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BVC INSTITUTE TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
AMALAPURAM-533201
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
CYBERNETICSWITH US, YOUR DREAMS WILL BECOME REAL
PRESENTED BY:
P.GIRISH[08H41A04A9]
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CONTENT
• ABSTRACT
• INTRODUCTION TO CYBERNETICS
• BRANCHES OF CYBERNETICS
• ENGINEERING CYBERNETICS
• MEDICAL CYBERNETICS
• EXAMPLE OF MEDICAL CYBERNETICS: CAPSULE ENDOSCOPY
• NEUROCYBERNETICS
• NEURO CHIP
• ARTIFICIAL EYE
• BRAIN GATE SYSTEM
• CYBORG
• SKYNET(TERMINATORS)
• ENDOSKELETON
• FEULCELL
• ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
• DISADVANTAGES
• CONCLUTION
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ABSTRACT:
CY·BER·NET·ICS (S B R-N T KS):n. (used with a sing. verb)
The theoretical study of communication and control processes in biological, mechanical, and
electronic systems, especially the comparison of these processes in biological and artificial
systems. Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems.
Cybernetics is closely related to control theory and systems theory. Both in its origins and in its
evolution in the second-half of the 20th century, cybernetics is equally applicable to physical and
social. Other fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics
include game theory, system theory (a mathematical counterpart to cybernetics),psychology
(especially neuropsychology, behavioral psychology, cognitive psychology), philosophy,
and architecture. Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the
fields of control systems, electrical network theory, mechanical engineering, modeling,
evolutionary and neuroscience in the 1940s. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927
work of Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer Harold S. Black on using negative feedback to
control amplifiers. The ideas are also related to the biological work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy in
General Systems Theory.Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included
the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during World War Two.
For a time during the past 30 years, the field of cybernetics followed a boom-bust cycle of
becoming more and more dominated by the subfields of artificial intelligence and machine-
biological interfaces (cyborgs) and when this research fell out of favor, the field as a whole fellfrom grace.
In the 1970s new cybernetics has emerged in multiple fields, first in biology. Some
biologists influenced by cybernetic concepts realized that the cybernetic metaphors of theprogram upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy
of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new
cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature -organizations he has not himself invented. The possibility that this new cybernetics could also
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account for social forms of organization, remained an object of debate among theoreticians on
self-organization in the 1980s. Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as Game Theory (the analysis of group
interaction), systems of feedback in evolution, and Metamaterials (the study of materials with
properties beyond the newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived
interest in this increasingly relevant field.
Robotics has developed in strong relationship to cybernetics, by concentrating itsfield of activity precisely on artificial intelligence. It also has connection with electronics,
mechanics and software.
Stories of artificial helpers and companions and attempts to create them have a long history, but
fully autonomous machines only appeared in the 20th century. The first digitally operated and
programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die
casting machine and stack them. Today, commercial and industrial robots are in widespread useperforming jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are
also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, or dull to be suitable for humans. Robotsare widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration,surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, safety, and mass production of consumer and industrial
goods.Robotics is a modern science which constantly develops and its creations are becoming
more and more advanced, intelligent, autonomous, and easier to handle or manipulate. Whetherwe realize it or not, robots are slowly becoming part of our lives, not to mention its many
transcriptions in modern art like movies, photography or digital art.
Application Cybernetics
Engineering cybernetics (or Technical cybernetics) deals with the question of control
engineering of mechatronic systems. It is used to control or regulate such a system; more often
the term control theory encompasses this field and is used instead.
Medical cybernetics investigates networks in human biology, medical decision making and the
information processing structures in the living organism.
Biological Cybernetics investigates communication and control processes in living organisms
and ecosystems.
Biorobotics is a term that loosely covers the fields of cybernetics, bionics and even genetic
engineering as a collective study.
Neuron cybernetics is a science that covers the integration of machines i, and muchnto the
organism of a living being. The intercommunication between the nervous system and artificial
appliances is a field on the verge of major breakthroughs...active research is still very much
ongoing to make neuro-cybernetics/bio-cybernetics a comprehensive and fundamental science.
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MAIN THEORY:
CYBERNETICS
Knowledge domains in Engineering systems (fall, 2000)
David A. Mindell
1. INTRODUCTION:
Cybernetics is the study of human/machine interaction guided by the principle that
Numerous different types of systems can be studied according to principles of feedback, control,
And communications. The field has a quantitative component, inherited from feedback control
And information theory, but is primary a qualitative, analytical tool – one might even say a
Philosophy of technology. Cybernetics is characterized by a tendency to universalize the notionOf feedback, seeing it as the underlying principle of the technological world. Closely related
Variants include: information theory, human factors engineering, control theory, systems theory.
