Post on 12-Mar-2015
Marc Alvin Lim – 10813586 March 24, 2011
Section EI CIVMATL
CARBON – FIBER REINFORCEMENT
I. INTRODUCTION
Brief History
Carbon-fiber was invented by the famous scientist named Thomas Edison in the late 1800s.
Though the early fibers didn’t have the same tensile strength as they do today, he used it as filament for the
early light bulbs due to its ability to endure or tolerate heat and was ideal for conducting electricity. Also,
unlike the materials used today to make these fibers such as the petroleum-based precursor, Thomas
Edison’s fibers were made out of cellulose-based materials such as bamboos, cottons, etc. wherein
carbonization takes place when the bamboo that is used is heated and baked to very high-temperatures in a
controlled atmosphere. This heating method is known as pyrolysis wherein the products of such methods
are capable of resisting fire and enduring high temperatures of heat. (HJ3, 2008)
It was around the late 1950s that the high tensile strength of these carbon-fibers was discovered
and used. It was later on that the materials used were replaced by polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and pitch which
were found to be more effective than the old materials. (HJ3, 2008)
The modern type of carbon-fiber is somewhat similar to steel with respect to its tensile strength
but weighs a whole lot lighter than that of steel. Carbon-fiber weighs only a fraction of the weight of steel
but still retains the same tensile strength of steel or in some cases, even higher strengths. Also, another
important attribute of carbon-fiber is its inelasticity wherein it plays an important role in reinforcing rigid
structures. (HJ3, 2008) That being said, its elasticity can still be changed by making a few adjustments
making the carbon-fiber more elastic or inelastic depending on the desired properties.
General Use/Purpose
Carbon-fibers are derived from two precursor materials: (1) PITCH (2) and PAN.
PITCH based carbon-fibers are stiffer and they also have a higher thermal and electrical
conductivity. Although they are found to be stiffer than that of the PAN based, the PAN based carbon-
fibers are the ones mostly used in the fields of Civil Engineering, Aerospace applications, sporting
equipments, automotive, etc. simply because PITCH based have mechanical properties which are found to
be lower than that of the PAN based. PAN based carbon-fibers have high tensile strength whereas the
PITCH based only have fair to good tensile strength. (Kelly, 2011)
Carbon-fiber is usually used in aerospace, civil engineering, military and motorsports. This is due
to its low density resulting to its light weight, strength similar or even greater than steel, and its low thermal
expansion. It is used in many different purposes since by simply altering its weave patterns and placing in
more layers of carbon-fiber it can be made stronger and stiffer for certain purposes such as safety.
It is also very useful to motorsports such as in F1 racing, kayak racing, bicycle racing, etc. because
of its light weight wherein it uses up less fuel or less energy making it fuel efficient and making it less
heavy thus less energy is needed for the locomotives to move and making them move a whole lot faster.
(Discovery Communications, 2011)
Figure 1.0 – Car made of Carbon fiber components (Discovery Communications, 2011)
Recent studies and experiments now also tell us that it can be used in music instruments such as
the violin, guitar and cello. In the past the music instruments would regularly be made up of wood but in
other foreign countries carbon-fiber is now being used as its main component – the body, knobs, etc
excluding of course the strings which are still made up of their regular components and properties. Other
applications include the use of carbon-fiber in laptops, baseball bats, tennis and badminton racquets, etc.
(Illstreet, 2009)
Figure 1.1 – Sony VAIO Laptop made of Carbon Fiber (HardwareSphere,
2011)
Figure 1.2 – Baseball Bat made of Carbon Fiber (Youtube, 2011)
Figure 1.3 – Cello made of Carbon Fiber (Youtube, 2011)
Generally, carbon-fiber is a very versatile material wherein it can be used in many fields and
purposes depending on how people would use it. The uses of carbon-fiber are not limited to the things
mentioned early. In the future, it will be more widely spread and used and might even replace the steel
material that we use today.
