Post on 03-May-2018
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Random‐Access Memory (RAM)
Key features
RAM
is traditionally packaged as a chip.
Basic storage unit is normally a cell
(one bit per cell).
Multiple RAM chips form a memory.
Static RAM (SRAM)
Each cell stores a bit with a four or six‐transistor circuit.
Retains value indefinitely, as long as it is kept powered.
Relatively insensitive to electrical noise (EMI), radiation, etc.
Faster and more expensive than DRAM.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Each cell stores bit with a capacitor. One transistor is used for access
Value must be refreshed every 10‐100 ms.
More sensitive to disturbances (EMI, radiation,…) than SRAM.
Slower and cheaper than SRAM.
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SRAM vs
DRAM Summary
Trans. Access Needs Needsper bit time refresh? EDC? Cost Applications
SRAM 4 or 6 1X No Maybe 100x Cache memories
DRAM 1 10X Yes Yes 1X Main memories,frame buffers
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Conventional DRAM Organization
d x w DRAM:
dw
total bits organized as d supercells
of size w bits
cols
rows
0 1 2 3
0
1
2
3
Internal row buffer
16 x 8 DRAM chip
addr
data
supercell(2,1)
2 bits/
8 bits/
Memorycontroller
(to/from CPU)
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Reading DRAM Supercell
(2,1)Step 1(a): Row access strobe (RAS) selects row 2.
Step 1(b): Row 2 copied from DRAM array to row buffer.Step 1(b): Row 2 copied from DRAM array to row buffer.
Cols
Rows
RAS = 2 0 1 2 3
0
1
2
Internal row buffer
16 x 8 DRAM chip
3
addr
data
2/
8/
Memorycontroller
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Reading DRAM Supercell
(2,1)Step 2(a): Column access strobe (CAS) selects column 1.
Step 2(b): Step 2(b): SupercellSupercell
(2,1) copied from buffer to data lines, and eventually (2,1) copied from buffer to data lines, and eventually
back to the CPU.back to the CPU.
Cols
Rows
0 1 2 3
0
1
2
3
Internal row buffer
16 x 8 DRAM chip
CAS = 1
addr
data
2/
8/
Memorycontroller
supercell(2,1)
supercell(2,1)
To CPU
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Memory Modules
: supercell (i,j)
64 MB memory moduleconsisting ofeight 8Mx8 DRAMs
addr (row = i, col = j)
Memorycontroller
DRAM 7
DRAM 0
031 78151623243263 394047485556
64-bit doubleword at main memory address A
bits0-7
bits8-15
bits16-23
bits24-31
bits32-39
bits40-47
bits48-55
bits56-63
64-bit doubleword
031 78151623243263 394047485556
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Enhanced DRAMs
Basic DRAM cell has not changed since its invention in 1966.
Commercialized by Intel in 1970.
DRAM cores with better interface logic and faster I/O :
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)
Uses a conventional clock signal instead of asynchronous control
Allows reuse of the row addresses (e.g., RAS, CAS, CAS, CAS)
Double data‐rate synchronous DRAM (DDR SDRAM)
Double edge clocking sends two bits per cycle per pin
Different types distinguished by size of small prefetch
buffer:
–
DDR
(2 bits), DDR2
(4 bits), DDR4
(8 bits)
By 2010, standard for most server and desktop systems
Intel Core i7 supports only DDR3 SDRAM
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Nonvolatile Memories
DRAM and SRAM are volatile memories
Lose information if powered off.
Nonvolatile memories retain value even if powered off
Read‐only memory (ROM): programmed during production
Programmable ROM (PROM): can be programmed once
Eraseable
PROM (EPROM): can be bulk erased (UV, X‐Ray)
Electrically eraseable
PROM (EEPROM): electronic erase capability
Flash memory: EEPROMs
with partial (sector) erase capability
Wears out after about 100,000 erasings.
Uses for Nonvolatile Memories
Firmware programs stored in a ROM (BIOS, controllers for disks,
network cards, graphics accelerators, security subsystems,…)
Solid state disks (replace rotating disks in thumb drives, smart
phones, mp3 players, tablets, laptops,…)
Disk caches
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Traditional Bus Structure Connecting CPU and Memory
A bus
is a collection of parallel wires that carry address,
data, and control signals.
