Post on 31-Mar-2015
Chapters 10-12
Social Stratification and
Political Organization
Social Control
Exists to ensure a certain degree of social conformity
Some people may resist conformity
Norms Laws
Most non-state societies have a comparatively high degree of personal security…why?
Small size of the bands and villages
The central importance of domestic groups and kinship in their social organization
The absence of marked inequalities in access to technology and resources
Descent Groups and Social Organization Beyond Kin
Clans and other complex descent groups expand the basic family relationships of kin groups to provide a wider set of social structures welded together by obligations
Sources of conflict between these larger groups are numerous
Practices and institutions to mitigate these conflicts become necessary
Social Control in Small-scale Societies
In foraging societies, formal laws are rare Punishment is often through naming and
shaming Punishment is legitimized through belief in
supernatural forces Capital punishment is rare
Social Control in States
Increased specialization of tasks relating to law and order
Process is more formal and based on law Use of capital punishment
Political Anthropology
Political Anthropologists address the area of human behavior and thought related to power
Who has it; who doesn’t
Degrees of power
Bases of power
Abuses of powerPolitical and religious power
Governments
Social conflict and social control
Morality and law
Social Inequality and the Law
Critical legal anthropologists examine the role of law in maintaining power relationships through discrimination against indigenous people, women and minorities.
Why Kin Groups Aren’t The Answer to All Our Problems
Optimal Size of Kin Groups is small, about 200 people
Kinship ethics don’t always levy adequate sanctions (there are social reasons against it)
Long-term and immediate problems in relationships between kin groups are difficult to solve: Intermarriage is the only really permanent “glue”
Social Conflict
Interpersonal conflict Banditry Feuding Ethnic conflict Revolution Warfare Nonviolent conflict
Interpersonal Conflict
Covers verbal arguments to murder Between neighbors over resources or territory,
e.g. Gwembe Valley Between neighbors over dogs, e.g. middle-
class Americans
Feuding
The most universal form of inter-group aggression
Based on revenge Some cultures experience more feuding
because of economic change
SHORTAGE OFFEMALES
RAID TO CAPTUREWOMEN
FIERCE MALE BABIES FAVORED
FEMALE INFANTICIDE
POLYGYNY
The WaiteriComplex
Yanomami
Nonviolent Conflict
Gandhi– Non-violent resistance– Public fasting– Strikes– Celibacy
Weapons of the weak– Foot dragging, desertion, false compliance, humor
Mobilizing Public Opinion
Within Kin-Based systems disputes are settled on the basis of who has the most kin support (public opinion)
The general principle of dispute settlement, and leadership, is mobilization of public opinion
How far claims can be pressed depends on an individual’s willingness to suffer social penalties and his/her social backing
Example: Inuit Song Contests
Social Control of Behavior
Ways societies deal with abnormal behavior and conflict:
Gossip and ridicule Fear of witchcraft accusations Avoidance Supernatural sanctions
Law
Law is found in every society. In complex societies, functions of law belong to
legal institutions, such as courts. Law addresses conflicts that would otherwise
disrupt community life.
Aboriginal Youth and Justice
• More likely to receive the most severe outcomes from criminal justice decision-makers than white youth
• More likely to be classified as “undependable”
• More likely to appear in court rather than Children’s Aid Panels
- Gale 1990
Politics and the Social Contract
Social Contract - a public contract where people agree to band together for some purpose - often highly structured in the realm of what we call "politics“
Politics - the spatial aspect of social force
Institutions control the use of force within a territorial framework (chiefdom or state)
Politics
The power to bring about results through authority or influence– through possession of forceful means
A human universal?– No, politics only emerged with increase in private
property– Yes, there is no boundary between how kinship and
political organizations organize power
In Political Analysis You Must Understand:
the territorial extent and organization of the society how space and resources are divided the social system through which force is allocated
to and by different individuals playing different roles
how that system is viewed by those living in it the institutional control of force by warfare: the
maintenance of territory from outsiders the institutional control of force by law
enforcement: maintenance of territory from insiders
Egalitarian Societies
No individual or group has more access to resources, power, or prestige than any other.
No fixed number of social positions for which individuals must compete.
Associated with bands and tribes.
Shamans and Public Opinion
Shamans: Part-time religious, healing, or magic specialists
Shamans may attribute forces to enemies, both within and without
Shamans may prescribe social solutions in the guise of magic
Shamans may organize the group around perceptions and supernatural commands.
Headmanship
Headmen are individuals whose opinion carries more weight than others. They lead by example
A good headman can judge the prevailing opinions and gauge his statements to them
Motivation by example is the chief tool of the headman
The Leopard Skin Chief
The Leopard Skin Chiefs are an institution among the Nuer (Sudan).
Mediate the disputes arising out of homicide Can ritually cleanse
the murderer Negotiates
compensation Curses those
who would break
the settlement
Non-kin Associations: Sodalities
Sodality: A non-kin group or association within a society organized around kinship groups
Age Grade Associations– Provides convenient way to teach youth– Allocates civic responsibilities
Single Sex Associations (often combined with other factors, e.g. age)
Agreement or Voluntary Groups– Vary widely in form – Organized for almost any purpose imaginable– Slight differences in the structures of parallel organizations
Rank Society
Institutionalized differences in prestige but no restrictions on access to basic resources.