Other Carbon-Fiber Products and Usage:
Types Specifications Major Usage
Filament A yarn constituted of numerous number of
fiber: twisted, untwisted, twisted-and-
untwisted
Resin reinforcement material for CFRP,
CFRTP or C/C composites, having such usage
as Aircraft/Aerospace equipment, sporting
goods and industrial equipment parts
Staple Yarn A yarn made of spinning of staples Heat Insulator, Anti-friction material, C/C
composite parts
Woven
Fabric
A woven sheet made of filament or staple
yarn
Resin reinforcement material for CFRP,
CFRTP or C/C composites, having such usage
as Aircraft/Aerospace equipment, sporting
goods and industrial equipment parts
Braid A braided yarn made of filament or tow Resin reinforcement material particularly
suitable for reinforcement of tubular products
Chopped
Fiber
A chopped fiber made of sized or non-
sized fiber
Compounded into plastics/resins or portland
cement to improve mechanical performances,
abrasion characteristic, electric conductivity
and heat resistance
Milled Powder made by milling fiber in a ball-
mill etc.
Compounded into plastics/resins or rubber to
improve mechanical performances, abrasion
characteristic, electric conductivity and heat
resistance
Felt, Mat A felt or mat made by layering up of staple
by carding etc. then needle-punched or
strengthened by organic binders
Heat insulator, base material for molded heat
insulator, protective layer for heat resistance
and base material for corrosion-resisting filter
Compounds A material for injection moulding etc.
made of mixture of thermo-plastics or
thermo-setting resins added by various
additives and chopped fiber and then being
compounded
Housing etc. of OA equipment taking
advantages of electric conductivity, rigidity
and lightness in weight
Table 1.0 – Carbon Fiber Products and Usage (JCMA, 2009)
II. MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Figure 2.0 – Simplified Carbon Fiber Manufacturing Process, PAN-based (JCMA, 2009)
Acrylonitril is basically the raw material needed for manufacturing carbon-fiber, although, in
some cases this raw material is already in powdered form. This raw material undergoes a process called
Polymerization wherein the acrylonitril plastic powder is mixed with another different kind of plastic such
as methyl arylate and is reacted with a catalyst to form the Polyacrylonitril plastic. (Zoltek Corp, 2011)
The Polyacrylonitril plastic then undergoes the next step in the process called Spinning wherein
the plastic is spun into fibers with the use of several different methods such as (1) the plastic is mixed with
certain types of chemicals and is then pumped through tiny jets towards chemical baths where the plastic
coagulates or thickens and then solidifies forming into acrylic fibers. (2) The plastic mixed with chemicals
is heated and is pumped through tiny jets into specially-made chambers, allowing the solvents to evaporate,
leaving the solid acrylic fibers behind. This step or process is very important in manufacturing carbon-
fibers because this is where the internal atomic structures of the fiber are formed. The fibers are then
washed and stretched to the desired diameter in order to help align the molecules within the fiber and
provide the basis for the formation of the tightly bonded carbon crystals after carbonization. (Zoltek Corp,
2011) The last step in PAN precursor fiber formation is the application of a finishing oil to prevent the
tacky filaments from clumping. The white PAN fiber then is dried again and wound onto bobbins. (Gardner
Publications, Inc., 2011)
The next step is called the Oxidation wherein the fibers pass through heated chambers. While in
other cases, the fibers pass over hot rollers and through bodies of loose materials suspended by a flow of
hot air. In this process the acrylic fibers are heated with air for around 30 minutes to an hour or two with
temperatures reaching around 200 to 300 degrees Celsius. This causes oxygen molecules to stick to the
fibers and rearrange their atomic bonding patterns creating a more fire-resistant and a more dense material.
