Cells

• I can distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

• I can differentiate between plant and animal cells.

• I can identify the different organelles associated with major cell processes.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

Cell Membrane

• Outer boundary of cell

• Protects the cell

• Controls what enters and leaves the cell

• HOMEOSTASIS

Cell Wall - PLANTS

• Only found in plant cells

• Adds protection and support

• Made of cellulose.• Allows water and

dissolved substances to pass through.

ANIMAL PLANT

The Nucleus

• Controls most activities in the cell

• Contains all genetic information in the form of DNA.

Cytoplasm

• Clear fluid within cell that contains all organelles

• Moves materials throughout the cell

Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Series of folded membranes that form sacs or tubes

• Rough ER has ribosomes attached

Ribosomes

• Transports materials between the cytoplasm and nucleus

• Makes proteins in the cell• May be free in cytoplasm

or attached to ER• Proteins are vital to life-

all cells must produce them

Golgi Bodies

• Saclike membranes used for storing/ packaging of chemicals

• Cells that make saliva or mucus have many Golgi bodies

• UPS – Sorts, packages, and delivers

Mitochondria

• Energy producers

• Powerhouse of the cell

• Sausage-shaped

• Many mitochondria in muscle cells

Chloroplast – PLANTS only

Vacuoles

• Store food, water, or waste materials

• Plant cells have large vacuoles

Lysosomes

• Found in Golgi bodies

• Contain digestive enzymes to digest unwanted particles

• Help white blood cells to destroy bacteria

Cell Transport

• I can compare and contrast passive transport and active transport.

• I can predict the movement of water and other molecules across selectively permeable membranes. (hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic)

Cell Transport

Active or Passive Transport?

• Which requires ATP energy?

• Which goes with the concentration gradient?

• Which goes against the gradient?

Osmosis• Movement of

water• Across a semi-

permeable membrane

• Special case of diffusion

Passive Transport• Diffusion or

Osmosis• Going with the

gradient• No ATP energy

required* * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * *

High Conc. To Low Conc.

High to Low Concentration

Active Transport• Against the

gradient• Requires ATP• Low to High

Concentrations• Salt returning to

blood in kidneys

* * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * *

Hypotonic or Hypertonic Solutions?

• Hypotonic = “under” or low salt outside, relative to cell

• Hypertonic = “over” or high salt relative to cell

Salt waterinside cell

Tap Water

Sea water organism in fresh water……………….

• Hypotonic Solution =• Low salt concentration

outside the cell• High Water

concentration outside• Water moves?• Inside• Cell will swell up like a

HIPPO - Cell Bursts!

Tap Water

Salt Water•Inside Cell•Low Water

H20

Fresh water organismin salt water………….

• Hypertonic Solution

• Water moves?• Out of the cell• Cell shrinks

Fresh water•Inside cell=•High Water

Salt Water•High salt•Low water

H20

Isotonic

• SAME concentration – Water will move in and out at SAME rate

Cheek cells with dye

Checkpoint

• 1. What does the mitochondria do?• Cellular Respiration• 2. What is the function of the ribosomes?• Synthesize Proteins• 3. What is the function of the cell membrane?• Control what goes in and out of cell• 4. What does the Golgi do?• UPS of cell, sorts, packages, and delivers

• 5. If a cell is placed in a Hypotonic solution, which direction does the water move?

• Into cell, swell up like a HIPPO• 6. If a cell is placed in a Hypertonic solution,

what happens to the cell?• Shrinks, water moves out• 7. There are two types of transport, active

and passive. Which of the following is not an example of passive transport? Osmosis, Diffusion, Endocytosis, or facilitated diffusion

• Endocytosis is Active Transport

• 8. In muscle cells, calcium ions are pumped through channels into the ER. These ions move from low to high concentration. This is an example of which of the following: Osmosis, Diffusion, Active Transport, or Exocytosis.

• Active Transport• 9. Protein synthesis takes place on the _______________.• Ribosomes• 10. The golgi does which of the following: makes proteins,

disassembles proteins, packages and redistributes proteins, or gives the codes for making proteins.

