submitted to Wonderlic. Wonderlic
approved the application because it was an independent research study on the Wonderlic
Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP). All CPP questionnaires and reports were
donated, free of costs, to this study under certain terms and conditions.
The research agreement specified that all donated test materials and test scores
must be used as described in the application, and individual test scores are not allowed to
be used outside of this study. Wonderlic did not make endorsements on the study’s
design, implementation, analysis or conclusions. After the study’s participants completed
the CPP, all responses were sent to Wonderlic. Wonderlic may use the returned tests and
scores for inclusion in normative and item analysis research, while maintaining the
information in strict confidence. Within one month after the study is completed, a copy
of the study’s results, analyses, conclusions and raw date file must be sent to Wonderlic
in order to avoid charges for all CPP items used. A complete list of the terms and
conditions are presented in Appendix B.
With agreement of all terms and conditions, Wonderlic provided a maximum of 90
CPP questionnaires in the online format. Wonderlic provided a username and password
for access to the CPP online testing system. Through this system, an e-mail invitation for
the CPP was sent out to each participant. After the participants completed the CPP, all
32
online test sheets and scores were returned to Wonderlic via the Internet. Wonderlic then
scored the responses and sent the CPP reports to the study’s administrator via e-mail.
The administrator received a 37-page report for each completed CPP. The report
included the percentile scores for each CPP trait and did not include the raw data for the
traits.
Survey Research Method
A survey is a research method for gathering data that analyzes a sample through a
questionnaire format (Babbie, 2001). Balnaves and Caputi (2001) suggest that this type
of research is beneficial because it provides more statistical accuracy compared to other
methods. They say that the survey method provides accurate information and makes
numerical comparisons between specific groups. Another advantage of the survey
method is that it costs less and takes less time but still manages to cover all issues present
in the study (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001). Since the Wonderlic CPP questionnaire was
conducted online, the sales representatives were able to complete the CPP conveniently
and quickly.
Online data collection method conducts primary research through the Internet
(Hewson, Yule, Laurent, & Vogel, 2003). Best and Krueger (2004) presents a few major
advantages of the online data collection method. First, online questionnaires transmit and
receive information more quickly and conveniently compared to traditional
communication modes. Another advantage of online data collection is that it provides
access to millions of potential research participants. Best and Krueger (2004) also say
that online data collection facilitates alternative question formats and various sequencing
options. Last, conducting a survey online is less expensive compared to other methods
(Best & Krueger, 2004).
33
A mixture of both paper and online survey methods was chosen because it was the
most feasible way to gather responses from the participants. A total of three
questionnaires were used in this study and two are presented in Appendix A. In order to
study the advertising sales representatives, a paper-pencil questionnaire about their job
and the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) online was administered to
them. When this study’s administrator asked whether the Wonderlic CPP online or on
paper was preferred, most sales manager participants said that an online questionnaire
would be easiest for their sales representatives. With the sales representatives all being
full-time workers, the Wonderlic CPP online questionnaire allowed them to complete the
study in less than 20 minutes. Participants were able to provide their responses quickly
without having to leave their offices.
The second sales representative’s questionnaire was one-page about their job (see
Appendix A). This questionnaire was in paper format and attached to the informed
consent form which they had to sign as well. The purpose of having two questionnaires
for the sales representatives was to measure each advertising salesperson’s level of
success and his/her personality characteristics. The instruments required participants to
answer questions which reflected their levels of success and characteristics of their
personalities. The responses from both questionnaires allowed for an evaluation of the
Wonderlic’s ability to identify characteristics of advertising salespeople likely to lead to
success in the profession.
In order to study advertising sales managers, a paper questionnaire tested
advertising sales managers’ perceptions of the performance level and personality
characteristics of advertising sales representatives whom they supervise (see Appendix
34
A). The relationship between the sales managers’ opinions and the Wonderlic CPP
results was determined. A paper questionnaire was given to the sales managers because
they had to fill out one questionnaire for each sales representative on staff. The paper
survey method allowed the sales managers to quickly fill out all questionnaires at once.
Operational Definitions
Independent Variables
The independent variables were the different Wonderlic characteristics: Primary
Traits- Emotional Intensity, Intuition, Recognition Motivation, Sensitivity, Assertiveness,
Trust and Exaggeration, and Secondary Traits- Ego Drive, Interpersonal Warmth,
Stability, Empathy, Objectivity, Independence, Aggressiveness, Decisiveness, Tolerance
and Efficiency.
The Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) was used to
operationalize the independent variables. The CPP operationalized the independent
variables through 88 True/False questions. Each individual’s raw scores were converted
into percentiles of each characteristic, which were compared with thousands of applicants
and employees who have previously completed the CPP. The percentiles ranged from 0
to 100%. To explain, if a respondent received the percentile score of 50, 50% of the
respondent’s peers scored higher than them and 50% scored lower than them (Wonderlic,
1999).
Dependent Variables
This study looked at the dependent variable of success, measured through five
success indicators: the number of accounts gained, number of accounts lost, total sales
dollars for 2005, total sales dollars for 2006, and sales manager rating. Two questions in
the sales manager questionnaire were used to create the success indicator of “sales
35
manager rating.” One question asked sales managers to rate each salesperson in
comparison to others on staff as either needing improvement or consistently exceeding
expectations on a 1 to 10 scale, with 1=“needs improvement” and 10=“consistently
exceeds expectations.” The second question asked the sales managers to rank the
salesperson in comparison to other salespeople on a 1 to 10 scale, with 1=“low” and
10=“high.” These two questions were summed and divided by two to produce the sales
manager’s success indicator.
For each success indicator, the sales representatives were placed in a performance
level group of either “high,” “medium,” or “low” performers. The 20/80 rule was used to
divide the sales performance level groups. This rule states that 20% of a salesperson’s
customers will be responsible for 80% of a salesperson’s sales (Trivers, 1996). With this
rule in mind, the groups were made up of approximately 20% “high,” 80% “medium,”
and 20% “low” performers. The sales representatives whom fell in the “high”
performance level group were considered to be top performers, while sellers in the “low”
group were less successful.
