CASE STUDIES: SOUTH AFRICA

The Destruction of Apartheid:

from Oppression to Democracy

1961 – 1994

‘Grand Apartheid’

1960s: ‘Grand Apartheid’

- government escalated ‘group areas’, other racially based legislation to ‘separate development’

- established ‘homelands’ (Bantustans), each specific to a single ‘tribe’, each administered locally

- ‘Grand Apartheid’: homelands to become independent ‘countries’

‘Grand Apartheid’

Verwoerd : ‘Apartheid would bring equal rights to all – each in their own part of the country’

[See also ‘Bantustans Map’ (interactive), in Resources]

Resistance: ANC - MK

ANC officially turned to violence

- formed armed wing ‘Umkhonto we Sizwe

(MK – ‘Spear of the Nation): Sharpeville had

proved there was no choice!

Resistance: ANC -- MK

Resistance: Government Response

Government Response:

- 1964: Mandela, other ANC leaders captured, tried for treason

- imprisoned on Robben Island

- ANC labeled Communist, Mandela ‘terrorist’:

challenged former, admitted latter as

‘necessary’

- ‘stage’: publicizing ANC battle, ideology

Prison at Robben Island

Nelson Mandela spent 25 years here, 1964-1989

Prison at Robben Island

Nelson Mandela in Prison (n.d.)

Resistance: Battle in Exile

Battle against Apartheid ‘in exile’ began:

-logistical problems, difficult to physically move ‘soldiers’ in and out of South Africa

- initial bases Zambia; after 1975 also in Mozambique

- sought financial support in West: difficult

many accepted profiling of ‘communist’

- still: ANC more organized, more successful than PAC

Homelands-to-Indepence

1970s: ‘Grand Apartheid” at its climax: - ‘homelands-to-independence’: failure

- more than 3 million Africans would have become ‘foreigners’ in South Africa

- rights only in ‘homeland’ with ‘tribal’ passport

- living in ‘re-settlement villages’

Re-Settlement Village, KwaZulu

Homelands-to-Independence

- only Transkei,

Ciskei, Venda, Bophuthatswana

‘accepted’

- Israel only international country to recognize them as ‘independent’

Homelands-to-Independence

- level international investment in industry (e.g. Bata shoes) still below desired level

- shortages of labour in cities increasing problem

Resistance: Black Conciousness

Key Changes: ‘Black Consciousness’

- emergence first generation to pass through

‘Bantu Education’ (from 1950s/60s)

- not accepting life of servitude: formed SASO

- leader Stephen Biko: articulated powerful

ideology ‘Black Consciousness’

- ‘black’ included Africans, Asians, Coloureds

Resistance: Black Consciousness

“…Change the name and the story applies to you.

The dignity of the Black Man has been restored in

Mozambique, and so shall it be here. Black must

rule. We shall drive them [‘whites’] to the sea].

Long live Azania. Revolution!! [Samora] Machel

will help! Away with Vorster Ban! We are for Afro

black Power!! Viva Frelimo. Power !!! We shall

overcome.” [Price, Aparthed State in Crisis, 52]

[Audio Clip: compare interview with Steve Biko, BBC Story of

Africa]

Resistance: Black Consciousness

- Biko ‘banned’ 1973

- by 1975: SASO banned from most campuses

- 1975-6: Biko arrested, tried

- used trial to spread message within South

Africa and internationally: ‘Africans’ need to

reject idea that all that is good, is ‘white’

- Need psychological liberation [echoed Fanon, Algeria – famous book Black Skin, White Masks.

see Resources]

Biko and Black Consciousness

“I think basically Black Consciousness refers itself to the black man and to his situation, and I think the black man is subject to two forces in this country.

He is first of all oppressed by an external world through institutionalized machinery, through laws that restrict him from doing certain things, through heavy work conditions, through poor education, these are all external to him and secondly, and this we regard as the most important, the black man in himself has developed a certain state of alienation, he rejects himself, precisely because he attaches the meaning white to all that is good…” [Steve Biko, in court, September 1974; BBC Story of Africa]

Resistance: “BIKO”

- Death in detention 1977 sparked outrage

around world

- a new generation was willing to die for

freedom: Steve Biko was first of many

to follow!