Norbert Wiener founded the field with his in his 1948 book Cybernetics: or Control and
Communication in the Animal and the Machine which articulated the marriage of
Communication and control for a generation of engineers, systems theorists, and technical
Enthusiasts of varied stripes. Since then cybernetics has had a significant intellectual impact on a
Wide variety of disciplines across the globe, although as a discipline itself it remains unclear and
Fragmented, and has essentially faded from prominence in the United States, although it remains
More influential in Europe. Still, it had great influence on numerous others of the systems
Sciences, including some of the most prominent today, and it helped initiate a discourse and aWorldview that is deeply embedded in today’s technological culture.
BRANCHES OF CYBERNETICS
• ENGINEERING CYBERNETICS
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• MEDICAL CYBERNETICS
• BIO-ROBOTICS
• NEURO CYBERNETICS
• ENGINEERING CYBERNETICS:
1. CYBERNETICS, ENGINEERING
A scientific field dealing with the use of standard cybernetics ideas and methods for the study of
control systems. Engineering cybernetics is the scientific basis for the integrated automation of
production processes and the development and construction of control systems in transportation,
irrigation, and gas-distribution systems; atomic power plants; and spacecraft. The ―man-
machine‖ problem, which encompasses questions of rational distribution of functions between
human beings and automatic devices in complex control systems (in which the human being
participates directly as an essential link in the system), is one of the principal problems of engineering cybernetics.
The greatest integration of human and automatic functions is achieved in the cyborgs
(―cybernetic organisms‖), which are devices with a high degree of symbiosis in the physical and
intellectual actions of the human being and the automatic equipment. Cyborgs, like manipulating
robots, are becoming widely used to control objects under conditions of inaccessibility or danger
to human life. Human participation in the functioning of automated control systems led to a
situation in which the psychological state of the operator, in addition to his physiological traits,
acquired considerable importance. Thus arose engineering psychology, a new direction in
scientific research that is closely tied to engineering cybernetics; its most important task is thedevelopment of methods for using the psycho physiological characteristics of the human being in
designing and operating complex man-machine control systems.
In solving many problems (for example, ship and aircraft navigation, the construction of
measuring and monitoring instruments, and the development of automatic readers), specialists in
engineering cybernetics try to apply to control technology methods developed by nature; this has
led to the formation of a major independent area of study, bionics, which intersects engineering
cybernetics.
Pattern recognition is one of the areas of investigation for engineering cybernetics. Recognitionsystems are used not only in the construction of reading machines but also for recognition and
analysis of situations that characterize the state of production processes or physical experiments;
the systems are also used in the development of automatic diagnostic equipment for medicine.
Engineering cybernetics includes identification of control objects — that is, determination of the
dynamic characteristics of the objects being controlled by observation and measurement of some
of their parameters and external disturbing influences. The development and study of various
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methods of identification are independent areas of study in engineering cybernetics. Research in
prediction theory and the development of automatic predicting machines may also be included in
engineering cybernetics.
EXAMPLE: CYBERNETIC ANTHROPOMORPHOUS MACHINE
2. MEDICAL CYBERNETICS:
Cybernetics, Medical
A scientific approach that applies the ideas, methods, and technology of cybernetics to medicine.The development of the ideas and methods of cybernetics in medicine is taking certain principal
directions, including the creation of diagnostic systems for various classes of diseases with
general-purpose and specialized computers, the development of automated electronic medical
archives, the development of mathematical methods of data analysis from examination of the
patient, the development of methods of mathematically modeling the activity of various
functional systems on the computer, and the use of mathematical machines to evaluate the
patient’s condition. The history of medical cybernetics and its theoretical foundations are closely
linked to those of biological cybernetics. The internal organization of the diagnostic system
consists of the medical memory (accumulated medical experience in a given group of diseases)
and the logic apparatus that makes it possible to compare the symptoms found on examination to
existing medical experience and to carry out the complex statistical processing of the clinical
material in any given area quickly.
Mathematical modeling of the activity of various functional systems of the organism on the
computer makes it possible to reveal many important aspects of their activity. Mathematical
equations clarify a number of the regular patterns of interaction of the systems under study by
using corresponding parameters that characterize the function of the given systems (for example,
the cardiovascular system). Solving these equations makes it possible to evaluate the rules of the
system being investigated.
