Post on 22-Jun-2015
Chapter 1:
Basic Concepts and Methods
In This Chapter
Introduction to Human Development
Key Issues in the Study of Human Development
Research Methods and Designs
An Introduction to Human Development
Human Development: Scientific study of age-related changes in:
• Behavior
• Thinking
• Emotion
• Personality
An entire lifespan!
Philosophical RootsOriginal Sin
Augustine of Hippo Humans are born selfish and must seek
spiritual rebirth.
Developmental Outcomes Individuals struggle to overcome immoral
actions.
Philosophical and Scientific Roots Innate Goodness
Jean-Jacques Rousseau• Emphasis on children and basic
goodness of human nature• Nurturance and protection needed
Developmental Outcomes• Children’s environment interferes or
encourages
Philosophical and Scientific Roots The Blank Slate
John Locke• Empiricism• Children as passive recipients of
environmental experiences
Developmental Outcomes
• Individual differences due to experience
Early Scientific TheoriesCharles Darwin
First organized study of human development
Evolution Interplay of genetics and environmental
adaptation
Baby biographies Detailed records of his own children’s
early years
Early Scientific Theories
First scientific study of child development
G. Stanley Hall Psychologist Emphasis on norms or average ages
at which developmental milestones occur
Coined “storm and stress” (adolescence)
The Lifespan PerspectiveOverview
Important changes occur in each period of development.
Children and adults experience major life passages.
Increased longevity
Early Scientific Theories
Systematic description of children across domains, particularly in the first five years of life
Arnold Gesell Maturation occurs “naturally” from
genetically programmed sequence. Used movie cameras, one-way mirrors
The Lifespan PerspectivePaul Baltes
• Multi-contextual nature of development• Plasticity and adaptability at all ages• Interdisciplinary perspective and research• With age, strategies used to maximize gain
and compensate for losses
Domains and Periods of Development
Three broad domain categories:
Periods of Development
Stop and Think!
What marks the end of each of these periods of development?
How do you know?
Key Issues in the Study of Human Development
Nature versus Nurture
Nature Inborn propensities; biological influences Inborn biases
Nurture Learning from environmental experiences Internal models of experience
Continuity versus Discontinuity
Continuity = Quantitative change in amount or degree
Discontinuity = Qualitative, step-like change
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each kind of
change?
Another Way to Look at It!
If development consists only of additions, the concept of stages is not needed.
If development involves reorganization or emergence strategies, quality, or skills, than stages are useful.
Three Kinds of ChangeQualitative Changes in Kind or Type
Normative age-graded universal changes Social clock or age norms
Normative history-graded changes Cohort or generational effects
Non-normative changes Unique, unshared changes or individual
differences
Contexts of DevelopmentVulnerability and Resilience
Vulnerabilities and protective factors interact with a child’s environment.
Environments cause differential effects.
Resilient children gain support from optimal environments.
Contexts of DevelopmentGender
Gender matters. Influences individual development Interaction between characteristics and
environment influences and is influenced by gender.
Contexts of DevelopmentOrigins of Delinquency
Patterson et al., 2002
Contexts of Development
Individual differences related to timing Critical period Sensitive period On-time events Off-time events Atypical development “Double Whammy”
Now that you have heard several issues, which do you think are more important in understanding development—nature issues or nurture issues? Why?
What part of the life span interests you the most? What issues would you like to learn about the most?
Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
Research Methods and Designs
Are theories and hypotheses the same?
Theories
Predictions or hypotheses
The Goals of Developmental Science
Describe development
Explain development
Predict developmental event
Influence some developmental outcome
Descriptive Methods
Variables: characteristics that vary across people
Relationship: when two or more variables vary together
Can you think of two variables we could study to learn about our class?
Descriptive Methods Naturalistic Observations
Descriptive methods: ways to identify relationship
• People observed in their normal environments
• Potential observer biases• Limited generalizability• Time consuming
Descriptive Methods Case Studies and Laboratory
ObservationsCase Studies
In-depth examination of a single individual
Laboratory Observations Controlled setting for study
Descriptive Methods Surveys, Interviews and Questionnaires
Two broad survey areas: Questionnaires Interviews
Methods Questions asked; answers recorded Samples used
Correlations
Correlations Describe the strength of the relationship
between two variables
Positive correlation High scores on one variable usually
accompany high scores on the other.
Negative correlation Scores on two variables move in opposite
directions.
Limitations of Correlations
Correlation is NOT causality.
• Correlations measure the level or degree of covariation between two variables.
• They do not prove causal relationships.
Experimental Designs
Test causal hypotheses.
Randomly assign participants to different treatment and control groups. Experimental (treatment) group Control group
Experimental DesignsVariables
Independent variable or “cause”
Dependent variable or “effect” The dependent variable depends on
the “cause.”
Quasi-experiments Participants not randomly assigned
Experimental DesignsThree General Categories
Let’s take a closer look at each.
Designs to Study Age-Related Changes
Cross-Sectional Designs
People studied from different age groups at same time point
Can indicate possible age differences or age changes
But age-related differences may become confused with cohort or generational effects.
Birth Cohort or Generational Effects
Different generations have unique experiences.
Cohort and generational effects can become entangled.
Can you see any cohort patterns?
Figure 1.1 An Example of a Cross-Sectional Design
Designs to Study Age-Related Changes
Longitudinal Designs
Same individuals studied over a period of time
Individual consistencies and inconsistencies can be observed.
Net change assessed over time in the same people.
Longitudinal Designs:Some Problems
Practice or testing affect
Study attrition
Figure 1.2 Example of a Longitudinal Design
Designs to Study Age-Related Changes
Sequential Designs
Combined groups from at least two cohorts followed in a longitudinal study
Comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences
Both aging AND cohort effects are possible.
Figure 1.3 An Example of a Cross-Sequential Design
Cross-Cultural ResearchEthnographies
In-depth descriptions of single culture or context
May compare two or more cultures or subcultures
Can provide both descriptive and interpretive information
Cross-Cultural ResearchBenefits
Cross-cultural Studies• Search for universal and unique
developmental changes
• Demonstrate degree of environmental variation within human development
Research Ethics
Ethics: broad ethical principles for responsible conduct of research and use of any outcomes resulting from research
In Research: Protection of animal rights and human
subjects Universities, government, and organizations
often have Institutional Review Boards (IRBs).
Research Ethics
Protection from harm
Informed consent
Confidentiality
Knowledge of result
Deception