Also, in other cases, the heated air is already mixed with certain gas chemicals which would accelerate the
stabilization. Though this may sound easy to do but stabilizing the chemical reactions are very hard and
complex to handle and would involve several procedures. A part of this would be controlling the
overheating done by the fibers themselves since during the reaction the fibers produce their own heat which
might cause the overheating of the fibers. (Zoltek Corp, 2011)
Once the fibers are stable and ready, they are placed inside a furnace filled with gas mixtures that
do not contain any oxygen. They are then again heated but to a higher temperature of around 1000 to 3000
degrees Celsius, more or less (depending on the usage and desired design), for several minutes. And since
there is no oxygen inside the furnace, this allows the fibers to be heated in high temperatures without the
fibers burning. As the fibers are heated, they lose different kinds of non-carbon atoms together with a few
carbon atoms such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water vapour, and such. The remaining
carbon atoms then form tightly bonded carbon crystals that are aligned paralled to the long axis of the fiber.
This process is called Carbonizing or Carbonization. (Zoltek Corp, 2011)
After the carbonization process is done, treating the surface is the next step wherein the fibers are
placed and submerged in different types of gases such as air, carbon dioxide or in other cases, different
types of liquid such as nitric acid. Also, the fibers can be coated electrolytically by making the fibers
positive terminal and by placing it in a group of electrically conductive materials. Treating the surface of
the carbonized fibers is needed simply because the surfaces of the fibers do not stick to the epoxies and
other materials that will be used in composite materials. In order to remedy such problems, the fibers are
slightly oxidized providing additional oxygen to the surface of the fibers. And because of this, the fibers
experience better bonding properties and roughens the surface for better mechanical properties. The surface
treatment must be carefully monitored and controlled in order to prevent formings of tiny surface defects
such as pits which could cause the fiber to fail or tear apart. (Zoltek Corp, 2011)
The last step in manufacturing carbon-fiber is the Sizing wherein coating materials such as epoxy,
polyester, nylon and such are used to coat or cover the fibers in order to prevent them from being damaged
during the weaving process. The coated fibers are then laced into a cylinder called bobbins wherein it will
be placed into a somewhat sewing machine, weaving and twisting the fibers into different shapes and sizes.
(Zoltek Corp, 2011)
III. ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
"Light in weight, Strong and Durable!" Carbon Fibers are nothing but a 21st century high
technology material. The fibers have low specific gravity, exquisite mechanical properties (high specific
tensile strength, high specific elastic modulus, etc.) and attractive performances (electric conductivity, heat
resistance, low thermal expansion coefficient, chemical stability, self-lubrication property, high heat
conductivity, etc.). Those features have been stimulating Carbon Fiber users to develop numerous kinds of
applications. (JCMA, 2009)
As mentioned above, carbon-fibers are (1) light weight, (2) has high tensile strength (3) is very
durable (4) has low specific gravity (5) has low thermal expansion, (6) is resistant to heat and (7) has high
electric conductivity. And due to these attributes carbon-fibers are used for many different purposes such as
applications in Civil Engineering wherein it is used as reinforcement for structures. It is found as an
effective reinforcement measure – increasing resistance against earthquakes, especially for bridges. It is
also used as reinforcements to the cables used in suspension bridges. (JCMA, 2009) Carbon-fibers are also
used as coverings to concrete, increasing the concrete structure’s durability and strength.
Aside from the things mentioned above, other advantages include: (8) no welding required (9) no
heavy equipements are needed, (10) it’s versatile and most importantly (11) it increases the resistance of
structures to corrosions. (Foundation Technologies, Inc., 2011)
Other advantageous applications of carbon-fiber include its use in automotive/locomotives namely
in F1 racing cars. Because of the carbon-fiber’s light weight and strong material, it is now being used
mostly as components for F1 racing cars making them lighter and faster. Other concerns include fuel-
efficiency as well as our increasing problems in our environment. Clean and environment-friendly cars are
now being designed with the use of carbon-fiber, making the cars lighter resulting to the lessening of fuel
consumption. (JCMA, 2009)
Disadvantages
Cost – expensive
IV. PRECAUTIONARY METHODS
The following are the safety precautions in handling of carbon-fiber as stated by (JCMA, 2009):
A. Properties
1. As Carbon Fibers are very fine in nature and moreover easily breakable by stretching (by less than
2% elongation), the fibers can easily be made fuzz. Being crushed and shortened in unit length,
staple tends to become fly or dusts with ease and dispersed into atmosphere.