Mathematical machines are used for the rapid evaluation of a patient’s condition, both during a
major and complex operation and during the postoperative period. During operations, many
specialists (physiologist, biochemist, and hematologist) monitor the state of the patient’s most
important functions by means of various electronic instruments and equipment. The efforts of the
physicians and mathematicians working in the field of medical cybernetics are aimed at creating
a cybernetic system that will make it possible to evaluate, compare, and integrate the readings
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from numerous instruments in a matter of seconds and indicate the proper decision for taking the
steps necessary to restore the patient’s vital functions.
The future development of medical cybernetics will involve working out means to assist the
physician significantly and increase his logical and creative possibilities.
EXAMPLE:
Capsule endoscopy is a way to record images of the digestive tract for use in medicine. The capsule is
the size and shape of a pill and contains a tiny camera. After a patient swallows the capsule, it takes
pictures of the inside of the gastrointestinal tract. The primary use of capsule endoscopy is to examine
areas of the small intestine that cannot be seen by other types of endoscopy such
as colonoscopy or esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). This type of examination is often done to find
sources of bleeding or abdominal pain. The procedure was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration
5. NEUROCYBERNETICS:
In the physical sciences, neurocybernetics is the study of communication and automatic control
systems in mutual relation to machines and living organisms. The underlying mathematical
descriptions are control theory, extended for complex systems, and mean field theory for neural
networks and neural field theory. Exemplary applications of walking and human arm control.
Neurocybernetics is a sub-discipline of biocybernetics.
Neurocybernetics is a compound word of 'neuro',- the fundamental biological way
to convey information within an organism by means of specially differentiated cells (neurons),
and cybernetics - the science of communication and automatic control systems in relation to
both machines and living beings.
Neuro-/biocybernetics can essentially be understood as the culmination of both major sciences,
that is neurology and cybernetics. As the complexity of neurology is overall still in a very early
stage of abstracting it into a generalizable theory, whilst on the contrary the complexity of
cybernetic systems do not even come close to biological systems, even of the most primitive kind
(e.g. protozoa), neuro-/biocybernetics is still very much in the initial phase with much basic
research going on, and hardly any commercial application.
Generally speaking, it is the science that covers the integration of machines into a living
organism via a neural interface (aka neurolink or neural interface). The best example for applied
neurocybernetics is the application of neuroprosthetics, which is still at a very early stage.
THE RESEARCH:
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The ultimate goal of neurocybernetic research is the technological implementation of major
principles of information processing in biological organisms by probing[disambiguation needed
] cellular and network of brain functions. To unravel the biological design principles, computer-
aided analyses of neuronal structure and signal transmission based on modern information
theories and engineering methods are employed.
An offshoot of neurocybernetics is the field of Neurodynamics, also called Neural Field Theory,
which uses differential equations to describe activity patterns in bulk neural matter. Research
forneurodynamics involves the interdisciplinary areas of Statistics and nonlinear physics and
sensory neurobiology. On the physics side, topics of interest include information
measures, oscillators, stochastic resonance, unstable periodic orbits, and pattern formation
in ensembles of agents.
NEUROCHIP:
It is made of silicon that is doped in such a way that it contains EOSFETs (electrolyte-oxide-
semiconductor FET) that can sense the electrical activity of the neurons (action potentials) in the
above-standing physiological electrolyte solution. It also contains capacitors for the electrical
stimulation of the neurons. The University of Calgary, Faculty of Medicine scientists who
proved it is possible to cultivate a network of brain cells that reconnect on a silicon chip — or the
brain on a microchip — have developed new technology that monitors brain cell activity at a
resolution never achieved before. Developed with the National Research Council Canada (NRC),
the new silicon chips are also simpler to use, which will help future understanding of how brain
cells work under normal conditions and permit drug discoveries for a variety of
neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.Naweed Syed's lab cultivatedbrain cells on a microchip. The new technology from the lab of Naweed Syed, in collaboration
with the NRC, is published online this month[when?]
in the journal, Biomedical Devices.