• Packages and redistributes

Macromolecules

• I can distinguish among proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

• I can identify positive tests for carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

• Refer to Macromolecule CHART

Objectives:

• I can identify how enzymes control chemical reactions in the body.

• I can explain what happens during cell cycle.• I can compare and contrast mitosis and

meiosis.

ENZYME

• Biological Catalyst• Catalyst = speeds up the

rate of chemical reaction by LOWERING activation energy.

• Substrate or Reactants bind to active site.

• Makes reactions happen FASTER

Active SiteActive Site

A restricted regionrestricted region of an enzymeenzyme molecule which bindsbinds to the substratesubstrate.

3535

So How Do So How Do EnzymesEnzymes Work?Work?

Enzymes work by weakening weakening bondsbonds which which lowers lowers activation activation energyenergy

Activation Energy = minimum amount of energy needed for reactants (substrate) to form Products (new substance)

EnzymesEnzymes

FreeEnergy

Progress of the reaction

Reactants

Products

Activation EnergyActivation Energy

Without EnzymeWith Enzyme

Lowers ActivationEnergy

Notice Name of Enzyme

NoticeName ofSubstrate

Name of Enzyme ends with “ASE” and is named according to its job.

Reactants (Substrate)

Enzyme ChemicalReaction

Products

Enzyme

Notice Reactants (Substrate bind to enzyme where chemical reaction occurs faster because the activation energy is lowered (less energy needed than without enzyme).

The enzyme is ready to act again and does NOT become part of the Products.

Active Site

See if you can identify Enzyme, Chemical Reaction, Reactants (Substrate), Products, active site, and induced fit.

Induced Fit

But this only occurs up to the optimum temperature (usually about 98.6 o For 37o C)

The temperature at which the rate of reaction is fastest is known as the optimum temperature

When temperature increases the reaction also increases as the molecules have more kinetic energy

After the optimum temperature, the heat causes the enzyme to denature.

The enzyme changes shape and the active site no longer matches the shape of the substrate molecule

• Enzymes prefer to work at an optimum pH. Outside of its pH range the enzyme is denatured. What pH does amylase work best in? What about pepsin?

RateOf Reaction

pH

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

pepsin amylase

The activity and shape of enzymes is also affected by pH

Optimum pH

Mitosis and Meiosis

• Identify the relationship between cell growth and cell reproduction.

• Describe how meiosis is involved in the production of egg and sperm cells.

• Describe how meiosis and sexual reproduction contribute to genetic variation in a population.

Cell Cycle

• G1 = cell grows• S = DNA replication -• G2= Prepare to divide

• M= Mitosis INTERPHASE

Stages of Mitosis – 2 Diploid IDENTICAL Daughter Cells

• Prophase – Chromosomes APPEAR (condense)• Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in MIDDLE• Anaphase – Chromosomes move AWAY to opposite poles• Telophase – TWO nuclear envelopes

• Cytokinesis – Cells divides into two daughter cells• Cell Plate forms in PLANTS• Cleavage furrow in ANIMALS

Sex Cells (Gametes) from Meiosis1N (four genetically different)

EGG

4646 46464646 4646

DNA Replicates + 46

Meiosis--Sex Cell Formation 4 Haploid Cells Genetically DIFFERENT• In meiosis, there are 2 divisions of the

nucleus: meiosis I & meiosis II• Prophase I: double stranded chromosomes

and spindle fibers appear; nuclear membrane and nucleolus fade

• 3. Metaphase I: chromosome pairs (chromatids) line up– spindle fibers form and attach to centromeres

and centrioles

• 4. Anaphase I: chromotids move AWAY from matching pair

• Telophase I: cytoplasm divides and 2 cells form

• 6. Prophase II: chromatids and spindle fibers reappear

• Metaphase II: chromatids line up in the center of the cell– spindle fibers attach to centromere & centriole

• Anaphase II: centromere divides– chromosomes split and move to opposite poles

• . Telophase II: spindle fibers disappear– nuclear membrane forms around

chromosomes at each end of cell– each nucleus has half the # of chromosomes as

the original (haploid)– now there are 4 sex cells (daughter cells)