For the success indicator of “accounts lost,” salespeople in the “high” performance
group lost the least amount of accounts, totaling 1 or less accounts, during their last
annual sales period. Salespeople in the “medium” performance group lost 2 to 15
accounts during their last annual period, while salespeople in the “low” performance
group lost the highest amount of accounts, losing 16 or more.
For the success indicator of “accounts gained,” salespeople in the “high”
performance group gained the most accounts, adding 100 or more, during their last
annual sales period. Salespeople in the “medium” performance group gained 7 to 99
36
accounts during their last annual period, while salespeople in the “low” performance
group gained the least amount of accounts of 6 or less.
For the success indicator of “total sales 2005,” salespeople in the “high”
performance group had a high 2005 total sales dollars of $100,000 or more. Salespeople
in the “medium” performance had total sales dollars equaling $50,000 to $99,999, while
the “low” performance group’s sales were less than $50,000.
For the success indicator of “total sales 2006,” salespeople in the “high”
performance group had the highest 2006 total sales dollars of $80,000 or more.
Salespeople in the “medium” performance group had total sales dollars equaling $50,000
to $79,999, while the “low” performance group’s sales were less than $50,000.
For the success indicator of “sales manager rating,” salespeople in the “high”
performance group earned a high combined rating that ranged from 8.5 to 10.
Salespeople with “medium” performance received a sales manager rating of 6 to 8, while
salespeople in the “low” performance group received a rating less than 6. Table 3-1
shows in detail how each success indicator’s performance level groups were divided.
37
Table 3-1. Success Indicators and Performance Level Groups Success Indicators
Performance Level Groups
Accounts Lost (n=66)
High: 0-1 Med: 2-15 Low: ≥16
Accounts Gained (n=66)
High: ≥100 Med: 99-7 Low: 6-0
Total Sales 2005 (n=52)
High: ≥$100,000 Med: $99,999-$50,000 Low: <$50,000
Total Sales 2006 (n=53)
High: ≥$80,000 Med: $79,999-$50,000 Low: <$50,000
Sales Manager Rating (n=67)
High: ≥8.5 Med: 8-6 Low: <6
Study Design
Participants
Data was gathered from salespeople and their sales managers from various print
and broadcast media companies from the Southeast U.S. The participants were gathered
through a convenience sample method. Convenience sampling means that participants
are chosen based on their accessibility and convenience (Davis, 1997). A total of 84
participants, both male and female were recruited, 67 were advertising sales
representatives and 17 participants were sales managers. Table 3-2 presents the number
of sales representatives that belonged to each sales manager.
Table 3-2. Sales Managers and Representatives Media Type Sales Managers
# % Sales Representatives # %
Television 3 17.65 14 20.89 Radio 6 35.29 21 31.34 Newspaper 5 29.41 14 20.90 Magazine 3 17.65 18 26.87 Total 17 100.00 67 100.00
38
The sales manager sample included 70.59% males and 29.41% females. The 67
sales representatives included 35 advertising sales representatives who worked for a
broadcast media and 32 sales representatives who worked in print advertising sales. The
representatives ranged from the ages of 25 to 71. Fifty-five percent of the respondents
were male and 45% were female. The sample’s ethnicity report was made of 86.6%
Caucasian, 6% African-American, 3% Hispanic, and 4.5% other. The participants
voluntarily completed the study and received no form of compensation.
The Study
Both sales managers and sales representatives signed an informed consent form.
This form ensured that participants were provided with all the information needed to
decide whether or not to participate in the study. The informed consent forms were
approved by the University of Florida’s Internal Review Board (see Appendix C).
The study was conducted between the dates of June 19, 2006 to June 30, 2006. The
sales representatives were allotted 20 minutes to complete their questionnaires, and the
sales managers were given approximately 5 minutes for each questionnaire. The sales
managers completed a questionnaire that rated individual sales representatives who work
for their company. A questionnaire for each sales representative on staff was completed.
The sales representatives first completed a paper questionnaire about their job. After
finishing this questionnaire, they were asked to complete the Wonderlic Personality
Profile (CPP) online. The sales representatives received and e-mail invitation from
Wonderlic Online Services that provided the link to the Wonderlic CPP online. The CPP
results were sent to the principal investigator via the Internet, and the principal
investigator picked up all paper questionnaires after completion.
39
Questionnaires
A total of 3 questionnaires were administered. The sales representatives completed
two questionnaires, including the Wonderlic CPP online and an additional paper-pencil
questionnaire about their job history. Sales managers completed one questionnaire,
where they provided their opinions on their sales representatives. The questionnaires
used a variety of question types, such as scales, True/False and fill in the blank. The
questions were used to assess salespeople’s characteristics and traits, as well as their level
of success in advertising sales.
Analysis
In order to analyze the questionnaires’ responses, the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 14.0 was used (SPSS, 2006). ANOVA was the main analysis
used for this study. Davis (1997) says that the purpose of ANOVA is to examine the
mean differences and variability of sample values. ANOVA separates the total
variability of a data set into different sources of variation (Davis, 1997). A one-way
ANOVA analysis was completed for each success indicator and Wonderlic characteristic,
which examined a single measure for each analysis.
To further examine the relationships among variables, a Pearson Correlation was
completed on the success indicators and Wonderlic characteristics (Cho, 2006).
Correlations help determine the relationships or associations between variables. Davis
(1997) says that this type of statistical measure has correlation coefficient values ranging
from -1 to +1. The sign of the coefficient indicates the association, with positive values
representing a positive relationship and negative values representing a negative
relationship. A positive relationship indicates that as one variable increases the other
40
variable increases as well. Conversely, a negative relationship shows how as one
variable increases the other variable decreases (Davis, 1997).