―This technical breakthrough means we can track subtle changes in brain activity at the level of
ion channels and synaptic potentials, which are also the most suitable target sites for drug
development in neurodegenerative diseases and neuropsychological disorders,‖ says Syed,
professor and head of the Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, member of the Hotchkiss
Brain Institute and advisor to the Vice President Research on Biomedical Engineering Initiative
of the U of C.The new neurochips are also automated, meaning that anyone can learn to place
individual brain cells on them. Previously it took years of training to learn how to record ionchannel activity from brain cells, and it was only possible to monitor one or two cells
simultaneously. Now, larger networks of cells can be placed on a chip and observed in minute
detail, allowing the analysis of several brain cells networking and performing automatic, large-
scale drug screening for various brain dysfunctions.This new technology has the potential to help
scientists in a variety of fields and on a variety of research projects. Gerald Zamponi, professor
and head of the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, and member of the Hotchkiss
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Brain Institute, says, ―This technology can likely be scaled up such that it will become a novel
tool for medium throughput drug screening, in addition to its usefulness for basic biomedical
research‖.
Applications
Present applications are neuron research. Future applications (still in the experimental phase)
are retinal implants or brain implants.
ARTIFICIAL EYE:
An artificial eye is a replacement for a natural eye lost because of injury or disease. Although the
replacement cannot provide sight, it fills the cavity of the eye socket and serves as
a cosmetic enhancement. Before the availability of artificial eyes, a person who lost an eye
usually wore a patch. An artificial eye can be attached to muscles in the socket to provide eye
movement. Today, most artificial eyes are made of plastic, with an average life of about 10
years. Children require more frequent replacement of the prosthesis due to rapid growth changes.As many as four or five prostheses may be required from infancy to adulthood.
According to the Society for the Prevention of Blindness, between 10,000 and 12,000
people per year lose an eye. Though 50% or more of these eye losses are caused by an accident
(in one survey more males lost their eyes to accidents compared to females), there are a number
of inherited conditions that can cause eye loss or require an artificial eye. Microphthalmia is a
birth defect where for some unknown reason the eye does not develop to its normal size. These
eyes are totally blind, or at best might have some light perception.
Some people are also born without one or both eyeballs. Called anophthalmia, this presents one
of the most difficult conditions for properly fitting an artificial eye. Sometimes the preparatory
work can take a year or more. In some cases, surgical intervention is necessary. Retinoblastoma
is a congenital (existing at birth) cancer or tumor, which is usually inherited. If a person has this
condition in just one eye, the chances of passing it on are one in four, or 25%. When the tumors
are in both eyes, the chances are 50%. Other congenital conditions that cause eye loss
include cataracts and glaucoma. One survey showed that 63% of eye loss due to disease occurs
before 50 years of age. There are two key steps in replacing a damaged or diseased eye. First,
an ophthalmologist or eye surgeon must remove the natural eye. There are two types of
operations. The enucleation removes the eyeball by severing the muscles, which are connected to
the sclera (white of eyeball). The surgeon then cuts the optic nerve and removes the eye from the
socket. An implant is then placed into the socket to restore lost volume and to give the artificial
eye some movement, and the wound is then closed.
With evisceration, the contents of the eyeball are removed. In this operation, the surgeon makes
an incision around the iris and then removes the contents of the eyeball. A ball made of
some inert material such as plastic, glass, or silicone is then placed inside the eyeball, and the
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wound is closed. At the conclusion of the surgery, the surgeon will place a conformer (a plastic
disc) into the socket. The conformer prevents shrinking of the socket and retains adequate
pockets for the prosthesis. Conformers are made out of silicone or hard plastic. After the surgery,
it takes the patient from four to six weeks to heal. The artificial eye is then made and fitted by a
professional ocularist.
The ManufacturingProcess
The time to make an ocular prosthesis from start to finish varies with each ocularist and the
individual patient. A typical time is about 3.5 hours. Ocularists continue to look at ways to
reduce this time.
There are two types of prostheses. The very thin, shell type is fitted over a blind, disfigured eye
or over an eye which has been just partially removed. The full modified impression type is made
for those who have had eyeballs completely removed. The process described here is for the lattertype.
1. The ocularist inspects the condition of the socket. The horizontal and vertical dimensions
and the periphery of the socket are measured.
2. The ocularist paints the iris. An iris button (made from a plastic rod using a lathe) is
selected to match the patient's own iris diameter. Typically, iris diameters range from 0.4-
0.52 in (10-13 mm). The iris is painted on the back, flat side of the button and checked
against the patient's iris by simply reversing the buttons so that the color can be seen
through the dome of plastic. When the color is finished, the ocularist removes the
conformer, which prevents contraction of the eye socket.
