Post on 01-Jan-2016
Chapter 7Chapter 7Stratification:Stratification:
Rich and Famous—or Rich and Famous—or
Rags and Famine?Rags and Famine?
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social stratification: individuals and groups are layered or ranked in society according to how many valued resources they possess
An ongoing process of sorting people into layers, legitimated by cultural beliefs that justify inequality
The Importance of Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
The concept of stratification assumes that:People are divided into ranked categories
Desired resources are unequally distributed
Each society determines how individuals are ranked, depending on:
History
Geographic location
Level of development
Political philosophy
Decisions of those in power
The Importance of Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Prestige and Influence
Property, power, and prestige are accorded to individuals with:
Cultural capital: knowledge and access to important information
Social capital: networks with others who have influence
Individual qualities also influence cultural and social capital
Micro-Level Stratification
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Access to ResourcesIndividual status is shaped by access to resources and reinforced by the family through socialization
Our treatment by educational, religious, political, and other institutions often depends on our status, and also reinforces it
Our experiences of life are shaped by our status
Meso-Level Stratification
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Macro-level influences on stratification:
Economic systems and resources within a particular country
Position of that country within world systems of economic stratification
Macro-Level Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Micro-Level TheorySymbolic Interaction
Individuals take up social positions through socialization, in which they learn the appropriate cultural capitalCultural capital influences children’s school and home environmentsSocial positions are represented by symbols
Conspicuous consumption: displaying goods in a way that will be noticed and will earn the owner respect
Theories of Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Meso- and Macro-Level TheoriesStructural-Functional Theory
Stratification within societies is inevitable
The stratification system provides each individual with a position in the social world
The stratification system motivates individuals to carry out their roles
As a result, each individual contributes in some way to the maintenance of society
Theories of Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Structural-Functional Theory, cont.
The Davis and Moore Thesis
Some positions are more highly valued because people feel they are very important
Rewards for these positions are high because society must motivate talented individuals to undertake the necessary but difficult preparation for them
Differential rewards for positions result in unequal distribution of resources; stratification is inevitable
Theories of Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Meso- and Macro-Level TheoriesConflict Theory
Stratification is the outcome of struggles for dominance and scarce resources Individuals and groups act in their own self-interest, taking advantage of others Conflict—between those trying to hold onto existing advantages and those trying to gain new advantages—is inevitable
Theories of Stratification
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Conflict Theory, cont.
Karl Marx, an originator of conflict theory
Lived during a time of economic change which prompted him to question stratification
Described distribution of wealth in capitalist societies as based on what people can take, not what they need, want, or earn
Theories of Stratification
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Marx’s Conflict Theory, cont.Marx described two economic classes
The bourgeoisie, capitalists, or “haves”The proletariat, working class, or “have nots”
Conflict arises from struggle between classes:Capitalists control the means of production, i.e. money, materials, factories, which they use to create profits for themselvesSince members of the working class lack their own means of production, they must work for capitalists in order to earn a livingTherefore, capitalists can exploit workers in order to maintain and enlarge their profits
Theories of Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Marx’s Conflict Theory, cont.Capitalists remain in control because:
They control the norms and values of societyThey use their power to make inequality seem “fair” and justified
This system will last until:The working class develops class consciousness, or shared awareness of the causes of their low status
• They may be aided in this by intellectuals
Based on class consciousness, the working class will overthrow the bourgeoisie and create a classless society in which wealth is shared
Theories of Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Max Weber’s Conflict TheoryMax Weber, also a conflict theorist, critiqued Marx’s sole focus on economic factors. His stratification theory included power and prestige, as well as property.Recent conflict theorists argue that there are 5 social classes:
Theories of Stratification
• Capitalists• Managers • Petty bourgeoisie
• Workers• Underclass
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Meso- and Macro Level TheoriesEvolutionary Theory of Stratification
To survive people must cooperate, but conflicts occur when important decisions advantage one group over another
Valued items are always in demand but short supply; struggle over these scarce items is likely
Custom shapes the distribution of scarce resources, but after basic societal needs are met, power determines distribution of surplus
Theories of Stratification
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Evolutionary Theory of Stratification, cont. Synthesis of functionalist and conflict theories:
Structural functionalism •Talented individuals need to be motivated
Conflict theory • Individuals will attempt to control as much
wealth, power, and prestige as possible, resulting in potential conflict
•Exploitation contributes to creating inequality
Level of inequality depends on technologySome inequality is useful, too much can be harmful
Theories of Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
The micro-level:Individual Life Chances
Life chances: one’s opportunities, which depend on achieved and ascribed statuses
Important factors affecting life chances:EducationHealth, social conditions, and life expectancy
Individual Social Status
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Individual LifestyleLifestyle: one’s attitudes, values, beliefs, and behavior patterns, which depend on socialization into one’s culture and status
Factors affecting lifestyle:Attitudes toward achievementFamily life and child rearing patterns Religious membershipPolitical behaviorStatus inconsistency
Individual Social Status
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The Micro-Meso Connection:Social Mobility