Buses are typically shared by multiple devices.
Mainmemory
I/O bridgeBus interface
ALU
Register file
CPU chip
System bus Memory bus
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Memory Read Transaction (1)
CPU places address A on the memory bus.
ALU
Register file
Bus interfaceA 0
Ax
Main memoryI/O bridge
%eax
Load operation: movl A, %eax
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Memory Read Transaction (2)
Main memory reads A from the memory bus, retrieves
word x, and places it on the bus.
ALU
Register file
Bus interface
x 0
Ax
Main memory
%eax
I/O bridge
Load operation: movl A, %eax
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Memory Read Transaction (3)
CPU read word x from the bus and copies it into register
%eax.
xALU
Register file
Bus interface x
Main memory0
A
%eax
I/O bridge
Load operation: movl A, %eax
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Memory Write Transaction (1)
CPU places address A on bus. Main memory reads it and
waits for the corresponding data word to arrive.
yALU
Register file
Bus interfaceA
Main memory0
A
%eax
I/O bridge
Store operation: movl %eax, A
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Memory Write Transaction (2)
CPU places data word y on the bus.
yALU
Register file
Bus interfacey
Main memory0
A
%eax
I/O bridge
Store operation: movl %eax, A
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Memory Write Transaction (3)
Main memory reads data word y from the bus and stores
it at address A.
yALU
register file
bus interface y
main memory0
A
%eax
I/O bridge
Store operation: movl %eax, A
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What’s Inside A Disk Drive?SpindleArm
Actuator
Platters
Electronics(including a processor and memory!)SCSI
connector
Image courtesy of Seagate Technology
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Disk Geometry
Disks consist of platters, each with two surfaces.
Each surface consists of concentric rings called tracks.
Each track consists of sectors
separated by gaps.
Spindle
SurfaceTracks
Track k
Sectors
Gaps
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Disk Geometry (Muliple‐Platter View)
Aligned tracks form a cylinder.
Surface 0Surface 1Surface 2Surface 3Surface 4Surface 5
Cylinder k
Spindle
Platter 0
Platter 1
Platter 2
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Disk Capacity
Capacity: maximum number of bits that can be stored.
Vendors express capacity in units of gigabytes (GB), where
1 GB = 109
Bytes (Lawsuit pending! Claims deceptive advertising).
Capacity is determined by these technology factors:
Recording density
(bits/in): number of bits that can be squeezed
into a 1 inch segment of a track.
Track density (tracks/in): number of tracks that can be squeezed
into a 1 inch radial segment.
Areal density (bits/in2): product of recording and track density.
Modern disks partition tracks into disjoint subsets called
recording zones
Each track in a zone has the same number of sectors, determined
by the circumference of innermost track.
Each zone has a different number of sectors/track
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Computing Disk Capacity
Capacity = (# bytes/sector) x (avg. # sectors/track) x
(# tracks/surface) x (# surfaces/platter) x
(# platters/disk)
Example:
512 bytes/sector
300 sectors/track (on average)
20,000 tracks/surface
2 surfaces/platter
5 platters/disk
Capacity = 512 x 300 x 20000 x 2 x 5
= 30,720,000,000
= 30.72 GB
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Disk Operation (Single‐Platter View)
The disk surface spins at a fixedrotational rate
By moving radially, the arm can position the read/write head over any track.