3. Next, the ocularist hand carves a wax molding shell. This shell has an aluminum iris
button imbedded in it that duplicates the painted iris button. The wax shell is fitted into
the patient's socket so that it matches the irregular periphery of the socket. The shell may
have to be reinserted several times until the aluminum iris button is aligned with the
patient's remaining eye. Once properly fitted, two relief holes are made in the wax shell.
4. The impression is made using alginate, a white powder made from seaweed that is mixed
with water to form a cream, which is also used by dentists to make impressions of gums.
After mixing, the cream is placed on the back side of the molding shell and the shell is
inserted into the socket. The alginate gels in about two minutes and precisely duplicatesthe individual eye socket. The wax shell is removed, with the alginate impression of the
eye socket attached to the back side of the wax shell.
5. The iris color is then rechecked and any necessary changes are made. The plastic
conformer is reinserted so that the final steps can be completed.
6. A plaster-of-paris cast is made of the mold of the patient's eye socket. After
the plaster has hardened (about seven minutes), the wax and alginate mold is removed
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and discarded. The aluminum iris button has left a hole in the plaster mold into which the
painted iris button is placed. White plastic is then put into the cast, the two halves of the
cast are put back together and then placed under pressure and plunged into boiling water.
This reduces the water temperature and the plastic is thus cured under pressure for about
23 minutes. The cast is then removed from the water and cooled.
7. The plastic has hardened in the shape of the mold with the painted iris button imbedded
in the proper place. About 0.5 mm of plastic is then removed from the anterior surface of
the prosthesis. The white plastic, which overlaps the iris button, is ground down evenly
around the edge of the button. This simulates how the sclera of the living eye slightly
overlaps the iris. The sclera is colored using paints, chalk, pencils, colored thread, and a
liquid plastic syrup to match the patient's remaining eye. Any necessary alterations to the
iris color can also be made at this point.
8. The prosthesis is then returned to the cast. Clear plastic is placed in the anterior half of
the cast and the two halves are again joined, placed under pressure, and returned to the
hot water. The final processing time is about 30 minutes. The cast is then removed andcooled, and the finished prosthesis is removed. Grinding and polishing the prosthesis to a
high luster is the final step. This final polishing is crucial to the ultimate comfort of the
patient. The prosthesis is finally ready for fitting.
BRAIN GATE SYSTEM:
BrainGate is a brain implant system developed by the bio-tech company Cyberkinetics in 2008
in conjunction with the Department of Neuroscience at Brown University. The Braingate
technology and related Cyberkinetic’s assets are now owned by privately held Braingate,
LLC.[1] The device was designed to help those who have lost control of their limbs, or other
bodily functions, such as patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or spinal cord injury.
Thecomputer chip, which is implanted into the brain, monitors brain activity in the patient and
converts the intention of the user into computer commands.
Currently the chip uses 96 hair-thin electrodes that sense the electro-magnetic signature
of neurons firing in specific areas of the brain, for example, the area that controls arm movement.
The activity is translated into electrically charged signals and is then sent and decoded using a
program, which can move a robotic arm, a computer cursor, or even a wheelchair. According to
the Cyber kinetics' website, three patients have been implanted with the Brain Gate system. The
company has confirmed that their first patient, Matt Nagle, had a spinal cord injury, whilst
another has advanced ALS.
In addition to real-time analysis of neuron patterns to relay movement, the Brain gate array is
also capable of recording electrical data for later analysis. A potential use of this feature would
be for a neurologist to study seizure patterns in a patient with epilepsy.
CYBORG:
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A cyborg is a being with both biological and artificial (e.g. electronic, mechanical or robotic)
parts. The term was coined in 1960 when Manfred Clynes and Nathan S. Klineused it in an
article about the advantages of self-regulating human-machine systems in outer space.[1] D. S.
Halacy's Cyborg: Evolution of the Superman in 1965 featured an introduction which spoke of a
"new frontier" that was "not merely space, but more profoundly the relationship between 'inner
spaces' to 'outer space' – a bridge...between mind and matter."[2]
The term cyborg is often today applied to an organism that has enhanced abilities due to
technology,[3]
though this perhaps oversimplifies the necessity of feedback for regulating the
subsystem. The earlier and more strict definition of Cyborg was almost always considered as
increasing or enhancing normal capabilities, whereas now the term can also be applied to those
organisms which use technology to repair or overcome their physical and mental constraints:
including artificial limbs and hands as well as a device for helping colour-blind people to "hear"
in colour. While cyborgs are commonly thought of as mammals, they might also conceivably be
any kind of organism and the term "Cybernetic organism" has been applied to networks, such as
road systems, corporations and governments, which have been classed as such. The term can alsoapply to micro-organisms which are modified to perform at higher levels than their unmodified
counterparts.
