Bilingualism and language Bilingualism and language education in medieval education in medieval

EnglandEngland

Richard InghamRichard InghamSchool of English, School of English, Birmingham City Birmingham City

UniversityUniversity

Outline of talk Outline of talk

SpellingSpelling variation in later Anglo-Norman variation in later Anglo-Norman Phonological differences between Continental French and Anglo-Phonological differences between Continental French and Anglo-

NormanNorman Gender errors?Gender errors? Syntax of later ANSyntax of later AN Critical periods for language learningCritical periods for language learning Pedagogical texts?Pedagogical texts? Conclusion Conclusion

Two versions of the same AN letter, written Two versions of the same AN letter, written three weeks apart:-three weeks apart:-

(1a) Jeo (1a) Jeo vous mercyvous mercy en en quaunt qequaunt qe jeo say et jeo say et peuspeus des des amyables lettres qe vousamyables lettres qe vous me me maundatus maundatus

John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 3/12/1324 John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 3/12/1324 WSS p. 111WSS p. 111

(1b) Jeo (1b) Jeo vusvus merciemercie en en quant quequant que jeo say et jeo say et puspus de les de les amyabelis leteris que vusamyabelis leteris que vus moy avez moy avez maunde maunde

John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 25/12/1324John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 25/12/1324WSS p. 115WSS p. 115

((2a) 2a) Jeo mettrayJeo mettray ma peyne et ma peyne et munmun travailtravail de de server mun server mun seignurseignur et vous et vous bienbien et et loyamentusloyamentus

John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 3/12/1324 John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 3/12/1324 WSS p. 111WSS p. 111

(2b)(2b)Joe metterayJoe metteray ma peyne et ma peyne et monmon travayltravayl de servir nostre de servir nostre seyngurseyngur le roy et vus le roy et vus benben et et leaumentleaument

John Felton to Hugh le Despenser John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 25/12/132425/12/1324 WSS p. 115WSS p. 115

Around half the word tokens vary in Around half the word tokens vary in spelling (ignoring grammatical spelling (ignoring grammatical

variation)variation)

((3a) Les 3a) Les bosoignusbosoignus mun seignurmun seignur ne ne purruntpurrunt pas pas bienbien aler alerJohn Felton to Hugh le Despenser John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 3/12/1324 3/12/1324  WSS p. 111WSS p. 111

(3b) Les (3b) Les bosongisbosongis mons’ seyngurmons’ seyngur ne ne porrountporrount pas pas benben aler aler

John Felton to Hugh le Despenser John Felton to Hugh le Despenser 25/12/1324 25/12/1324  WSS p. 115WSS p. 115

Presence or absence of final schwa ceased Presence or absence of final schwa ceased to be distinctive in ANto be distinctive in AN

<e> spelling used for words where schwa <e> spelling used for words where schwa not present in cont Fr.not present in cont Fr.

Vines Vines (Vins) Br 76(Vins) Br 76dautre partedautre parte (d’autre (d’autre part) Br 80part) Br 80 sa mainesa maine (sa main) Br 96 (sa main) Br 96

le chaumpele chaumpe (le chaump) Br 110 (le chaump) Br 110 son heir son heir de saunkede saunke (de sang) PROME Edw II (de sang) PROME Edw II 13161316

en prisone (prison) PROME Edw Ien prisone (prison) PROME Edw I

AN: what mode of AN: what mode of transmission?transmission?

Insular French spelling and grammar Insular French spelling and grammar seem to have been too variable to seem to have been too variable to have been taught as school subjects have been taught as school subjects

Insular French was used as a vehicle Insular French was used as a vehicle language for the teaching of Latin till language for the teaching of Latin till c. 1350c. 1350

Some phonological characteristics of later ANSome phonological characteristics of later AN

Schwa did not feature in ME phonology, Schwa did not feature in ME phonology, but distinguished masc and fem. forms of but distinguished masc and fem. forms of Old French determiner words, e.g. Old French determiner words, e.g. un, une, un, une, cel, cele, cest, cestecel, cele, cest, ceste etc. etc.

<e> spelling sometimes <e> spelling sometimes dropped from words where dropped from words where

schwa was present in Cont Fr.:schwa was present in Cont Fr.: Tut le moundTut le mound (monde) Br 76; (monde) Br 76; trent trent

(trente) (30) Br 90; (trente) (30) Br 90; mon permon per (père) (père) Br 264; Br 264; en la garden la gard (garde) (garde) son cosineson cosine PROME Edw I PROME Edw I de la festde la fest (feste) (feste) de de Seint MichelSeint Michel PROME Edw II PROME Edw II