The read/write headis attached to the endof the arm and flies overthe disk surface on
a thin cushion of air.
spindle
spindle
spin
dle
spindlespindle
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Disk Operation (Multi‐Platter View)
Arm
Read/write heads move in unison
from cylinder to cylinder
Spindle
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Tracks divided into sectors
Disk Structure ‐
top view of single platter
Surface organized into tracks
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Disk Access
Head in position above a track
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Disk Access
Rotation is counter-clockwise
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Disk Access – Read
About to read blue sector
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Disk Access – Read
After BLUE read
After reading blue sector
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Disk Access – Read
After BLUE read
Red request scheduled next
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Disk Access – Seek
After BLUE read Seek for RED
Seek to red’s track
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Disk Access –
Rotational Latency
After BLUE read Seek for RED Rotational latency
Wait for red sector to rotate around
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Disk Access – Read
After BLUE read Seek for RED Rotational latency After RED read
Complete read of red
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Disk Access – Service Time Components
After BLUE read Seek for RED Rotational latency After RED read
Data transfer Seek Rotational latency
Data transfer
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Disk Access Time
Average time to access some target sector approximated by :
Taccess = Tavg seek + Tavg rotation + Tavg transfer
Seek time (Tavg seek)
Time to position heads over cylinder containing target sector.
Typical Tavg seek is 3—9 ms
Rotational latency (Tavg rotation)
Time waiting for first bit of target sector to pass under r/w head.
Tavg rotation = 1/2 x 1/RPMs x 60 sec/1 min
Typical Tavg rotation = 7200 RPMs
Transfer time (Tavg transfer)
Time to read the bits in the target sector.
Tavg transfer = 1/RPM x 1/(avg # sectors/track) x 60 secs/1 min.
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Disk Access Time Example
Given:
Rotational rate = 7,200 RPM
Average seek time = 9 ms.
Avg # sectors/track = 400.
Derived:
Tavg rotation = 1/2 x (60 secs/7200 RPM) x 1000 ms/sec = 4 ms.
Tavg transfer = 60/7200 RPM x 1/400 secs/track x 1000 ms/sec = 0.02 ms
Taccess = 9 ms + 4 ms + 0.02 ms
Important points:
Access time dominated by seek time and rotational latency.
First bit in a sector is the most expensive, the rest are free.
SRAM access time is about 4 ns/doubleword, DRAM about 60 ns
Disk is about 40,000 times slower than SRAM,
2,500 times slower then DRAM.
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Logical Disk Blocks
Modern disks present a simpler abstract view of the
complex sector geometry:
The set of available sectors is modeled as a sequence of b‐sized
logical blocks (0, 1, 2, ...)
Mapping between logical blocks and actual (physical)
sectors
Maintained by hardware/firmware device called disk controller.
Converts requests for logical blocks into (surface,track,sector)
triples.
Allows controller to set aside spare cylinders for each
zone.
Accounts for the difference in “formatted capacity”
and “maximum
capacity”.
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I/O Bus
Mainmemory
I/O bridgeBus interface
ALU
Register file
CPU chip
System bus Memory bus
Disk controller
Graphicsadapter
USBcontroller
Mouse Keyboard MonitorDisk
I/O bus Expansion slots forother devices suchas network adapters.
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Reading a Disk Sector (1)
Mainmemory
ALU
Register file
CPU chip
Disk controller
Graphicsadapter
USBcontroller
mouse keyboard MonitorDisk
I/O bus
Bus interface
CPU initiates a disk read by writing a command, logical block number, and destination memory address to a port (address) associated with disk controller.
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Reading a Disk Sector (2)
Mainmemory
ALU
Register file
CPU chip
Disk controller
Graphicsadapter
USBcontroller
Mouse Keyboard MonitorDisk
I/O bus
Bus interface
Disk controller reads the sector and performs a direct memory access (DMA) transfer into main memory.
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Reading a Disk Sector (3)
Mainmemory
ALU
Register file
CPU chip
Disk controller
Graphicsadapter
USBcontroller
Mouse Keyboard MonitorDisk
I/O bus
Bus interface
When the DMA transfer completes, the disk controller notifies the CPU with an interrupt (i.e., asserts a special “interrupt” pin on the CPU)
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Solid State Disks (SSDs)
Pages: 512KB to 4KB, Blocks: 32 to 128 pages
Data read/written in units of pages.
Page can be written only after its block has been erased
A block wears out after 100,000 repeated writes.
Flash translation layer
I/O bus
Page 0 Page 1 Page P-1…Block 0
… Page 0 Page 1 Page P-1…Block B-1
Flash memory
Solid State Disk (SSD)Requests to read and write logical disk blocks
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SSD Performance Characteristics
Why are random writes so slow?