2. As most Carbon Fibers have high elastic modulus and is very fine in nature, micro fiber tends to
stick to human skins or mucous membranes causing pains or itch. Carbon Fiber users are advised
to be careful not to dispose naked skins to the fibers and to take deliberate dusts cleaning
measures.
3. As Carbon Fibers have electric conductivity, fly or waste yarn can cause a short-circuit at electric
lines.
4. As Carbon Fibers are solid-structured carbon and consequently are hard to be burned. In
incinerating Carbon Fiber products wastes, Carbon Fiber users are recommended to carefully
collect unburned staple dusts to avoid possible electric troubles.
5. As carbon itself is thought to have good compatibility with human body tissues, Carbon Fibers or
composites of the fibers are largely used as artificial human body parts.
B. Handling Precautions
Necessary precautions compiled are as follows:
1. Prevention of generating plumage, dust and fly
a. Troubles brought about by handling of Carbon Fibers are mainly caused by fuzz, dusts or fly
generated during the handling of the fibers. As Carbon Fiber staple products are more or less
fly-like, local air exhaustion is effective for avoiding any trouble during unpacking, taking out
of packing or processing of the material. The identical measures are advisable in cutting down
long continuous yarn to produce chopped fiber or in crushing the same to produce milled.
b. If guides rub long continuous yarn in pulling out the yarn from bobbins, fuzz is generated or
fly is generated in the case of breaking of the yarn. Use of less number of guides, use of
rolling guides or applying lower tension to the yarn are altogether effective for reducing fuzz,
fly or dusts.
c. Making of woven textiles, braid, knit textiles, stitched performs or punch-felts generates fuzz,
dusts or fly as the yarn is stripped off or scrubbed. JCMA would suggest Carbon Fiber users
having a local air ventilator working at any time to remove them.
d. The first and foremost thing to be done for securing safety and labour health, and for
accidents prevention as well is frequent dust cleaning and securing of air cleanness. Electric
cleaners for household may be short-circuited by dusts. JCMA would recommend using an air
ejector type cleaner instead.
2. Prevention of hazards to human body
Knowing that carbon-fiber yarn is “tough”, people sometimes try to tear off the yarn.
Often, fingers or palms are the once being damaged instead of the yarn.
a. Sticking to skins
Only by soft touching of dusts or fly to skins, one may feel pains or itch. Never try to
"rubbing off". As a string of Carbon Fiber is just like a metal fine wire or pin, the dust
penetrates into the skins more deeply causing the secondary inflammations.
The best way is washing out a local skin by cold or hot water; pouring running water on
with a help of soap. Another effective way is to make puffing by a strip of bundle tape or
sticking tape. Itchy feeling on skins does usually not stay for long time.
The stuck fiber will leave off skins in half a day. Coating protective cream on the skin is
also recommendable particularly effective to be protected from high elastic modulus Carbon
Fibers.
b. Eyes and throats
The last but by no means least thing is to protect eyes and throats from Carbon Fiber
dusts. Workers ought to wear goggles and masks to prevent the dust penetration.
In case of bad feeling on the eyes, it is recommended to consult with an eye-doctor
immediately.
c. Electric facilities troubles and electric shocks
When airborne fiber penetrates into switches or control equipment, short circuits may
take place. JCMA does recommend to keep purging of electric equipment by clean air always
going and to insulate connection points of wires and cables by painting or by insulation tapes.
When Carbon Fiber processors put electronics equipment or PCs into a room where Carbon
Fiber dusts are suspending, do protect these equipment by putting them into plastic boxes and
by keeping the boxes pressurized by clean air
A yarn string sticking to a plug may cause electric shocks to a human body or short-
circuits at electric lines when the plug is inserted into an electric outlet. Workers ought to
wear a pair of protection globes and clean out a plug before putting into an outlet particularly
in the case of high voltage lines 200v or higher. JCMA does recommend not to handle Carbon
Fibers in a room where glass fiber products for electric insulators are processed.