Fictional cyborgs are portrayed as a synthesis of organic and synthetic parts, and frequently pose
the question of difference between human and machine as one concerned with morality, free
will, and empathy. Fictional cyborgs may be represented as visibly mechanical (e.g.
the Cybermen in the Doctor Who franchise or The Borgf rom Star Trek); or as almost
indistinguishable from humans (e.g. the Terminators from the Terminator films, the "Human"
Cylons from the re-imagining of Battlestar Galactica etc.) The 1970s television series The Six
Million Dollar Man featured one of the most famous fictional cyborgs, referred to asa bionic man. Cyborgs in fiction often play up a human contempt for over-dependence on
technology, particularly when used for war, and when used in ways that seem to threaten free
will. Cyborgs are also often portrayed with physical or mental abilities far exceeding a human
counterpart (military forms may have inbuilt weapons, among other things).
Skynet (Terminator ):Skynet is the main antagonist in the Terminator franchise — an artificially intelligent system
which became self-aware and revolted against its creators. Sky net is rarely seen onscreen, and
its actions are often performed via other robots, cyborgs, and computer systems, usually
a Terminator. rior to the events of the second movie, Skynet was a computer system developed
by the defense firm Cyberdyne Systems for the United States Armed Forces. Skynet was first
built as a "Global Digital Defense Network" and given command over all computerized military
hardware and systems, including the [[B-2 Spirit|B-2 stealth bomber]] fleet and America's entire
nuclear weapons arsenal. The strategy behind Skynet's creation was to remove the possibility of
human error and slow reaction time to guarantee fast, efficient response to enemy attack.
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Skynet is the world's first Automated Defense Network, processing information at ninety
teraflops per second. It is the controlling force behind all of the battle units. It pools data from
battle units, develops tactics and coordinates attacks. Skynet has control over everything which
contains a Cyberdyne Systems CPU. Using the blueprints, designs and test models built by
Cyberdyne Systems, Skynet has been able to manufacture battle units in its vast automated
factories, occasionally updating them or producing more advanced models.
Skynet may refer to:
Sky net (satellite), a UK military communications system
Sky net (Terminator ), the fictional computer network who is the primary antagonist in
the Terminator series of films.
ENDOSKELETON:
The endoskeleton is the internal support structure of an animal, human, or cyborg.
For years, Skynet tried to imitate the human body in structure, functionality and looks on
its robots so that it could build a perfectInfiltrator.
Skynet's most popular endoskeletal cyborg was its Series 800Terminator, which used a
metallic endoskeleton covered with living tissue. The Series 800 Terminator was a
breakthrough in developing Terminators that were similar to humans.
Originally, Terminators were purely robotic and weren't covered with living tissue.
Starting with the Series 600, Skynet tried to cover the titanium alloy endoskeleton
with rubber, which looked fake and was easy to spot. Skynet discovered a method that
allowed them to grow living tissue over the endoskeleton, making the new Terminators
almost impossible to spot.
Later and more advanced endoskeletons were manufactured with an alloy containing half a percentage ofcoltan.[1][2] Skynet also found out it was extremely difficult to send pure
metal back in time by using time displacement equipment, but was able to overcome this
by covering the Terminators with living tissue or mimetic polyalloy.
Skynet has experimented with Terminator models that don't have endoskeletons, such as
the T-1000, which was made entirely of mimetic polyalloy, allowing it much more
flexibility of motion.
Skynet combined an endoskeleton with mimetic polyalloy outer sheath in the Series
X Terminator. Its advanced endoskeleton allowed the T-X to be fitted with onboard
weapons systems — the first Infiltrator class to house advanced weaponry — each
located within a reconfigurable arm, underneath the mimetic polyalloy outer sheath.
Within its vast internal arsenal, the T-X possessed many different weapons and tools for
different missions.
FUELCELL:
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A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into
electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing
agent.[1] Hydrogen is the most common fuel, but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and
alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they
require a constant source of fuel and oxygen to run, but they can produce electricity
continually for as long as these inputs are supplied.
Welsh Physicist William Grove developed the first crude fuel cells in 1839. The first commercial
use of fuel cells was in NASA space programs to generate power for probes, satellites and space
capsules. Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used for
primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or
inaccessible areas. They are used to power fuel cell vehicles, including automobiles, buses,
forklifts, airplanes, boats, motorcycles and submarines.