41
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS
Sample
As mentioned before, a total of 84 participants from the Southeast U.S. were used
in this study. Sixty-seven of the participants were advertising sales representatives and
the remaining 17 participants were their sales managers. The sales manager participants
were composed of 70.59% males and 29.41% females. The sales managers came from
various print and broadcast media, including television, radio, newspaper and magazine
companies.
Out of the 67 sales representatives, 35 of the advertising sales representatives
worked for a broadcast media while 32 worked in print advertising sales. The sales
representatives’ average age was 42. The sales representative sample was composed of
55.2% males and 44.8% females. In terms of ethnicity, the sample was made of 86.5%
Caucasian, 6% African-American, 3% Hispanic, and 4.5% other. Table 4-1 lays out the
sample profile of sales representatives.
Table 4-1. Sample Profile of Sales Representatives Broadcast Print Characteristics Television
# % Radio # %
Newspaper # %
Magazine # %
Total
Age 42.08 43.80 40.23 38.17 41.14 Gender:
Male 8 57.14 13 61.90 4 28.57 12 66.67 55.20 Female 6 42.86 8 38.10 10 71.43 6 33.33 44.80
Race: Caucasian 13 92.86 18 85.72 11 78.57 16 88.88 86.50
African-American 0 0.00 2 9.52 2 14.29 0 0.00 6.00 Hispanic 0 0.00 1 4.76 0 0.00 1 5.56 3.00
Other 1 7.14 0 0.00 1 7.14 1 5.56 4.50
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Wonderlic (1999) provided CPP norms for the seven primary traits. When
comparing this sample’s means to the means of CPP norms, it is important to note that
this sample scores highest for the primary traits of Intuition and Assertiveness. This
sample is typically assertive and confident when dealing with others, and they are
thoughtful in their decision-making and problem-solving processes. On the other hand,
this sample scores lowest on average for the primary trait of Trust. Thus, this sample is
skeptical and distrusting of acquaintances because they fear that others are selfish and
dishonest. Table 4-2 compares this sample’s means to the CPP general, broadcast and
print salespeople’s norms for the seven primary traits.
Table 4-2. Sample Means and CPP Norms for Primary Traits
CPP Primary Traits Sample Means
General CPP Norms
Broadcast CPP Norms
Print CPP Norms
Emotional Intensity 50.00 59.50 51.00 49.00 Intuition 61.00 38.30 38.00 52.00 Recognition Motivation 52.00 63.70 44.00 49.00 Sensitivity 66.00 72.50 71.00 67.00 Assertiveness 73.00 57.10 63.00 70.00 Trust 44.00 59.80 62.00 69.00 Exaggeration 62.00 50.10 66.00 47.00 (Wonderlic, 1999)
To measure sales representatives’ success, the success indicators of the number of
accounts lost, number of accounts gained, total sales for 2005, total sales for 2006, and
sales manager rating were tested. As previously mentioned, each sales representative was
placed into a performance level group of either “high,” “medium,” or “low” performers.
On average, the participants lost 14.32 accounts within their last annual sales
period, placing the sample in the “medium” performance level group for accounts lost.
Likewise, the sample fell in the “medium” performance group for accounts gained,
averaging 42.18 accounts added within their last annual period. The sample is considered
43
to be “high” performers in terms of the total sales success indicator, with total sales for
2005 averaging $549,148.46 and total sales for 2006 averaging $459,078.27. Last,
participants received an average sales manager rating of 6.99, placing the sample in the
“medium” performance level group. Table 4-3 presents each success indicator group’s
mean, median and standard deviation.
Table 4-3. Success Indicators Success Indicators Mean Median Std. Dev. Performance Level
Accounts Lost (n=66) 14.32 4.00 30.99
High: 0-1 Med: 2-15 Low: ≥16
Accounts Gained (n=66)
42.18 13.00 55.28 High: ≥100 Med: 99-7 Low: 6-0
Total Sales 2005 (n=52)
549148.46 392919.00 687920.39 High: ≥$100,000 Med: $99,999-$50,000 Low: <$50,000
Total Sales 2006 (n=53)
459078.27 240000.00 517845.46 High: ≥$80,000 Med: $79,999-$50,000 Low: <$50,000
Sales Manager Rating (n=67)
6.99 7.00 1.70 High: ≥8.5 Med: 8-6 Low: <6
Next, the sample’s mean, median and standard deviation for each Wonderlic
characteristic were found (Table 4-4). The traits of Assertiveness, Exaggeration and
Sensitivity received the highest average percentile scores. Thus, this sample is typically
confident and nurturing. They also tend to over-exaggerate a favorable self-image.
Conversely, the traits of Trust and Recognition Motivation received the lowest average
percentile scores. This suggests that this sample is typically distrusting of others and
prefer private recognition.
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Table 4-4. Statistics for Wonderlic Characteristics
CPP Traits n Mean Median Std. Dev.
Emotional Intensity 67 53.31 50.00 27.85 Intuition 67 58.91 61.00 25.61 Recognition Motivation 67 49.22 52.00 29.03 Sensitivity 67 62.48 66.00 30.35 Assertiveness 67 66.85 73.00 26.09 Trust 67 49.94 44.00 29.45 Exaggeration 67 63.58 62.00 23.26 Ego Drive 67 55.63 55.00 17.39 Interpersonal Warmth 67 55.94 56.00 21.45 Stability 67 56.63 57.00 19.11 Empathy 67 57.46 57.00 15.12 Objectivity 67 51.79 52.00 14.54 Independence 67 51.76 49.00 17.83 Aggressiveness 67 54.61 52.00 14.50 Decisiveness 67 60.54 64.00 16.24 Tolerance 67 51.34 53.00 17.84 Efficiency 67 45.12 46.00 14.84
Hypotheses Testing
For this study’s hypothesis testing, one representative was deleted because he/she
had an Accuracy Index score of 1, which is considered low. As explained before, the
accuracy scores range from 0 to 10: 7 to 10 representing high accuracy, 4 to 6
representing questionable accuracy, and 0 to 3 representing low accuracy. Wonderlic
(1999) recommends not using low Accuracy Index scores because the respondents may
have been ‘faking’ their answers. Only scores ranging from 4 to 10 were used, resulting
in 66 participants out of the total 67 used in the analyses. Table 4-5 presents the
percentage of the sample that received high, questionable, or low Accuracy Index scores.