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

No DNA replication

Mitosis Meiosis

2N 1N

2 Identical Diploid Daughter Cells

4 Genetically Different Haploid Cell (Crossing Over)

PMAT PMAT x 2

Begins with 2NAsexual

Begins with 2NSexual

Meiosis

• Egg and sperm cells only carry one set of 23• Each human haploid cell is “N”• Egg and sperm combine (fertilization) to form 2N

or 46• All other chromosomes are called autosomes• Each human or animal cell has sex chromosomes

XX or XY

Photosynthesis/Cellular Respiration

• I can compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration in terms of energy transformation.

• I can differentiate between light dependent and light-independent reactions.

• I can recognize and understand the process of aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Pho

tosy

nthe

sis

(ove

rvie

w)

“Dark” Reaction

Carbon fixation

Fermentation

What happens when oxygen is not available?Glycolysis goes a different pathway.Fermentation releases energy from food

molecules without oxygen.During fermentation, cells convert NADH to

NAD+ by passing high energy electrons back to pyruvic acid.

This allows glycolysis to produce a steady stream of ATP.

Fermentation – ANAEROBIC

Lactic Acid Fermentation – reason your muscles get sore from build-up of lactic acid.

Pyruvic acid + NADH →lactic acid + NAD+

Alcoholic fermentation has a formula ofPyruvic acid + NADH → alcohol + CO₂ +

NAD+

Compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Function Energy storage Energy release

Location Chloroplast Mitochondria

Reactants CO₂ and H₂O and light

C₆H₁₂O₆ and O₂

Products C₆H₁₂O₆ and O₂ CO₂ and H₂O

Equation 6CO₂+ 6H₂O →C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

6O₂ + C₆H₁₂O₆ →CO₂ + H₂O

Genetics

• I can predict the outcome of a cross between parents of known genotype.

• I can determine the probability of a particular trait in an offspring based on the genotype of the parents and the particular mode of inheritance.

Phenotype & Genotype

• Phenotype - the way an organism looks - Physical

• red hair or brown hair

• genotype - the gene combination of an organism

• AA or Aa or aa

Word Wall

Homozygous

Heterozygous

Genotype

Phenotype

Gene

Allele

Gamete

Hybrid

True-breeding

Sex Cells – Egg and Sperm

TT or tt

Physical TraitTall

Tt

Form of gene (T or t)

2 Alleles (one from each parent that code for trait)

The actual genetic make-upTT:Tt:tt

Big Eyes are dominant = BB or BbSmall eyes = bb

Punnett square example

Alleles for Female

Alleles for male

Both parents are heterozygousYy x Yy

PossibleGenotypes of Offspring1 YY:2 Yy: 1 yyPhenotype –3:1

Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =

R R

r

r4 Rr (heterozygous)4 round100% round

RR or Rr= roundrr = wrinkled

Rr Rr

Rr Rr

Cross a homozygous Round with wrinkled

Parents are RR which is same (homozygous) alleles for dominant and rr which are same for recessive trait

In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.

The actual alleles

Physical description of trait

Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =

R r

R

r1 RR:2Rr:1rr3 Round, 1 wrinkled75% round, 25% wrinkled

RR or Rr= roundrr = wrinkled

RR Rr

Rr rr

Cross a hybrid with a hybrid

Parents are Rr which is heterozygousCLASSIC – Mendel Hybrid CrossDominant – 75%Recessive – 25%

In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.

The actual alleles

Physical description of trait

*Determine recessive trait by small number showing the trait

Independent Assortment

• Alleles separate independently during the formation of gametes.