Social mobility: the extent to which people move up and down in the class systemFour issues dominate analysis of mobility:
Types of social mobility
Methods of measuring social mobility
Factors that affect social mobility
Whether there is a “land of opportunity”
Social Mobility
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Types of Social MobilityIntergenerational mobility: change in status compared to parents’ status, usually resulting from education and occupational attainment
Intragenerational mobility: change in status within an individual’s life, whether up or down
Vertical mobility: movement up or down the stratification hierarchy, sometimes including a change in social class
Social Mobility
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Measuring Social MobilityTraditional method: compare the occupations of fathers and sons or daughters
There is a high level of occupational inheritanceThe higher the father’s occupation, the greater the son’s chances of occupational successThere is considerable intergenerational movement up and down the ladderSons are more likely to move up than down; daughters are even more likely to move up
Men’s and women’s occupational attainment is powerfully influenced by class origins
Social Mobility
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Factors Affecting Individual MobilityMicro-level factors
Family background, socialization, and education
Macro-level factorsNational occupational structure & economic vitalityNational population trends(Dis)advantages linked to gender and ethnicityGlobal markets and events
Many of these factors are interrelated
Social Mobility
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Is there a “land of opportunity”?Comparing mobility across cultures
It is difficult to identify opportunity-rich countries due to the complex factors that influence mobility
Opportunities for upward mobility are changing due to globalization
Manufacturing jobs are now in developing countries, leaving less-educated US workers with fewer opportunitiesThe US has high-tech jobs, providing opportunity for those from small, educated families that value individual achievement
Social Mobility
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Macro-level analysis:Major Stratification Systems
Ascribed stratification systems: individuals’ positions in society are determined by characteristics they are born with
Achieved stratification systems: individuals earn their positions through ability and effort
Stratification
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Ascribed Status SystemsCaste systems: the caste one is born into determines one’s occupation, potential marriage partners, residence, group memberships, and prestige level
An individual’s caste is recognized through clothing, speech, family name, skin color, other characteristicsIndividuals learn their caste through socializationThe most rigid ascribed status system; maintained by norms, ideologies, and social control mechanisms embedded in religious, political, and economic institutions
Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Ascribed Status SystemsEstate systems: one is born into the nobility, the political-military elites, or into the peasantry, whose labor supports the elites
Peasants receive protection and enough food to survive from the nobilityPeasants are tied to a noble’s land and are rarely able to become independent land-ownersRanks and rights are clearly spelled outThe system is bolstered by arranged marriages
Stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Achieved Status SystemsSocial class system: social class is defined by property, power, and prestige; it is officially achieved, but actually inherited in part
Property: income and assetsPower: ability to control or influence others
(Power Elite vs. Pluralism models)
Prestige: recognition, esteem, respect given those whose occupation and lifestyle are socially valued Class members share similar lifestyles, education, culture, and interaction patterns
Stratification
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Most people in the U.S. identify as “middle class,” but the middle class is shrinkingThe gap between the richest 5% and poorest 40% has increased since the 1970s Middle class wages and salaries have declined since the 1980s
Social Classes in the United States
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Poverty Determinants and Social Policy
Absolute poverty: not having sufficient resources to meet basic survival needs
Also no prestige, power, or accumulated wealth
Relative poverty: having an income below the poverty line, and an inadequate standard of living relative to others in the same country
Also poorer health, shorter life expectancy, greater infant mortality than others in the same country
Poverty
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Poverty Determinants and Social Policy
Feminization of poverty: trend in which single females, often young and with children, make up a growing proportion of those in poverty
Many poor women grew up in female-headed families or suffered economically following divorcePrevalent in and around major citiesExplained by
• Blaming the victim• Conflict perspective: poor women comprise a reserve
group of cheap, easily exploited laborers
Poverty
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Poverty Determinants and Social Policy
Social costs of povertyThe poor have lower physical and mental health, are more alienated, have higher rates of addictionFinancial cost of addressing the needs of and regulating the poorLoss of talent and abilities that the poor could contributeContradiction to cultural values of equality and upward mobility
Poverty
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Eliminating Poverty: Policy ConsiderationsMost welfare programs aim to eliminate poverty by changing the factors that perpetuate it
Requires jobs, money, altering our social institutions
Aid Programs:Women, Infants, & Children (WIC) program: nutritionHead Start: early childhood educationMedicaidMedicareFood stampsWorkfare (TANF)
Poverty
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Eliminating Poverty: Policy ConsiderationsWorkfare
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)Replaced Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), which was criticized as creating dependenceRequires individuals receiving assistance to work 20-30 hours/week or attend training/educationIssues and questions
• Are there jobs available at a “living wage”?• Voters want tax cuts, which reduce our ability to help• Prisons take public funds that could be used to fight
poverty
Poverty
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
The National and Global Digital DivideDigital divide: the gap between those with and without access to information technology.
Results from differences in socioeconomic status, minority group status, and urban versus rural residence
Individuals with insufficient computer and internet access or skills face barriers to many professions and opportunities
Public and private organizations are developing low-cost technologies that may help level the digital playing field
Macro-Level Stratification