45
Table 4-5. Accuracy Index Scores
Accuracy Index Scores # of Sample
% of Sample
High Accuracy 40 59.70 Questionable Accuracy 26 38.81 Low Accuracy 1 1.49
SPSS 14.0 was used to analyze the data. Hypothesis 1 (H1) was tested using
ANOVA analyses. Correlations were also completed to see if variables were related. As
mentioned before, the hypothesis is as follows:
H1: The Wonderlic CPP is an appropriate tool for identifying successful advertising sales representatives.
Hypothesis Results
In order to test the hypothesis, a one-way ANOVA analysis was completed for each
success indicator and Wonderlic Characteristic. This allowed for the testing of mean
differences and the examining of variability of sample values (Cho, 2006). The first
ANOVA test ran was for the “accounts lost” group (Table 4-6). The dependent variable
(DV) of success measured through the number of accounts lost was divided into the
“high,” “medium,” and “low” performance level groups, and the independent variable
(IV) was the sample’s Wonderlic characteristic percentile scores for each trait tested. By
using these variables, the differences between performance level groups in terms of the
Wonderlic percentiles could be examined.
The analysis showed that the Wonderlic percentile scores among the “high,”
“medium,” and “low” groups did not differ significantly among the groups across the 17
Wonderlic traits. The Wonderlic CPP did not differentiate advertising salespeople with
different degrees of “accounts lost.”
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Table 4-6. Wonderlic Characteristics by Accounts Lost Groups
CPP Traits High (n=15)
Med. (n=39)
Low (n=11)
Total (n=65) Sig.
Emotional Intensity 44.47 57.97 50.73 53.63 NS Intuition 52.60 60.00 64.00 58.97 NS Recognition Motivation 53.60 49.13 47.18 49.23 NS Sensitivity 67.93 62.82 53.91 62.49 NS Assertiveness 72.00 63.59 73.73 67.25 NS Trust 47.33 48.62 52.00 48.89 NS Exaggeration 60.53 63.90 62.09 62.82 NS Ego Drive 53.67 56.87 55.45 55.89 NS Interpersonal Warmth 57.40 55.44 52.64 55.42 NS Stability 63.87 52.59 61.27 56.66 NS Empathy 54.93 57.79 58.36 57.23 NS Objectivity 52.53 50.56 57.00 52.11 NS Independence 50.33 50.87 57.64 51.89 NS Aggressiveness 53.00 55.23 57.00 55.02 NS Decisiveness 61.13 58.77 65.73 60.49 NS Tolerance 56.53 48.72 51.09 50.92 NS Efficiency 45.33 45.28 45.18 45.28 NS
To test the significance of the “accounts gained” success indicator, a one-way
ANOVA analysis was completed (Table 4-7). This analysis also showed that there were
no significant differences among the “high,” “medium,” and “low” groups across the
Wonderlic characteristics. The Wonderlic percentile scores among the performance level
groups were not significantly different. The Wonderlic CPP did not differentiate
advertising salespeople with different degrees of “lost gained.”
Table 4-7. Wonderlic Characteristics by Accounts Gained Groups
CPP Traits High (n=14)
Med. (n=37)
Low (n=14)
Total (n=65) Sig.
Emotional Intensity 49.07 57.03 46.50 53.05 NS Intuition 61.21 60.03 56.29 59.48 NS Recognition Motivation 36.86 54.59 43.43 48.37 NS Sensitivity 45.79 64.81 68.36 61.48 NS Assertiveness 60.50 64.11 77.21 66.15 NS Trust 48.43 47.89 50.50 48.57 NS Exaggeration 69.43 59.95 64.71 63.02 NS
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Table 4-7. Continued Ego Drive 48.79 58.11 53.50 55.11 NS Interpersonal Warmth 46.93 56.08 59.07 54.75 NS Stability 55.57 53.32 65.43 56.42 NS Empathy 54.14 58.08 57.71 57.15 NS Objectivity 53.93 49.81 55.86 52.00 NS Independence 59.36 48.22 55.36 52.15 NS Aggressiveness 54.00 54.86 54.86 54.68 NS Decisiveness 57.57 58.78 65.64 60.00 NS Tolerance 48.86 49.57 56.36 50.88 NS Efficiency 51.57 42.92 46.79 45.62 NS
The results for the “total sales” success indicators yielded similar results. Both
analyses for total sales 2005 (Table 4-8) and total sales 2006 (Table 4-9) showed no
significant differences among the groups across the Wonderlic traits.
Table 4-8. Wonderlic Characteristics by Total Sales 2005 Groups
CPP Traits High (n=7)
Med. (n=37)
Low (n=8)
Total (n=52) Sig.
Emotional Intensity 47.29 58.84 59.00 57.31 NS Intuition 61.43 58.05 54.88 58.02 NS Recognition Motivation 30.14 47.73 57.63 46.88 NS Sensitivity 69.00 58.03 70.00 61.35 NS Assertiveness 78.71 64.22 64.00 66.13 NS Trust 42.00 49.24 41.00 47.00 NS Exaggeration 69.86 63.95 54.13 63.23 NS Ego Drive 50.71 57.32 59.88 56.83 NS Interpersonal Warmth 55.14 53.35 55.25 53.88 NS Stability 65.57 52.46 52.13 54.17 NS Empathy 58.29 55.78 55.13 56.02 NS Objectivity 57.71 51.84 49.25 52.23 NS Independence 59.57 52.89 45.50 52.65 NS Aggressiveness 56.71 56.38 55.63 56.31 NS Decisiveness 65.14 58.78 55.75 59.17 NS Tolerance 54.00 47.32 48.00 48.33 NS Efficiency 50.86 46.78 43.88 46.88 NS
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Table 4-9. Wonderlic Characteristics by Total Sales 2006 Groups
CPP Traits High (n=10)
Med. (n=34)
Low (n=8)
Total (n=52) Sig.