The dihybrid crossEeTt x EeTt

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cross: TtYy x TtYy

TY

TY

Ty

Ty

tY

tY

ty

ty

Tall, yellow Tall, yellow

9 tallplants with

yellow seeds

3 tallplants withgreen seeds

3 dwarfplants with

yellow seeds

1 dwarfplant with

green seeds

Tall, yellow Tall, yellow

Tall, yellow Tall, green Tall, yellow Tall, green

Tall, yellow Tall, yellow Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, yellow

Tall, yellow Tall, green Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, green

TTYY TTYy TtYY TtYy

TTYy TTyy TtYy Ttyy

TtYY TtYy ttYY ttYy

TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy

Genotypes:

Phenotypes:

1 TTYY : 2 TTYy : 4 TyYy : 2 TtYY : 1 TTyy : 2 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 : 1 ttyyttYy

Mendel’s Peas Dihybrid Cross

Notice Phenotype Ratio9:3:3:1

Incomplete DominanceJapanese four-o-clock flowers

• Red flower plant genotype = RR• White flower plant genotype = WW• Pink flower plant genotype = RWAppear blended. Incomplete, not Full

Strength.

Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =

R R

W

W4 RW4 Pink100% Pink

RR = RedWW = whiteRW = Pink

RW RW

RW RW

Cross a Red flower with a White Flower

Parents are RR for red and WW for white. Both are homozygous or true breeding.

In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.

The actual alleles

Physical description of trait

Co Dominance

Roan Cow

FULL Strength

RR x WW = RW orRR X R’R’ = RR’

NOTE: Alleles can be represented different ways. RR for Red, WW for White,RW for Roan or RR for Red, R’R’ for white, and RR’ for Roan. Let’s look at a Punnett Square with both examples.

Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =

R W

W

W2 RW, 2 WW2 Roan, 2 White50% Roan, 50% White

RR = Red cowWW = white cowRW = Roan Cow

RW WW

RW WW

Cross a Roan cow with white cow. Co-Dominance

Parents are RW for Roan which is heterozygous WW which is homozygous for White

In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.

The actual alleles

Physical description of trait

Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =

R R’

R’

R’2 RR’, 2 R’R’2 Roan, 2 White50% Roan, 50% White

RR = Red cowR’R’ = white cowRR’ = Roan Cow

RR’ R’R’

RR’ R’R’

Cross a Roan cow with white cow. Co-Dominance

Parents are RW for Roan which is heterozygous WW which is homozygous for White

In a Punnett square, theAlleles always move to squares as shown.

The actual alleles

Physical description of trait

Multiple Alleles

• When more than two alleles (form of gene) contribute to the phenotype.

• Human blood types are an example• There are three possible alleles: A,B, and O• Both A and B are dominant over O.• O is recessive • AB is an example of Co-Dominance

6 different genotypes, 3 different Alleles

• IAIA

• IAi• IAIB

• IBIB

• Ibi• i i Type OType O

Type ABType AB

Type A - 2 possible genotypes

Type B – 2 possible genotypes

Genotype = Phenotype = Probability =

IA i

IB

IB

IAIB, IBi2 AB, 2 B50% AB, 50% B

A = IAIA, IAiB= IBIB, IBiAB =IAIB O = ii

IAIB IBi

IAIB IBi

Cross a heterozygous type A with homozygous type B

Punnett square theAlleles always move to squares as shown.

The actual alleles

Physical description of trait

Polygenic traits• Traits controlled by two or more

genes.• Lots of variation in trait.• Examples:

–Human height,eye and skin color

Figure 11.17

Skin Color

Autosomal and Sex-Linked Traits

• Autosomal - Traits controlled by genes on chromosomes 1 -22.

• Sex-Linked – Traits controlled by the X chromosome or the Y chromosome.

• Most often sex-linked traits are on the X chromosome.

• Let’s look at some of examples and work together.

Genotype = Phenotype =

Probability =

Xn Y

XN

XnXNXn,XnXn,XNY,XnY2 Females, 1 Normal, 1 Color-blind2 Males, 1 Normal, 1 Color-blind50% Colorblind

Female = XXMale = XYNormal = N, color-blind = n

XNXn XNY

XnXn XnY

Cross a heterozygous female with a colorblind male

The actual alleles

Physical description of trait

Work like any other Punnett Square. Remember no letter on the Y.The trait is connected to the X!