Apparent gender errors were common in Apparent gender errors were common in later AN, e.g. missing later AN, e.g. missing –e–e on determiners with on determiners with

feminine nouns:-feminine nouns:-

(4)a en cel prison(4)a en cel prison Bolland 1914: 37Bolland 1914: 37

(4)b sicum en acun rivere(4)b sicum en acun rivere Britton 404Britton 404

(4)c par certeyn enchesoun (4)c par certeyn enchesoun Gippswich, Gippswich, 2222

Conversely, determiner and adjective forms Conversely, determiner and adjective forms with final ‘–e’ can be found with masculine with final ‘–e’ can be found with masculine

nouns, e.g.:nouns, e.g.:

(5)a (5)a de ceste trepasde ceste trepas Bolland 1914: Bolland 1914: 1212

(5)b (5)b de ceste escritde ceste escrit Leics Leics 194194

(5)c (5)c en le haute chemin vers en le haute chemin vers DonestapleDonestaple Tanquerey Tanquerey 1916: 501916: 50

Gender errors with Gender errors with sonson & & sa sa in in AN parliament rolls (PROME)AN parliament rolls (PROME)

2 errors in c. 2,500 uses, 1310-13602 errors in c. 2,500 uses, 1310-1360

35 errors in c. 2,500 uses 1361-140035 errors in c. 2,500 uses 1361-1400

(Ingham 2007)(Ingham 2007)

Gender errors in insular legal Gender errors in insular legal French c. 1300 and c. 1520French c. 1300 and c. 1520

0/100 errors on 0/100 errors on sonson & & sasa c. 1300 c. 1300

1/50 errors on 1/50 errors on sonson; 44/50 errors on ; 44/50 errors on sa, sa, c. 1520c. 1520

(Ingham 2007)(Ingham 2007)

Critical periods for language Critical periods for language learninglearning

Johnson & Newport (1987) showed that Johnson & Newport (1987) showed that nativelike competence in morphosyntax nativelike competence in morphosyntax begins to decline from first exposure at begins to decline from first exposure at age 6. Nativelike if first exposure at ages age 6. Nativelike if first exposure at ages 3-5.3-5.

Age effects for L2 pronunciation begin Age effects for L2 pronunciation begin earlier, c. age 3 in some studies earlier, c. age 3 in some studies (Bongaerts et al. 1997, Flege 1999).(Bongaerts et al. 1997, Flege 1999).

Advanced L2 learners vs. Advanced L2 learners vs. native speakersnative speakers

Even very advanced, highly proficient Even very advanced, highly proficient learners of French made some errors on learners of French made some errors on subtle syntactic rules in Coppieters subtle syntactic rules in Coppieters (1987)(1987)

‘‘The critical period effect is pervasive in The critical period effect is pervasive in L2 acquisition, and therefore typically L2 acquisition, and therefore typically found in the morphosyntactic found in the morphosyntactic competence of even advanced nonnative competence of even advanced nonnative speakers.’ (DeKeyser 2000: 506) speakers.’ (DeKeyser 2000: 506)

Old French syntax IOld French syntax I

Old French had syntactic rules not Old French had syntactic rules not affecting communication of content: affecting communication of content: word order rules regarding position word order rules regarding position of subject; synonymy of:-of subject; synonymy of:-

Li roisLi rois (Subj) (Subj) apelet l’escuyerapelet l’escuyer (Obj) (Obj) L’escuyerL’escuyer (Obj) (Obj) apelet li roisapelet li rois (Subj) (Subj)

Or apelet li rois l’escuyerOr apelet li rois l’escuyer(Marchello-Nizia 1995)(Marchello-Nizia 1995)

Verb secondVerb second

In a clause beginning with an adverbial In a clause beginning with an adverbial expression, the subject followed the expression, the subject followed the verb, e.g.:verb, e.g.:

(6a)(6a) Or apele li rois un escuier Or apele li rois un escuier

(6b)(6b) Maintenant apele li rois un escuier Maintenant apele li rois un escuier

*Or li rois apele un escuier*Or li rois apele un escuier

*Maintenant li rois apele un escuier*Maintenant li rois apele un escuier

Old French syntax IIOld French syntax II

A clitic (weak form) Object pronoun had to A clitic (weak form) Object pronoun had to follow the verb in an infinitive clause:follow the verb in an infinitive clause:

(7) (7) Por veoir lePor veoir le (*por le veoir) (*por le veoir) (Buridant 2000: 354)(Buridant 2000: 354)

But a clitic object pronoun preceded the But a clitic object pronoun preceded the auxiliary in an auxilated clauseauxiliary in an auxilated clause

(8)(8) Il le puet veoir Il le puet veoir (*il puet le veer) (*il puet le veer)

Loss of verb second in Middle Loss of verb second in Middle FrenchFrench

Asymmetry around 1300 between XVS Asymmetry around 1300 between XVS after a preposed direct object (13a) and after a preposed direct object (13a) and XSV after an initial adverbial (13b):-XSV after an initial adverbial (13b):-

(9)a Grant partie des prisonniers envoia (9)a Grant partie des prisonniers envoia le roy a Parisle roy a Paris GCF VII 93 (c.1300)GCF VII 93 (c.1300)