Erasing a block is slow (around 1 ms)
Write to a page triggers a copy of all useful pages in the block
Find an used block (new block) and erase it
Write the page into the new block
Copy other pages from old block to the new block
Sequential read tput
250 MB/s
Sequential write tput
170 MB/sRandom read tput
140 MB/s
Random write tput
14 MB/sRand read access
30 us
Random write access
300 us
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SSD Tradeoffs
vs Rotating Disks
Advantages
No moving parts faster, less power, more rugged
Disadvantages
Have the potential to wear out
Mitigated by “wear leveling logic”
in flash translation layer
E.g. Intel X25 guarantees 1 petabyte (1015 bytes) of random
writes before they wear out
In 2010, about 100 times more expensive per byte
Applications
MP3 players, smart phones, laptops
Beginning to appear in desktops and servers
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Metric 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2010:1980
$/MB 8,000 880 100 30 1 0.1 0.06 130,000access (ns) 375 200 100 70 60 50 40 9typical size (MB) 0.064 0.256 4 16 64 2,000 8,000 125,000
Storage Trends
DRAM
SRAM
Metric 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2010:1980
$/MB 500 100 8 0.30 0.01 0.005 0.0003 1,600,000access (ms) 87 75 28 10 8 4 3 29typical size (MB) 1 10 160 1,000 20,000 160,000 1,500,0001,500,000
Disk
Metric 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2010:1980
$/MB 19,200 2,900 320 256 100 75 60 320access (ns) 300 150 35 15 3 2 1.5 200
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CPU Clock Rates
1980 1990 1995 2000 2003 2005 2010 2010:1980
CPU 8080 386 Pentium P-III P-4 Core 2 Core i7 ---
Clock rate (MHz) 1 20 150 600 3300 2000 2500 2500
Cycle time (ns) 1000 50 6 1.6 0.3 0.50 0.4 2500
Cores 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 4
Effectivecycle 1000 50 6 1.6 0.3 0.25 0.1 10,000time (ns)
Inflection point in computer historywhen designers hit the “Power Wall”
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The CPU‐Memory Gap
Disk
DRAM
CPU
SSD
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Locality to the Rescue!
The key to bridging this CPU‐Memory gap is a fundamental
property of computer programs known as locality
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Today
Storage technologies and trends
Locality of reference
Caching in the memory hierarchy
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Locality
Principle of Locality:
Programs tend to use data and
instructions with addresses near or equal to those they
have used recently
Temporal locality:
Recently referenced items are likely
to be referenced again in the near future
Spatial locality:
Items with nearby addresses tend
to be referenced close together in time
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Locality Example
Data references
Reference array elements in succession
(stride‐1 reference pattern).
Reference variable sum each iteration.
Instruction references
Reference instructions in sequence.
Cycle through loop repeatedly.
sum = 0;for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
sum += a[i];return sum;
Spatial locality
Temporal locality
Spatial localityTemporal locality
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Qualitative Estimates of Locality
Claim:
Being able to look at code and get a qualitative
sense of its locality is a key skill for a professional
programmer.
Question:
Does this function have good locality with
respect to array a?
int sum_array_rows(int a[M][N]){
int i, j, sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < M; i++)for (j = 0; j < N; j++)
sum += a[i][j];return sum;
}
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Locality Example
Question:
Does this function have good locality with
respect to array a?
int sum_array_cols(int a[M][N]){
int i, j, sum = 0;
for (j = 0; j < N; j++)for (i = 0; i < M; i++)
sum += a[i][j];return sum;
}
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Locality Example
Question: Can you permute the loops so that the function
scans the 3‐d array a with a stride‐1 reference pattern
(and thus has good spatial locality)?
int sum_array_3d(int a[M][N][N]){
int i, j, k, sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < M; i++)for (j = 0; j < N; j++)
for (k = 0; k < N; k++)sum += a[k][i][j];
return sum;}
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Memory Hierarchies
Some fundamental and enduring properties of hardware
and software:
Fast storage technologies cost more per byte, have less capacity,
and require more power (heat!).