C. Emergency Care-Taking
1. Eyes – After removing contact lenses if any, wash out eyes by clean running water for more than
15 minutes.
2. Skins – Wash out by warm or cold running water with a help of soap. A strip of sticking tape also
works effectively.
3. Inhalation – Wash out mouths immediately under clean fresh air.
4. Swallowing – Swallowing large quantity of water and/or vomiting.
D. Handling and Storing
1. Handling – Wear protection gears of skins, eyes and throats to prevent them from hazards of
Carbon Fiber dusts or fly.
2. Storing – Avoid storing under the sunshine and in warm and wet environment. Though Carbon
Fiber itself does not deteriorate, packing material, paper rolls and sizing agents degenerate. Some
types of Carbon Fiber may be gradually oxidized by atmospheric oxygen under temperature higher
than 150 degree C and so generated heat piles up to possibly cause fire.
E. Stability and Reactivity
1. Flammability – Though Carbon Fiber is constituted of carbon which is flammable, the fiber itself
does not flare up even if ignited by flame or match or gas burners. If heated up higher than 400
degree C together with some fuel, the carbon-fiber slowly burns (oxidized) but stops burning right
after the burning fuel are removed. In this aspect, Carbon Fiber is categorized as "incombustible"
under the Building Code of Japan.
2. Reactivity – Carbon Fiber does not react with any agent except for strong oxidation agents.
3. Others – Carbon Fiber has electric conductivity and can cause short-circuits at electric lines.
F. Disposal
1. Carbon Fiber wastes should be regarded as "Industrial Wastes" but not "Household Wastes" and is
categorized as "Plastics Wastes".
2. Local governments may have their own local codes by which disposing of Carbon Fiber wastes
are governed.
3. Disposing to a landfill is an appropriate disposal method.
4. Incineration by incinerators is not practical, as Carbon Fiber wastes do not burn out in
conventional furnaces. Just if thrown into a furnace equipped with an electric dust collector,
unburned fine fiber (fly) causes short-circuits troubles.
V. INSTALLATION
Installation of carbon-fiber reinforcement for Civil infrastructure is somewhat very easy to do. The
following are the step-by-step procedures for installing carbon-fiber to Civil infrastructures such as
concrete walls, concrete pillars, etc.
1. For a concrete wall, measure the length of the wall and divide it into vertical parts. Take note that
no segment should be wider than 48 inches as shown below.
2. Mark these segments on the floor to note the distance. If there are hindrances such as windows,
pipes, etc., rearrange the segments and/or increase the parts.
3. After marking the vertical parts, mark two lines (dotted lines below) at both sides, left and right, of
the initial segments having a distance of 4 inches each as shown below.
4. Before placing the carbon-fiber reinforcement to the i.e. wall, remove the paint and/or sealers that
are attached to the wall such as wallpapers, etc.
5. Make the wall as smooth as possible using certain machines, removing bumps and other objects in
the way.
6. Use vacuums and other cleaning material such as brushes to clean the wall from any dirt and dust
since having even a small amount of dust may affect the epoxy and/or resin used to stick the
carbon-fiber on the wall.
7. Ready the epoxy to be used and apply to the space on wall prepared beforehand.
8. Using a trowel, spread and even out the epoxy placed on the wall.
9. Ready the size and length of the carbon-fiber and stick it on the epoxy placed on the wall
previously.
10. Using a trowel, scrape the carbon-fiber to even out the epoxy along the wall. If dry spots appear,
add a more epoxy and spread evenly.
11. When done with evening out the carbon-fiber, use a lamination plastic to cover the whole length
of the carbon-fiber.
12. Use a squidgy or something soft to spread the epoxy as shown from top down filling any areas that
may be dry.
13. Allow to cure or dry over night.
14. Remove the plastic
15. FINISH
VI. COSTS
Due to the carbon-fiber’s versatility wherein it can be used in many different ways, manufacturers
have made many different types of carbon-fibers that would suit different types of applications and usages
– each having their own purpose and strengths such as one type of carbon-fiber may have higher tensile
strength properties compared to a different carbon-fiber or it may weigh lighter of heavier depending on
where and how the user intends to use it. And because of this, carbon-fiber products have a wide range of
cost. The following are the different types of carbon-fiber together with their respective costs and usages.