Emotional Intensity 42.10 58.62 54.88 54.87 NS Intuition 53.00 62.09 53.13 58.96 NS Recognition Motivation 39.90 44.79 68.13 47.44 NS Sensitivity 77.20 55.47 65.75 61.23 NS Assertiveness 68.50 65.29 60.25 65.13 NS Trust 46.30 50.94 40.00 48.37 NS Exaggeration 68.40 63.12 50.63 62.21 NS Ego Drive 48.10 56.74 59.75 55.54 NS Interpersonal Warmth 61.40 52.97 52.63 54.54 NS Stability 63.00 53.15 52.88 55.00 NS Empathy 57.30 57.56 52.88 56.79 NS Objectivity 50.40 53.50 47.63 52.00 NS Independence 50.30 55.09 42.63 52.25 NS Aggressiveness 49.50 56.82 54.25 55.02 NS Decisiveness 58.90 60.79 53.88 59.37 NS Tolerance 59.70 47.21 48.75 49.85 NS Efficiency 48.40 46.53 41.88 46.17 NS
The final ANOVA analysis tested the success indicator of sales manager rating
(Table 4-10). Similar to the previous analyses, the analysis shows that the Wonderlic
percentile scores among the “high,” “medium,” and “low” groups were not significantly
different. The Wonderlic CPP did not differentiate advertising salespeople with different
degrees of “sales manager ratings.”
Table 4-10. Wonderlic Characteristics by Sales Manager Rating Groups
CPP Traits High (n=13)
Med. (n=39)
Low (n=14)
Total (n=66) Sig.
Emotional Intensity 56.69 56.49 42.07 53.47 NS Intuition 66.38 57.62 57.71 59.36 NS Recognition Motivation 46.38 49.05 49.57 48.64 NS Sensitivity 66.77 57.23 70.79 61.98 NS Assertiveness 57.62 69.18 66.93 66.42 NS Trust 45.23 50.33 50.00 49.26 NS Exaggeration 63.62 63.46 62.57 63.30 NS Ego Drive 54.31 57.79 50.00 55.45 NS
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Table 4-10. Continued Interpersonal Warmth 55.77 53.49 60.14 55.35 NS Stability 50.23 56.26 62.21 56.33 NS Empathy 61.08 55.62 58.93 57.39 NS Objectivity 47.77 53.85 50.29 51.89 NS Independence 48.08 54.41 48.86 51.98 NS Aggressiveness 52.69 57.28 49.43 54.71 NS Decisiveness 56.38 61.56 60.29 60.27 NS Tolerance 49.54 48.59 58.93 50.97 NS Efficiency 43.77 46.41 43.93 45.36 NS
A Pearson’s Correlation showed that Recognition Motivation and Ego Drive were
negatively related to 2005 sales (Table 4-11). This indicates that the higher the
salesperson’s Recognition Motivation and Ego Drive scores were, the more likely the
salesperson had lower sales for 2005. In terms of Recognition Motivation, participants
with higher sales typically prefer private recognition. Even though participants with high
levels of Ego Drive are motivated toward short-term goals, their 2005 sales were more
likely to be lower. Another negative relationship existed between Tolerance and sales
manager rating. Participants with higher Tolerance levels were more likely to receive
lower sales manager ratings. The more tolerant a salesperson, the lower he/she was rated
by his/her sales manager. Overall, these results suggest that Recognition Motivation, Ego
Drive and Tolerance are not strong predictors of success.
Based on these correlation results, it can be concluded that hiring salespeople who
score high on Recognition Motivation, Ego Drive and Tolerance would be risky since
these traits are negatively associated with success. Participants who received high scores
for these traits were more likely to receive lower sales and sales manager ratings.
Conversely, hiring salespeople who scored high on Efficiency would be a safer decision
because efficiency was positively related to 2005 sales. This positive correlation
suggests that the higher a salesperson’s Efficiency score, the more likely the salesperson
50
received higher total sales for 2005. This indicates that Efficiency is a good predictor of
success.
Table 4-11. Wonderlic Characteristics’ Pearson Correlations with Success Indicators
CPP Traits Accounts Lost (n=65)
Accounts Gained (n=65)
Total sales for 2005 (n=52)
Total sales for 2006 (n=52)
Manager Rating (n=66)
Emotional Intensity NS NS NS NS NS Intuition NS NS NS NS NS Recognition Motivation NS NS -.31* NS NS Sensitivity NS NS NS NS NS Assertiveness NS NS NS NS NS Trust NS NS NS NS NS Exaggeration NS NS NS NS NS Ego Drive NS NS -.28* NS NS Interpersonal Warmth NS NS NS NS NS Stability NS NS NS NS NS Empathy NS NS NS NS NS Objectivity NS NS NS NS NS Independence NS NS NS NS NS Aggressiveness NS NS NS NS NS Decisiveness NS NS NS NS NS Tolerance NS NS NS NS -.28* Efficiency NS NS .29* NS NS
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Given all analyses’ results, H1 is not supported. The results suggest that the
Wonderlic CPP variables do not differentiate any advertising sales representatives with
different levels of success. ANOVA results found no significant relationship among the
Wonderlic characteristics and the success indicators. Further, there was no significant
difference across media types.
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CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION
Summary of Results
This thesis studied the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile’s ability to
test advertising sales representatives. The CPP’s ability to predict the characteristics of
successful versus unsuccessful advertising salespeople was examined. The results of this
study did not support H1 by suggesting that the Wonderlic CPP was not a strong tool for
differentiating advertising salespeople with different levels of success.