Individuals obtain what they need to survive through their kinship group.
Associated with horticulture or pastoral societies with a surplus of food.
Associated with chiefdoms.
Stratified Society
Formal, permanent, social and economic inequality.
Some people are denied access to basic resources.
Characterized by differences in standard of living, security, prestige and political power.
Stratified Society
Economically organized by market systems (usually).
Based on intensive cultivation (agriculture) and industrialism.
Often associated with a form of political organization called the state.
Social Stratification
Achieved Status Ascribed Status
Class Race
Ethnicity
Caste
Societies place people in categories. Social groups relate differently to each other depending on their status.
Dimensions of Stratification
Power—control resources in one’s own interest.
Wealth—accumulation of material resources or access to the means of producing these resources.
Prestige—social honor or respect.
Ascribed Vs. Achieved Status
Ascribed StatusSocial position into which a person is born. (sex, race, kinship group)
Achieved StatusSocial position that a person chooses or achieves. (professor, criminal, artist)
Social Class in the United States
Status depends on occupation, education, and lifestyle.
“The American Dream,” is based on the democratic principle of equality and opportunity for all.
Social class in the United States correlates with attitudinal, behavioral, and lifestyle differences.
Caste System
System of stratification based on birth. Movement from one caste to another is not
possible. Castes are hereditary, endogamous, ranked in
relation to one another and usually associated with a traditional occupation.
Hindu Caste System
Four caste categories1. Brahmins - priests and scholars2. Kshatriyas - ruling and warrior caste3. Vaisyas - the merchants4. Shudras - menial workers and artisans5. Harijans – “untouchables”
U.S. Racial Stratification Systems
Race is constructed on the basis of skin color and presumed ancestry.
Divides people into “blacks” and “whites” ignoring the reality of the skin color spectrum.
By the 20th century, the system of race in the American south was very similar to the caste system in India.
Race Stratification in the U.S. and Brazil
Two largest multiracial societies in the Americas.
In both societies the legacy of slavery continues in the form of racial inequality.
Brazil: 45% of nonwhite families and 25% of white families live below the poverty line.
U.S.: 30% of nonwhite families and 8% of white families live below the poverty line.
Types of Social Groups
Friendship Clubs and fraternities Counterculture groups Work groups Cooperatives Activist groups
Friendship
A cultural universal
Usually between social equals
Can be gender and race segregated
Sometimes based on shared story-telling
Institutional relationships (e.g. prison)
Friendship amongst the urban poor
Clubs and Fraternities
Define membership on shared identity Can serve economic and political roles Men’s clubs featuring male-male bonding
activities are common– often involve objectification and mistreatment of
women– some US college fraternities
Counterculture Groups
Feature in industrialized societies Members desire to be identified with a special
group– youth gangs
initialization rituals a leader special clothing
– body modification groups
Work Groups
Organized to perform particular task Prominent in horticultural and agricultural
communities Often made up of
youth groups
Cooperatives
Surpluses are shared among the members One person, one vote Farmer cooperatives
– e.g. in western India Craft cooperatives
– e.g. in Panama
Activist Groups
Formed with the goal of protesting certain conditions such as political repression or human rights violations– e.g. CO-MADRES
Also formed because of concerns about personal problems– e.g. AA
Civil Society
Diverse interest groups that operate outside the government to organize aspects of life– the Church– Trade Unions– Environmental groups
“We conclude that the concept of “race” has no validity as a biological category in the human species. Because it homogenizes widely varying individuals, it impedes research and understanding of the true nature of human biological variations.”
AAA Statement on Race, 1996
Race
Types of Political Organizations
Bands
Tribes
Chiefdoms
States
Headman
King/Queen/President
Headman / Big-man
Chief
Band Societies ~ Summary
Related by blood or marriage Live together and are loosely associated with a
territory in which they forage Egalitarian
Bands
Foraging groups Comprises a small group of households Between 20 and a few hundred people Membership is flexible Leader is “first among equals” Leader has no power, only authority and
influence
Band Societies: Leadership
Decision-making is by consensus. Leaders are older men and women. Leaders cannot enforce their decisions; They
can only persuade. Sharing and generosity are important sources
of respect.
Band Societies: Social Order
Maintained by gossip, ridicule, and avoidance. Violations of norms are sins. Offenders may be controlled through ritual
means such as public confessions. Offender is defined as a patient rather than a
criminal.
Tribes ~ Summary
Members consider themselves descended from the same ancestor.
Found primarily among pastoralists and horticulturalists.
Egalitarian Leadership: Bigman
Big-Man Societies
Big Man: A local entrepreneur who successfully mobilizes and manipulates wealth on behalf of his group in order to hold feasts and enhance his status and rank relative to other leaders in the region.
He has no formal authority or power, nor does he necessarily have more wealth.