Resistance: “BIKO”

Resistance: “BIKO”

BC poster (above)

Biko’s Grave

(right)

Resistance: SOWETO

Key Changes: SOWETO 1976

- government reinforced necessity of

learning/instructing in Afrikaans in all schools

- many had been teaching in English, now

forced to add Afrikaans: problem for teachers

- Students: Afrikaans seen as language of

‘oppressors’ (and it was difficult)

Resistance: SOWETO

1976 SOWETO:

- in township SOWETO, hundreds school

children protested

- fired on by police, several deaths

- reactions from other students, township

residents: government buildings burned

[Listen to Audio Clip ‘SOWETO’ 1976, Readings ]

Resistance: SOWETO

- protests spread throughout country: tear-gas,

bullets in response

- world looking on

- government response ‘why do they walk with

upraised fists? Surely this is a sign of the

Communist Party!’[listen to Audio clip]

- 174 killed at SOWETO, hundreds more over

following months: government did not

back down

Resistance: SOWETO

- parents became involved as they had not been

since passive resistance 1950s

- impact began to be felt on SA stock-market

- perhaps Apartheid could be ‘decolonized’

after all!

Spirit of the 1970s: students

Resistance: SOWETO

Resistance: New Organizations

1980s: More Changes…

- dominated by rise of ‘black-on-black’

violence

- ANC/PAC still in exile

- 1983: emergence United Democratic Front --

umbrella organization representing community

organizations, some national groups

- 1985: emergence Congress of South African

Trade Unions (COSATU)

Resistance: New Organizations

Resistance: New Organizations

Inkatha: politicization Zulu

- ‘cultural’ society, largest single ethnic group

- leader: Mangosothu Buthelezi

- previously ANC (youth league): rejected

decision to use violence in 1960s

- 1970s, 80s: strategy -- work with

government, increase power for Africans

- but rejected independence for Zululand

Inkatha

Resistance Turns Inward

Escalation of violence

-ANC ‘supporters’ (most of UDF) against

Inkatha

- former accused latter of ‘government

support’, weakening resistance movement

- targeted ethnic violence in townships: Zulu

migrants in hostels, ‘necklacing’ of informers

- culture of violence, intimidation, fear

Resistance Turns Inward

Government lost control:

- some argue deliberately ‘turned state over’

to police: practiced indiscriminate raids, rape

- and to Inkatha/Zulu: accusations

government funding, inciting Inkatha

violence

- although Inkatha denied accusations, ANC

stocking arms for major urban warfare

Resistance Turns Inward

1986: Government declared State of

Emergency

- country demonstratively ungovernable

- 1987: secret talks began between

government and Nelson Mandela (who was

still in prison)

- Buthelezi feared power sharing ‘deal’ that

would exclude him: violence escalated

State-of-Emergency

Opposition Becomes Public, including Media Censorship

State-of-Emergen cy

“State of…

EMERGENCY!”

Challenges to Apartheid

Wider context:

- increasingly effective international demands

for divestment, boycotting South African

goods

- economy beginning to ‘hurt’

Challenges to Apartheid

- involvement in wars Angola

(conscripted white South

Africans), and

Mozambique (backing

RENAMO): expensive!!

- doubts that military

service across borders

really about protecting

society from Communism

surfacing among whites

-- very publicly!

Challenges to Apartheid

“…the Wall came Crashing Down”: Berlin

1989

- symbolic and real end to ‘communist’

USSR

- SA’s pretense of ‘protecting democracy’

against communist southern Africa

undermined

- led to: President De Klerk’s famous 1990

‘State of the Union’ address [see ‘De Klerk Speech’,

in Readings; will listen to audio clip in class]

Challenges to Apartheid

Stunned the Nation (no one forewarned):

- announced ‘de-banning’ ANC and other

political groups currently illegal

- announced need to ‘take lead in developing

Africa, working with African leaders’

(almost echoed MacMillan’s 1960 ‘Wind of

Change’ speech)

- Most Unexpected and Controversial:

Announced imminent freeing Nelson Mandela!

What was once unthinkable…

Nelson Mandela and Walter

Sisulu, Robben Island

(above)

Nelson Mandela & Walter

Sisulu, together again in

Freedom (below)

[

Jurgen Schadeberg.Nelson

Mandela and the rise of the

ANC. (London) 187.