H1 proposed that because the Wonderlic CPP is a reliable and valid tool for testing
salespeople in general, it would also be a reliable and valid measure for advertising sales
representatives. Although the CPP has been previously known to be an effective tool for
testing personality characteristics and job fit for general salespeople and other
occupations, it may not be as useful in assessing the personality characteristics that lead
to success for advertising salespeople, specifically (Wonderlic, 1999). If H1 is supported,
there would be significant relationships between the sales representatives’ Wonderlic
characteristic percentiles and their success indicators.
The ANOVA results did not support H1. The analyses revealed that the variables
did not differentiate with different levels of success. The Wonderlic percentiles and the
success indicators had no significance. Based on findings from this sample, the
Wonderlic CPP is not a good predictor of successful advertising sales representatives’
characteristics.
52
These results could have been influenced by a couple of factors. One factor may
have been the fact that the sample was not randomized. The sample’s small size may be
another reason for insignificant results because a smaller sample size makes it more
difficult to yield significant results.
Implications
Although the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) has previously
provided evidence that CPP scores are related to the job performance of certain
occupations and general salespeople, the CPP does not differentiate successful from
unsuccessful advertising sales representatives.
Based on the results from this study’s sample, the CPP may be useful for
identifying personality characteristics, but is not good for predicting the success or the
strengths and weaknesses of advertising salespeople. Media companies should use the
CPP cautiously, while keeping in mind that the results do not accurately determine the
characteristics of successful advertising sellers. Media companies may want to consider
other employee assessment tools. Different success indicators, other than the ones used
in this study, could also help predict the success of advertising sales representatives.
Contributions to Advertising Sales Literature
The knowledge gained from this thesis benefits both advertising and sales
literature by providing evidence that the Wonderlic CPP is not an effective tool for
testing the characteristics of successful advertising salespeople. Before this thesis,
Wonderlic was only a reliable and valid tool for testing general salespeople. The results
from this thesis contribute to previous literature by discovering that the Wonderlic CPP is
not a reliable or valid tool for measuring the characteristics of advertising salespeople
that are critical determinants of success.
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Although some literature discusses psychological tests, the sales process (Shane,
1999), and personal characteristics of salespeople (Warner & Buchman, 2004), only a
few focus on the area of advertising sales. Little research has also been conducted on the
success of advertising salespeople specifically. No studies have been conducted on the
important characteristics of successful versus unsuccessful advertising salespeople in
terms of the Wonderlic CPP. Thus, this thesis adds valuable information to this
literature.
Further, Borofsky (1993) proposes that it is important to study the characteristics
that lead to success for salespeople recruiting, hiring, training and motivating.
Personality characteristics are believed to affect employee productivity, turnover and job
satisfaction. Many companies use assessment instruments as a tool for predicting job
performance and to enhance the employment processes (Borofsky, 1993). Top
performing candidates can be found through questions and responses of pre-employment
tests (Gitomer, 2003). Moreover, when sampling error and measurement unreliability are
low, psychological tests are a valid way to predict job performance and analyze employee
strengths and weaknesses. Sales tests can also be used to assess cognitive ability,
personality, and other non-demographic variables (Cron, Marshall, Singh, Spiro, &
Sujan, 2005).
Without the proper understanding of personality traits, advertising salespeople
will be unsuccessful in their careers and companies will be negatively affected by this.
By studying this topic, media companies can significantly improve their ability to
identify, hire and retain qualified job candidates. Company managers can use this
research when looking to hire the most effective advertising sales staff. This thesis
54
suggests to media companies that the Wonderlic CPP may not be the best tool to use for
identifying the characteristics of successful advertising salespeople.
Limitations
A few limitations are present in the method of this study. One limitation deals with
how the participants were gathered through a convenience sampling method. As a result
of this method, the sample was not random and too small. A sample that is not random
makes it difficult to generalize the results to the larger population, and a sample that is
too small increases the possible margin of error (Cho, 2006). Further, the fact that a
majority of the sample was Caucasian could also serve as a potential limitation. This
unequal balance of ethnic backgrounds makes the sample less representative of the
general population (Babbie, 2001).
The fact that the Wonderlic (1999) CPP scores were percentiles serves as another
limitation. Since the CPP scores were not actual raw data, variability was reduced. This
makes it more difficult to find significant differences among variables. Moreover, the
CPP results of salespeople who scored 4 to 6 Accuracy Indexes, which represent
questionable accuracy, were included in the study. This serves as a possible limitation
because questionable accuracy scores could have decreased the potential validity of the
study’s results (Wonderlic, 1999).
Future Research
Future research on this topic should improve its methodology. A larger and more
random sample should be gathered. A larger sample increases the confidence level of the
results by providing a more powerful test of the hypothesis. With a more random sample,
the results can be projected to the general population. Different success indicators or
sales tests could also be used in future research in order to better understand the
55
important characteristics that are critical determinants of success for advertising sales
representatives. Other indicators and assessments may help find a relationship between
personality characteristics and sales success. Future research should use the raw CPP
scores and should only use the responses of salespeople who have high Accuracy Index
scores.
One possible topic for future research could be a comparison between media
types. For example, the characteristics and levels of success between print versus
broadcast advertising salespeople could be studied. This type of study could look for
differences between media sales representatives from different types of media.
When conducting future research, recent trends in sales should be taken into
consideration. Sales industry trends have changed since previous studies were
conducted. For example, new selling techniques and strategies may have been developed
to improve old ones. Future research should explore the changes and improvements of
sales, in order to more clearly identify important traits.
Last, future research on advertising sales and related topics should help improve
media companies hiring, developing and training processes. Further, new instruments for
measuring potential employee’s compatibility with an advertising sales career can be
developed with this research as well. These instruments can help media companies
predict future job performance through reliable and valid assessments of advertising sales
representative characteristics.
Conclusions
In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that the Wonderlic Comprehensive
Personality Profile (CPP) may be a good tool for testing salespeople in general but is not
good for testing advertising sales representatives. The findings of this thesis are
56
beneficial to the advertising sales industry because media companies now know to use
the CPP cautiously. For future research, the study’s methodology should be improved in
order to yield more significant results and other related topics should be addressed.