2.4 Oz Carbon Fiber: 42” Wide – $112.00 x 43 = Php4816.00
2.4 Oz Carbon Fiber: 50” Wide – $120.00 x 43 = Php5160.00
This lightweight carbon fabric is woven from 1k carbon strands in a .006" thick, 16 x 16 strand/inch. This
fabric is most effective in applications where lightweight strength is critical or the part needs to be rigid and
thin.
3.5 Oz Carbon Fiber: 42” Wide Plain Weave – $120.00 x 43 = Php5160.00
This mid-weight carbon fabric is woven from 1K carbon strands in a 24x24 strand/inch count, yielding a
pliable, tight weave fabric.
5.6 Oz Carbon Fiber: 50” Wide Plain Weave – $29.50 x 43 = Php1268.50
This plain weave carbon fiber fabric is the standard for most lightweight applications. Wets out easily and
conforms to both flat and curved structures.
5.6 Oz Carbon Fiber: 50” Wide 2x2 Twill – $29.50 x 43 = Php1268.50
This carbon cloth provides the classic "carbon fiber" weave look for any application. An excellent cloth for
lightweight applications with compound curves.
10.8 Oz Carbon Fiber: 50” Wide 5-Harness Satin Weave – $48.00 x 43 = Php2064.00
Very Pliable
Suitable for curved parts fabrication
Fewer distortions
Easier to use than twill weave
Highly decorative three-dimentional finish
5.4 Oz Carbon/Kevlar Fiber: 50” Wide 2x2 Twill – $47.00 x 43 = Php2021.00
The Carbon Fiber/Kevlar® hybrid offers the stiffness of graphite and the impact resistance of Kevlar® in
one material. It can be used for boat hulls and aircraft fuselages.
3.7 Oz “Uni-web” Unidirectional Carbon Fiber – $3.75 x 43 = Php161.25
UniWeb is a new and easy to apply type of reinforcement. It consists of a nonwoven sheet of unidirectional
carbon fibers that are held in position by a fine spider web of polymer fibrils Iying on the surface. The
special polymer used is compatible with epoxy and polyester resins. The fibril or web system that bonds the
reinforcement fibers together allows the fabric to be cut easily, trimmed, or slit, giving clean edges with
absolutely no fraying. The fibers lie flat and straight, and cannot shift or bunch up as often happens with
uni-stitched fabrics. Carbon Fiber UniWeb weighs 3.7 Oz. / Sq. Yd. and is .006" thick.
4.7 Oz “Uni-web” Unidirectional Carbon Fiber – $7.50 x 43 = Php322.50
UniWeb is a new and easy to apply type of reinforcement. It consists of a nonwoven sheet of unidirectional
carbon fibers that are held in position by a fine spider web of polymer fibrils Iying on the surface. The
special polymer used is compatible with epoxy and polyester resins. The fibril or web system that bonds the
reinforcement fibers together allows the fabric to be cut easily, trimmed, or slit, giving clean edges with
absolutely no fraying. The fibers lie flat and straight, and cannot shift or bunch up as often happens with
uni-stitched fabrics. Carbon Fiber UniWeb weighs 4.7 Oz. / Sq. Yd. and is .009" thick.
Carbon Fiber Tissue – $14.50 x 43 = Php623.50
Carbon Tissue is an advanced non-woven carbon fiber veil incorporating 100% carbon fibers bonded
together in a random fiber matrix. Carbon Tissue is compatible with all epoxy and polyester resin systems.
Can be used to provide a smooth covering for bulk carbon composite structures and to add stiffness with
minimal weight gain.
Source from: (ACP Composites Inc., 2011)
VII. REFERENCES
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Youtube. (2011). How it’s made – Carbon Fiber bats. Retrieved March 18, 2011 from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRhbYnNTdkg
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