Tribal Societies
Horticulture and pastoralism dominant, sometimes limited agriculture
Comprises several bands, each with similar lifestyle, language and territory
Leadership combines both achieved and ascribed statuses
Leader resolves conflict Leader relies on authority and influence
Big-man, big-woman• Personalistic, favor-based leadership
• Heavy responsibilities in regulating internal affairs
• Often, sons of big-men are big-men too
• Common in Papua New Guinea
- Sahlins 1963, Strathern 1971
Chiefdoms ~ Summary
Allied tribes and villages under one leader More centralized and complex Heritable systems of rank Social stratification Chiefship is an “office” Achievement is a measure of success
Chiefdom Societies
Characteristics: Monumental architecture Distinct ceremonial centers Elaborate grave goods reflect high social
status Larger settlements by smaller villages Cultivators and pastoralists
Definition of a State
A formal organization of roles in which legal and military authority is vested and in which authority is considered by the members of the state to be its primary function
A special group charged with allocating authority to use physical force to achieve peace and conformance with law and custom and to maintain territorial integrity against external threats
State Societies
Central government with monopoly over the use of force.
More populous, heterogeneous, and powerful than other political organizations.
Able to organize large populations for coordinated action.
Defend against external threats.
Characteristics of States
Define citizenship and rights Maintain law and order Maintain standing armies Keep track of their citizens Have the power the tax Power to manipulate information Hierarchical and patriarchal
Political Change in States Today
Nation v. State The Kurds
Transnational Nations
Puerto Rico
Democratization Soviet Union
Women in politics Become “like men”?
Globalization
WAR
Armed conflict between groups of people who constitute separate territorial teams or political communities
Some groups seldom, if ever, war while with others it is endemic
Interpersonal violence and armed conflict are a tendency of all societies when certain internal or external pressures arise
WAR IS:
A significant factor in demographic and political change within the last 10,000 years
Attested to by a great deal of archaeological evidence worldwide
Not innate per se, but in historical terms it seems to be one of the universally recurring realities of human existence
all Hell, as General W.T. Sherman once noted
Warfare Among Hunter-gatherers
Depending on the circumstances, low-level conflict can and does occur between foragers
Yet hunter-gatherers seldom try to annihilate each other. Why?
– The loss of 2 male individuals per generation in a band of 30 represents more than 10 percent of all adult male deaths
– Small bands cannot sustain fatalities at these levels and survive.
– Protection of women from violent death is even more critical from the biological standpoint. Why?
Warfare Among Hunter-gatherers
Armed conflict between simple hunter-gatherers usually takes the form of personal feuds between individuals; typically older men who have long-standing conflicts.
Just as in other social animals, conflict between groups of hunter-gatherers is more frequent during periods of population pressure and environmental stress.
Warfare Among Sedentary Village Societies
Warfare is much more common among sedentary populations than with foragers– The more people have invested in fixed
elements in their environment the more likely they are to defend it.
– Sedentary groups cannot resolve disputes by moving off to another location.
Example: Among the Yanomami almost 33% of all male deaths and 7% of female deaths were due to armed conflict.
Why War?
War as instinct: – War is innate. – Not all societies are warlike, and most societies
only war occasionally. – There are alternatives to war which are often
chosen. – If it were deeply instinctive, the complex means
of conflict resolution and social organization would not evolve.
Why War?
War as sport and Entertainment– Martial arts, war movies, war games, guns and military
paraphernalia, are all very popular. People are fascinated with war
– In the United States the majority of people do not have any concept of what war is really about. And, in large part, some of modern warfare has been “sterilized” through the use of stand-off weaponry.
– No one who has been in direct combat views it as entertainment. As historian Stephen Ambrose puts it, it is the worst experience a human being can find themselves in.
– In the past people had to kill others with their bare hands. It was brutal, direct, and required an immense amount of courage.
– War is terrible destructive, especially to non-industrial societies. The cost in resources is very high in most cases.
Why War?
War as revenge: – This is frequently the stated motivation in
many non-state conflicts. – However, all societies have ways to circumvent
war for revenge, and all societies have ways in which the aggrieved parties can choose not to retaliate indefinitely
– So revenge may be an emic explanation, but it is not an underlying and universal cause for warfare.
Why War?
War as a struggle for Reproductive Success– The warriors get the girls, and the successful warriors
(who live, and gain prestige as well as plunder) get more of the girls. Warriors have status and are intimidating to others.
– HOWEVER, those who live by the sword usually die by the sword. Men who are aggressive warriors typically die young, and are often pre-occupied with the conflicts to the detriment of their family life.
Why War?
War as a Struggle for material benefits – In general warfare is expensive in terms of
human costs, but the larger the society the more able they are to absorb these costs.
– The immediate material gains of war may be significant despite the casualties.
– less than 1% of male deaths in Europe and the U.S. have been battlefield deaths in the last century, and that includes WWI where almost ¼ of the Entire European male population died, and WWII where over half a billion people were killed.
Why War: Conclusions
Band and village people go to war when they lack alternative solutions to conflicts related to procuring resources in response to population pressure and environmental depletion.
Chiefdoms and States go to war because it is the primary means by which the ruling elite solidifies control, gains resources, and acquires territory.