57
APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRES
Sales Manager Questionnaire
Please take your time completing the following survey. We want you to provide us with the most truthful and accurate answers. 1) Sales representative’s name of whom you are evaluating: __________________________ 2) How long have you known this person? __________________________ 3) Did you hire this person (circle)?
Yes No 4) Compared to other advertising sales representatives on staff, I believe this person
Needs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Consistently Improvement Exceeds Expectations 5) Compared to other sales representatives, I would rank this person as
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 6) What combined level of physical, mental and social energy does this person have?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 7) To what degree does this person rely upon experience and feelings to make a decision?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 8) To what degree is this person motivated by a need for status, prestige or acknowledgement?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High
9) To what degree does this person demonstrate warmth and love for others? Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High
10) To what degree does this person have the ability to control the actions of others?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 11) To what degree is this person aware of what is happening in his/her surrounding world?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 12) To what degree does this person exaggerate his/her strengths or downplays weaknesses in order to appear more favorable to you?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High
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13) To what degree does this person have an ego drive? Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High
14) To what degree does this person have interpersonal warmth?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 15) To what degree is this person stable?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 16) To what degree is this person empathetic?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High
17) To what degree is this person objective? Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High
18) To what degree is this person independent?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 19) To what degree is this person aggressive?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 20) To what degree is this person decisive?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 21) To what degree is this person tolerant?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 22) To what degree is this person efficient?
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 23) Based upon your observations of this person, which of the following personality types best describes his/her sales personality (circle one)? A. Driver, a seller who is task oriented and impatient.
Drivers are characterized by a low need for close interpersonal relationships and by a high activity level. Their greatest asset is their desire to excel in competitive situations.
B. Thinker, a seller who is task oriented and patient. Thinkers are analytical and introspective and rely upon structure and procedures to
complete job duties. They have a low need for acceptance or approval and an activity level that is even-paced and consistent.
C. Motivator, a seller who is people oriented and impatient. Motivators are most easily recognized by their free-flowing, highly expressive
communication skills. They enjoy any type of social interaction and thoroughly enjoy meeting new people, exploring new places, developing new concepts, and thrive on variety and change.
D. Supporter, a seller who is people oriented and patient. Supporters are characterized by high degrees of interpersonal warmth and
patience. They are even-paced, consistent, predictable and enjoy relationships
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that are open and honest.
Thank you for your participation!
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Sales Representative Questionnaire
Please take your time completing the following survey. We want you to provide us with the most truthful and accurate answers. 1) How many accounts do you currently manage? _______ 2) Over the past 12 months, how many accounts did you lose? _______ 3) Over the past 12 months, how many new accounts have you added? _______ 4) What were your total sales dollars for…
2005? ________________ 2006? ________________
5) How many total years have you worked in media sales? _______ 6) How many years have you ever worked for the following media…
Television? ________________ Radio? ________________ Magazine? ________________ Newspaper? ________________ Other? ________________
7) What is the name of the medium for which you currently work? __________________________ 8) How many years have you worked with this current medium? _______ 9) Gender (circle): Male Female 10) Age on your last birthday: _______ 11) Race: A. Caucasian B. African-American C. Hispanic D. Other 12) Name: __________________________ Please return your completed survey to your sales manager and take the Wonderlic CPP online.
Thank you for your participation!
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APPENDIX B RESEARCH AGREEMENT FOR WONDERLIC ASSESSMENTS
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APPENDIX C IRB PROTOCOL AND INFORMED CONSENT FORMS
IRB Protocol
1. TITLE OF PROTOCOL: Characteristics of Successful Advertising Sales Representatives
2. PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR(s): Kathleen Villaruel, Master of Advertising, Student, Advertising, 2810 SW 34th St., Apt. 252, Gainesville, FL 32608, (850) 341-8108, katvilla@ufl.edu
3. SUPERVISOR (IF PI IS STUDENT): John Sutherland, 2086 Weimer, (352) 392-9172, jsutherland@jou.ufl.edu
4. DATES OF PROPOSED PROTOCOL: From June 7, 2006 To June 14, 2006
5. SOURCE OF FUNDING FOR THE PROTOCOL: None.
6. SCIENTIFIC PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION: Although some literature discusses the sales process, characteristics of salespeople and psychological tests, few literatures focus on advertising sales. There are issues and trends of advertising sales that need to be updated and some that have never been studied. This paper studies the characteristics of advertising sales representatives and those of successful sellers. The research questions and hypothesis that I will be testing are as follows:
RQ 1: What are the important characteristics that are critical determinants of success for advertising sales representatives? In other words, what is the relationship between each characteristic and success? RQ 2: Are there differences between media sales representatives, i.e. broadcast versus print, across the Wonderlic CPP indicators? RQ 3: Are sales managers’ opinions of their sales representatives predictive of the Wonderlic CPP results? In other words, do sales managers inherently know the Wonderlic CPP results? H1: The Wonderlic CPP may be good for testing salespeople in general but is not good for testing advertising sales representatives.
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7. DESCRIBE THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN NON-TECHNICAL LANGUAGE. Data will be gathered from advertising sales representatives and their sales managers, from various print and broadcast media companies. The advertising sales representatives will complete the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP), as well as a survey designed by the principal investigator online. The instruments prompt participants to answer questions which reflected their level of success and characteristics of their personalities. In order to study the sales managers, a different survey designed by the principal investigator will be administered to them. The sales manager survey will assess the relationship between the sales managers’ opinions and the Wonderlic CPP results. Sales managers will answer questions that reflect their opinions of individual sales representative’s level of success and personal characteristics. Thus, the study will consist of both the sales managers rating the sales representatives, and the sales representatives completing their own separate surveys.
8. POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND ANTICIPATED RISK. By partaking in the study, the participants will be given an aggregate report of the surveys’ results. Participants and their companies will benefit from the study’s results because they will provide information on employee personalities and job fit. Job-related strengths and weaknesses will also be assessed. Further, employee productivity and performance can increase with the help of provided management reports that suggest improved job structures and tools. The study involves no risks that can affect the participants.