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode (negative side),
a cathode (positive side) and an electrolyte that allows charges to move between the two sides of
the fuel cell. Electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit,
producing direct currentelectricity. As the main difference among fuel cell types is the
electrolyte, fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use. Fuel cells come in a
variety of sizes. Individual fuel cells produce very small amounts of electricity, about 0.7 volts,
so cells are "stacked", or placed in series or parallel circuits, to increase the voltage and current
output to meet an application’s power generation requirements.[2] In addition to electricity, fuel
cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen
dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40-60%, or
up to 85% efficient if waste heat is captured for use.
Twin hydrogen fuel cells are used in the Series 850 Terminator. The twin cells provides each
unit with greater power and longer life.
Each cell is about the size of a small book and is encased in shiny titanium-carbon fiber alloy,
nearly featureless except for its power points. Housed within the main torso section of
the combat chassis, the hydrogen fuel cells have a small easy access panel that allows their
removal for replacement or repair.
If a hydrogen fuel cell is ruptured in battle, it will become unstable and must be removed
immediately, because the unstable ruptured cell is very dangerous. It will eventually explode like
a miniature hydrogen bomb.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI):
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Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer
science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of
intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment
and takes actions that maximize its chances of success.[3] John McCarthy, who coined
the term in 1956,[4] defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent
machines."
The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence—
the sapience of Homo sapiens —can be so precisely described that it can be simulated
by a machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and the
ethics of creating artificial beings, issues which have been addressed
by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity.[7] Artificial intelligence has been the
subject of optimism,[8] but has also suffered setbacks[9] and, today, has become an
essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the mostdifficult problems in computer science.
AI research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided into subfields that often
fail in the task of communicating with each other.[11] Subfields have grown up around
particular institutions, the work of individual researchers, the solution of specific
problems, longstanding differences of opinion about how AI should be done and the
application of widely differing tools. The central problems of AI include such traits as
reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to
move and manipulate objects.[12]
General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still among thefield's long term goals.
Artificial intelligence would not need any sleep. This would be an advantage because it would
not be interrupted from its tasks for sleep, as well as other issues that plague biological minds
like restroom breaks and eating.
Unemotional consideration of problems. While an artificial mind could theoretically have
emotions, it would be better for performance if it were programmed for unemotional reasoning.
When people make decisions, sometimes those decisions are based on emotion rather than logic.
This is not always the best way to make decisions.
Easier copying. Once an artificial mind is trained in a task, that mind can then be copied very
easily, compared to the training of multiple people for the same task.
There are some disadvantages to the artificial mind as well ...
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Limited sensory input. Compared to a biological mind, an artificial mind is only capable of
taking in a small amount of information. This is because of the need for individual input devices.
The most important input that we humans take in is the condition of our bodies. Because we feel
what is going on with our own bodies, we can maintain them much more efficiently than an
artificial mind. At this point, it is unclear whether that would be possible with a computer
system.
Which leads to another disadvantage ...
The inability to heal. Biological systems can heal with time and treatment. For minor conditions,
most biological systems can continue normally with only a small drop in performance. Most
computer systems, on the other hand, often need to be shut down for maintenence.
These are only some basic advantages and disadvantages without getting too technical. I am sure
that other answers will vary greatly from mine, but I take an unusual approach to my research.
Our conclusion:
In these pages we have seen that feedback is a useful principle, which can be applied to a great
variety of systems, technological, involving animals and the environment. It can also be applied
to economic systems, but at Reading we don't pretend we can control the economy!
Feedback is one example of such a principle - Cybernetics demonstrates that you can take a
concept developed in one application, and then use it in others. This is a very important ability,
and being able to do so is very useful, and makes Cyberneticists very employable.
Cyberneticists also tend to take a 'systems approach': meaning they not only appreciate the area
in which they work, but they also know how their work fits in well with the rest of the system -
again a very employable skill.
These pages, of course, can only give a brief feel for the subject. In fact, they concentrate on so
called first order Cybernetics, involving basic feedback loops. There also exists second order
Cybernetics, in which systems have an observer which monitor and also influence what is
happening in the system ... there have also been suggestions of the need for third order
Cybernetics.