Test Your Knowledge of Punnett Square

• http://www.biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/geneprob.htm

Punnett Squares Monohybrid & Dihybrid Crosses

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Cross: TtYy x TtYy

TY

TY

Ty

Ty

tY

tY

ty

ty

Tall, yellow Tall, yellow

9 tallplants with

yellow seeds

3 tallplants withgreen seeds

3 dwarfplants with

yellow seeds

1 dwarfplant with

green seeds

Tall, yellow Tall, yellow

Tall, yellow Tall, green Tall, yellow Tall, green

Tall, yellow Tall, yellow Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, yellow

Tall, yellow Tall, green Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, green

TTYY TTYy TtYY TtYy

TTYy TTyy TtYy Ttyy

TtYY TtYy ttYY ttYy

TtYy Ttyy ttYy ttyy

Genotypes:

Phenotypes:

1 TTYY : 2 TTYy : 4 TyYy : 2 TtYY : 1 TTyy : 2 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 : 1 ttyyttYy

Punnett Squares

• Practice crossing different genotypes.• Notice patterns• True breeding and true breeding• TT x tt• All Tt 4:0 - phenotype• Hybrid x Hybrid = Tt x Tt• 3:1 – phenotype

Scientific Inquiry

• I can read graphs and charts• I can determine appropriate tools and

recognize that the electron microscope is used to examine details.

What MUST occur during cell cycle to ensure proper division of

chromosomes?

DNA must replicate

Type of consumer a mushroom is.

decomposer and heterotroph

Centrioles are found in (plant or animal cells) and are used for cell division

animal cells

Two molecules that store energy for longer than an hour.

Carbohydrate and lipid

What type of transport is exocytosis and what does it do?

active transport and it moves ions from inside to OUTSIDE

Powerhouse of the cell and location of aerobic respiration

mitochondria

Amino acids are building blocks of what macromolecule

proteins

Prokaryotic cells lack these

nucleus and organelles

In muscle cells, calcium ions are pumped through channels from

LOW to HIGH concentration using what?

active transport

Protein synthesis occurs on these.

ribosomes

What the Golgi apparatus does.

package and redistribute proteins?

Benedicts solution turns orange-brown in presence of what

macromolecule?

carbohydrate or glucose or sugar

A cell placed in salt water will gain or lose water causing it to swell or

shrink?

lose water and shrink because it is in a Hypertonic solution?

Hypo = Hippo – swells, move inIso = equal = moves in and out at

same rate

Cell structure found only in plants and location of photosynthesis

chloroplast

Role of enyzme in chemical reaction.

lower activation energy thus increasing rate of chemical reactions

Name three types of passive transport.

Diffusion (high to low concentration), osmosis (diffusion of water, and

facilitated diffusion (using protein channel or carrier.

Proper order of mitosis.

Pro, Meta, Ana, Telophase

Forms between plant and animal cells between telophase and

cytokinesis.

cell plate for plants and cleavage furrow for animals

Step that follows Krebs cycle in aerobic respiration?

ETC or Electron Transport Chain the ETC produces the MOST ATP inside

of mitochondria where aerobic respiration takes place.

Type of respiration when oxygen is absent or LOW

What is anaerobic respiration?

Form of chemical energy used in cellular respiration

glucose

Cell that undergoes meiosis and starts with 46 chromosomes will end with 4 cells with _______. While cell

that undergoes mitosis with 46 chromosomes will end up with 2

cells with _______

23 or half for meiosis and 46 which is identical for mitosis

Energy transfer molecule of cell.

ATP

Pathways for anaerobic respiration.

• Glycolysis, Lactic Acid fermentation, Alcoholic fermentation

Stage of mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes,

therefore becoming visible.

Prophase

Macromolecule that has Nitrogen as well as Carbon,

Hydrogen, and Oxygen

protein

Heterozygous Genotype

• Tt• Heterozygous means DIFFERENT• Homozygous – TT or tt means same alleles for

genotype

Chemical equation for Photosynthesis

• 6 CO2 + 6 H2O with sunlight yields C6H12O6 + 6O2