9. DESCRIBE HOW PARTICIPANT(S) WILL BE RECRUITED, THE NUMBER AND AGE OF THE PARTICIPANTS, AND PROPOSED COMPENSATION (if any): I am seeking approximately 68 participants from various print and broadcast media companies around the North Central Florida area. Sixty of the participants will be advertising sales representatives, and the remaining 8 participants will be their sales managers. I will recruit them by proposing the benefits of the study first to the sales managers. All participants will be 18+. No monetary compensation will be given. The incentive provided is the aggregate report of the surveys’ results mentioned above.
10. DESCRIBE THE INFORMED CONSENT PROCESS. INCLUDE A COPY OF THE INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT (if applicable). The informed consent process allows potential research participants to receive all the information needed to help them decide whether or not to participate in the study. The process can also obtain voluntary agreement to participate in the research. (See two attached inform consent forms) Please use attachments sparingly. Please see the following attached documents: informed consent forms, sample surveys, research agreement for Wonderlic, and methods section.
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__________________________
Principal Investigator's Signature
_________________________ Supervisor's Signature
I approve this protocol for submission to the UFIRB:
____________________________
Dept. Chair/Center Director Date
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Informed Consent Form for Sales Managers
Informed Consent Protocol Title: Characteristics of successful advertising sales representatives
Please read this consent document carefully before you decide to participate in this study.
Purpose of the research study:
The purpose of this study is to determine advertising sales managers’ perceptions of the personality characteristics of advertising sales representatives whom they supervise.
What you will be asked to do in the study:
You will be asked to complete a survey that rates individual sales representatives who work for your company. A survey for each sales representative on your staff will be completed. The survey consists of 23 questions.
Time required:
Approximately 5 minutes per survey.
Risks and Benefits:
The study involves no risks that can affect the participants. You and your company will benefit from the study’s results because they will provide updated information on the characteristics of advertising sales representatives and those of successful sellers. The information gained from this study can be used as a guideline for identifying, evaluating, and improving the strengths and weaknesses of salespeople. Companies can use this research when looking to hire the most effective advertising sales staff.
Compensation:
You will not be given compensation for participating in this study.
Confidentiality:
Your identity will be kept confidential to the extent provided by law. Your information will be assigned a code number. The list connecting your name to this number will be kept in a locked file in my faculty supervisor's office. When the study is completed and the data have been analyzed, the list will be destroyed. Your name will not be used in any report.
Voluntary participation:
Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for not participating.
Right to withdraw from the study:
You have the right to withdraw from the study at anytime without consequence.
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Whom to contact if you have questions about the study:
Kathleen Villaruel, Graduate Student, Department of Advertising, PO Box 118400, Gainesville, FL 32611, (850) 341-8108, katvilla@ufl.edu.
John Sutherland, Supervisor/Department Chair, 2086 Weimer, PO Box 118400, Gainesville, FL 32611, (352) 392-9172, jsutherland@jou.ufl.edu.
Whom to contact about your rights as a research participant in the study:
UFIRB Office, Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250; ph 392-0433.
Agreement:
I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in the procedure and I have received a copy of this description.
Participant: ___________________________________________ Date: _________________
Principal Investigator: ___________________________________ Date: _________________
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Informed Consent Form for Sales Representatives
Informed Consent Protocol Title: Characteristics of successful advertising sales representatives
Please read this consent document carefully before you decide to participate in this study.
Purpose of the research study:
The purpose of this study is to examine the characteristics of advertising sales representatives and to assess Wonderlic’s ability to identify characteristics of advertising salespeople likely to lead to success in the profession.
What you will be asked to do in the study:
First, you will complete the attached survey about your job. Please return this paper survey to your sales manager after completion. After finishing this survey, you will be asked to complete the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) online. You will receive an e-mail invitation from Wonderlic Online Services that will provide you the link to the Wonderlic CPP survey online. The Wonderlic CPP survey consists of 88 True/False statements.
Time required:
Approximately 20 minutes.
Risks and Benefits:
The study involves no risks that can affect the participants. You and your company will benefit from the study’s results because they will provide updated information on the characteristics of advertising sales representatives and those of successful sellers. The information gained from this study can be used as a guideline for identifying, evaluating, and improving the strengths and weaknesses of salespeople. Companies can use this research when looking to hire the most effective advertising sales staff.
Compensation:
You will not be given compensation for participating in this study.
Confidentiality:
Your identity will be kept confidential to the extent provided by law. Your information will be assigned a code number. The list connecting your name to this number will be kept in a locked file in my faculty supervisor's office. When the study is completed and the data have been analyzed, the list will be destroyed. Your name will not be used in any report. Further, Wonderlic may use the returned CPP test sheets and test scores for inclusion in normative and item analysis research. Wonderlic will maintain the individual scores, their source, and the names of tested individuals in strict confidence.
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Voluntary participation:
Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for not participating.
Right to withdraw from the study:
You have the right to withdraw from the study at anytime without consequence.
Whom to contact if you have questions about the study:
Kathleen Villaruel, Graduate Student, Department of Advertising, PO Box 118400, Gainesville, FL 32611, (850) 341-8108, katvilla@ufl.edu.
John Sutherland, Supervisor/Department Chair, 2086 Weimer, PO Box 118400, Gainesville, FL 32611, (352) 392-9172, jsutherland@jou.ufl.edu.
Whom to contact about your rights as a research participant in the study:
UFIRB Office, Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250; ph 392-0433.
Agreement:
I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in the procedure and I have received a copy of this description.
Participant: ___________________________________________ Date: _________________
Principal Investigator: ___________________________________ Date: _________________
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Candidate, Kathleen Villaruel, attended the University of Florida for five
consecutive years. In Spring of 2005, Kathleen graduated magna cum laude with a
Bachelor of Advertising degree and a minor in business. Kathleen will complete her
Master of Advertising degree, with a minor in sales by December 2006.