February 11, 1990: ’Free At Last’

[see ‘Freedom for Nelson Mandela’, especially video

‘Mandela’s First Steps back to Freedom’, in Readings]

Celebrating Mandela’s Freedom

Hillbrough, Johannesburg [Nelson

Mandela and the rise of the ANC.

(London: Bloomsbury) 187]

Orlando Stadium, Soweto [Nelson

Mandela and the rise of the ANC.

(London: Bloomsbury) 184].

Youth and the Future

ANC supporters outside Victor Verster prison waiting to greet Nelson Mandela[ Nelson Mandela and the rise of the ANC. (London: Bloomsbury) 189.]

. . . But Not Yet Democracy

“The factors which necessitated the armed struggle

still exist today. We have no option but to continue.”

Called for:

- freeing all, not only some, political prisoners

-end to white monopoly political power

. . . But Not Yet Democracy

“The factors which necessitated the armed struggle

still exist today. We have no option but to continue.”

- fundamental restructuring political, economic

systems

-addressing inequalities of apartheid

-full democracy

. . . But Not Yet Democracy

1992: negotiated peace arranged

(sticking point: disarmament of ANC!)

[de Klerk (left); Mandela (right)]

. . . But Not Yet Democracy

Referendum held 17 March 1992: “do you support ending of Apartheid?”

- limited to White voters

- question phrased in terms of de Klerk’s 1990 speech

Victory for ‘YES’ side: 68.73%

- but voting pattern did not augur well for transition…

Competing

Campaigns:

The YES vote

won…

. . . But Not Yet Democracy

Note: heaviest support ‘British’ influenced areas

least support ‘Afrikaner’ Bastion Transvaal Province; areas

in between – ambivalent

Grey Areas: Black African – no vote

. . . But Not Yet Democracy

Negotiations continued with the government,

leading towards democratic elections:

Key pillars of Apartheid removed:

- *Land Acts of 1913 and 1936

- *Group Areas Act of 1950

- *Population Registration Act of 1950

. . . But Not Yet Democracy

Transition Period: - Violent conflict increased between ANC , Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP – now self- presenting as viable political opponent)

- Inkatha continued to receive military, logistical, financial support from former Apartheid regime

“In March 1990, savage fighting broke out between Mandela's ANC supporters and the rival Zulu-based Inkatha party, led by Mongosuthu G. Buthelezi (1928-), after thousands of Zulus were forced out of their homes in ANC-loyal areas of the southeastern province of Natal. There Zulu Inkatha members, armed with guns, knives, and sticks, battled for control of the villages in the rugged Edendale Valley, where South African troops helped police stop the bloodshed and restore order. . .

. . . Factional fights broke out in other areas that police struggled to halt. From July to September 1990, the bloodiest clashes in modern South African history occurred when Inkatha launched raids in the Transvaal townships, where an estimated 800 persons were slain and ANC supporters boldly defended themselves. Police with machine guns stifled the hostilities, but afterward sporadic fighting between the rival factions took place until 1994.”

[http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/sat/southafrica/fsouthafrica1990.htm]

. . . But Not Yet Democracy

Transition Period: - Inter-group conflict daily in townships, on commuter trains, lesser extent, rural areas

- more than 15,000 people died, over 20,000 “casualties” (seriously wounded): in 10 mos leading up to elections, 460 deaths/month

-estimated 90% violence in KwaZulu

- Inkatha vs UDF: prize? Voice in shaping new South Africa

Inkatha Freedom Party

Revolution of Goodwill “The IFP has committed itself to becoming the champion of a revolution of goodwill, which spreads throughout the building blocks of our society promoting individual and collective dedication to our families, work places and communities. The revolution is about building and reconstructing a new country. It is about creating a constant liaison between the government and its communities. And calls for sacrifices, social discipline and hard work."

Dr. Mangosuthu

Butilezi,

President of the IFP

Inkatha –UDF Violence

Inkatha – UDF Violence

Democracy Arrives in South Africa

May 10, 1994: first ever democratic elections

- Nelson Mandela ‘terrorist’: now

President

- Government of National Unity (GNU)

- ministers ANC, IFP (Inkatha Freedom

Party), Nationalist Party

First Democratic Election, 1994

Queue of Voters (Argus, Cape Town) 1994 Patricia Schonstein Pinnock.

Saturday in Africa: living history through poetry.

(Cape Town: Africa Sun Press, 1996) 24.

Nelson Mandela: First Black President