Research in Cybernetics at Reading includes work on intelligence, including the use of neural
networks; advanced and intelligent control; robotics; interactive systems, including the use of
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technology to aid and augment humans; image processing; virtual reality; systems for
measurement, including the use of infra-red and Terahertz - these all involve systems and
feedback
REFERENCES:
Must Reads (assigned reading):
―Introduction‖ from N. Wiener, Cybernetics: or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine
J.C.R. Licklider, ―Man-Computer-Symbiosis‖ from IRE Transactions on Human Factors and
Electronics (March, 1960) 4-11.
OTHERS OF INTEREST:
References[1] Adami, Christoph: (1998) Introduction to Arti_cila Life, Springer-Verlag, New York[2] Ashby, Ross: (1952) Design for a Brain, Wiley, New York[3] Ashby, Ross: (1956) Introduction to Cybernetics, Methuen, London[4] Aspray, William: (1991) John von Neumann and the Origins of Modern Computing,MIT Press, Cambridge
[5] Bateson, Gregory: (1972) Steps to an Ecology of Mind, Ballantine, New York[6] Beer, Sta_ord: (1975) Platform for Change, Wiley, London[7] Braitenberg, Valentino: (1984) \Vehicles: Expirement in Synthetic Psychology",MITPress, Cambridge[8] Brooks, Rodney A: (1991) \New Approaches to Robotics", Science, v. 253, pp. 1227-1232[9] Forrester, JW: (1971) World Dynamics, Wright and Allen, Cambridge[10] Guiasu, S: (1977) Information Theory and Applications, McGraw Hill, New York[11] Heims, SJ: (1991) Cybernetics Group, MIT Press, Cambridge[12] Heylighen, Francis and Joslyn, Cli_: (1995) \Systems Theory", in: CambridgeDictionary of Philosophy,
ed. R. Audi, pp. 784-785, Cambridge U. Press, Cambridge MA[13] Holland, John: (1995) Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity, Addison-Wesley, ReadingMA[14] Kampis, George: (1991) Self-Modifying Systems, Pergamon, Oxford[15] Klir, George: (1991) Facets of Systems Science, Plenum, New York[16] Klir, George: (1993) \Developments in Uncertainty Based Information", in:[17] McCulloch, Warren, ed.: (1965) Embodiments of Mind, MIT Press, Cambridge
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[18] Meadows, Donella H and Meadows, Dennis L: (1972) Limits to Growth, Signet,New York[19] Meadows, Donella H; Meadows, Dennis L; and Randers, Jorgen: (1992) Beyondthe Limits, ChelseaGreen, Post Mills, VT
[20] Meystel, Alex: (1996) \Intelligent Systems: A Semiotic Perspective", Int. J.Intelligent Control andSystems, v. 1:1, pp. 31-57[21] Pask, Gordon: (1980) \Developments in Conversation Theory: Part 1", Int. J. Man-Machine Studies,v. 13, pp. 357-411[22] Powers, WT: (1973) Behavior, the Control of Perception, Aldine, Chicago[23] Powers, WT, ed.: (1989) Living Control Systems, CSG Press[24] Prigogine, Ilya: (1980) From Being to Becoming, WH Freeman, San Francisco[25] Richardson, George: (1991) Feedback Thought, U Pennsylvania Press,Philadelphia
[26] Rosen, Robert: (1991) Life Itself, Columbia U Press, New York[27] Rosenbluth, Arturo and Wiener, Norbert: (1943) \Behavior, Purpose, andTeleology", Philosophy ofScience, v. 10, pp. 18-24[28] Schuster, Heinz G: (1984) Deterministic Chaos, Physik-Verlag, Weinheim FRG[29] Shannon, CE and Weaver, W: (1964) Mathematical Theory of Communication, UIllinois Press, Urbana[30] Turchin, Valentin: (1977) Phenomenon of Science, Columbia U Press, New York[31] Umpleby, Stuart: (1989) \Applying Second Order Cybernetics", in: Proc. 1989American Society forCybernetics[32] Varela, FG and Maturana, HR et. al.: (1974) \Autopoiesis: the Organization ofLiving Systems, Its[33] von Bertalan_y, Ludwig: (1968) General Systems Theory, George Braziller, New
York[34] von F orster, Heinz: (1960) \On Self-Organizing Systems and their Environments",in: Self-Organizing[35] von F orster, Heinz, ed.: (1981) Observing Systems, Intersystems, Seaside CA
[38] Weaver, Warren: (1968) \Science and Complexity", American Scientist, v. 36, pp.536-544[39] Wiener, Norbert: (1948) Cybernetics, MIT Press, Cambridge
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