The gap between CPU and main memory speed is widening.
Well‐written programs tend to exhibit good locality.
These fundamental properties complement each other
beautifully.
They suggest an approach for organizing memory and
storage systems known as a memory hierarchy.
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Today
Storage technologies and trends
Locality of reference
Caching in the memory hierarchy
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An Example Memory Hierarchy
Registers
L1 cache(SRAM)
Main memory(DRAM)
Local secondary storage(local disks)
Larger, slower, cheaper per byte
Remote secondary storage(tapes, distributed file systems, Web servers)
Local disks hold files
retrieved from disks on
remote network servers
Main memory holds disk blocks
retrieved from local disks
L2 cache(SRAM)
L1 cache holds cache lines retrieved
from L2 cache
CPU registers hold words retrieved
from L1 cache
L2 cache holds cache lines
retrieved from main memory
L0:
L1:
L2:
L3:
L4:
L5:
Smaller,faster,costlierper byte
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Caches
Cache:
A smaller, faster storage device that acts as a staging
area for a subset of the data in a larger, slower device.
Fundamental idea of a memory hierarchy:
For each k, the faster, smaller device at level k serves as a cache for the
larger, slower device at level k+1.
Why do memory hierarchies work?
Because of locality, programs tend to access the data at level k more
often than they access the data at level k+1.
Thus, the storage at level k+1 can be slower, and thus larger and
cheaper per bit.
Big Idea: The memory hierarchy creates a large pool of
storage that costs as much as the cheap storage near the
bottom, but that serves data to programs at the rate of the
fast storage near the top.
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General Cache Concepts
0 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15
8 9 14 3Cache
MemoryLarger, slower, cheaper memoryviewed as partitioned into “blocks”
Data is copied in block‐sized
transfer units
Smaller, faster, more expensivememory caches a subset ofthe blocks
4
4
4
10
10
10
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General Cache Concepts: Hit
0 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15
8 9 14 3Cache
Memory
Data in block b is neededRequest: 14
14Block b is in cache:Hit!
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General Cache Concepts: Miss
0 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15
812 9 14 3Cache
Memory
Data in block b is neededRequest: 12
Block b is not in cache:Miss!
Block b is fetched frommemory
Request: 12
12
12
9
Block b is stored in cache•Placement policy:
determines where b goes•Replacement policy:
determines which block
gets evicted (victim)
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General Caching Concepts: Types of Cache Misses
Cold (compulsory) miss
Cold misses occur because the cache is empty.
Conflict miss
Most caches limit blocks at level k+1 to a small subset (sometimes a
singleton) of the block positions at level k.
E.g. Block i at level k+1 must be placed in block (i mod 4) at level k.
Conflict misses occur when the level k cache is large enough, but multiple
data objects all map to the same level k block.
E.g. Referencing blocks 0, 8, 0, 8, 0, 8, ... would miss every time.
Capacity miss
Occurs when the set of active cache blocks (working set) is larger than
the cache.
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Examples of Caching in the Hierarchy
Hardware0On‐Chip TLBAddress
translations
TLB
Web browser10,000,000Local diskWeb pagesBrowser cache
Web cache
Network buffer
cache
Buffer cache
Virtual Memory
L2 cache
L1 cache
Registers
Cache Type
Web pages
Parts of files
Parts of files
4‐KB page
64‐bytes block
64‐bytes block
4‐8 bytes words
What is Cached?
Web proxy
server
1,000,000,000Remote server disks
OS100Main memory
Hardware1On‐Chip L1
Hardware10On/Off‐Chip L2
AFS/NFS client10,000,000Local disk
Hardware +
OS
100Main memory
Compiler0CPU core
Managed ByLatency (cycles)Where is it
Cached?
Disk cache Disk sectors Disk controller 100,000 Disk firmware
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Summary
The speed gap between CPU, memory and mass storage
continues to widen.
Well‐written programs exhibit a property called locality.
Memory hierarchies based on caching close the gap by
exploiting locality.