(9)b En cel an meismes messires Jacques (9)b En cel an meismes messires Jacques roys d’Arragon tint son parlement… roys d’Arragon tint son parlement… GCF VII 48 (c.1300)GCF VII 48 (c.1300)

TABLE 2: Frequency of VS TABLE 2: Frequency of VS versus SV order versus SV order with full NP with full NP

subjectssubjects in AN chronicles, c. 1280-1350 in AN chronicles, c. 1280-1350

VS VS % % SV SV % %TotalTotal

Time Time

Adverbials 32 21Adverbials 32 21 120 79 120 79 152152

Preposed Preposed

ObjectsObjects 10 83 2 17 12 10 83 2 17 12

TABLE 2: Frequency of VS versus SV TABLE 2: Frequency of VS versus SV order order with pronoun subjectswith pronoun subjects

in AN chronicles, c. 1280-1350 in AN chronicles, c. 1280-1350

VS VS % SV % % SV % TotalTotal

Time Time

adverbials 6 46 7 54 adverbials 6 46 7 54 1313

Preposed Preposed

Objects 18 100 0 0 18Objects 18 100 0 0 18

AN clitic object pronouns with AN clitic object pronouns with infinitives, pre-1320infinitives, pre-1320

(10)a ...ke jeo asuase par (10)a ...ke jeo asuase par deboneirete de treiter deboneirete de treiter lesles en amur en amurHIII 2,m321 (1268)HIII 2,m321 (1268)

(10)b. Len a mester de prendre (10)b. Len a mester de prendre leleSen c. 41Sen c. 41 (c. 1280)(c. 1280)

AN clitic object pronouns with AN clitic object pronouns with infinitives, infinitives, post-1320post-1320

(11)a ...qe ascun s’entremet de (11)a ...qe ascun s’entremet de lesles faire entrerfaire entrer LC II 62 (1334)LC II 62 (1334)

(11)b. …de ensi(11)b. …de ensi le le faire faireLanc. p. 29 (c. 1354)Lanc. p. 29 (c. 1354)

Frequencies of clitic object pronouns in Frequencies of clitic object pronouns in AN non-finite clauses 1250-1362AN non-finite clauses 1250-1362

1250-13191250-1319 1320-1362 1320-1362

clitic clitic

preverbalpreverbal 1 (4%) 1 (4%) 36 (61%)36 (61%)

clitic clitic

postverbalpostverbal 27 (96%)27 (96%) 23 (39%)23 (39%)

TotalTotal 2828 5959

Frequencies of strong form pronouns in Frequencies of strong form pronouns in infinitive clauses, 1250-1362infinitive clauses, 1250-1362

1250-1319 1320-13621250-1319 1320-1362

strong form strong form

PreverbalPreverbal 17 (85%)17 (85%) 39 (89%)39 (89%)

strong form strong form

postverbal postverbal 3 (15%) 3 (15%) 5 (11%)5 (11%)

TotalTotal 2020 44 44

What evidence of ‘pedagogical’ What evidence of ‘pedagogical’ texts?texts?

Rothwell (1976) argued that by the Rothwell (1976) argued that by the mid 13mid 13thth century there was ‘a public century there was ‘a public wishing to learn French as a foreign wishing to learn French as a foreign language’ and that this need was language’ and that this need was satisfied by the use of pedagogical satisfied by the use of pedagogical texts:texts:

Glosses, spelling and grammatical Glosses, spelling and grammatical treatises, vocabulary manual (esp. treatises, vocabulary manual (esp. Bibbesworth’s Bibbesworth’s Tretiz de langageTretiz de langage) ) these works functioned as ‘manuals these works functioned as ‘manuals of different kinds to promote the of different kinds to promote the teaching of French’ (Rothwell 1976: teaching of French’ (Rothwell 1976: 463).463).

Glosses: French used to gloss Glosses: French used to gloss target Latin wordstarget Latin words

Hoc intercilium, entre les surcilsHoc intercilium, entre les surcils

Hic capriarius, qui garde les chevresHic capriarius, qui garde les chevres

Hoc cenaculum , u l’en manjueHoc cenaculum , u l’en manjue

(Glasgow Lat-Fr glossary) (Glasgow Lat-Fr glossary)

Orthographia gallicaOrthographia gallica

Pope (1934): ‘syntactical phonetics’, especially Pope (1934): ‘syntactical phonetics’, especially elided forms such as elided forms such as m’alme, d’Engleterrem’alme, d’Engleterre. .

But this was a change in progress in mid-C13 But this was a change in progress in mid-C13 continentalcontinental texts,where unelided spellings can texts,where unelided spellings can be found such as be found such as en non de escange, de blé et en non de escange, de blé et de avaignede avaigne Oise deeds 1256 (Carolus-Barré, Oise deeds 1256 (Carolus-Barré, 1964); 1964); de ellesde elles , 1262, Valenciennes, , 1262, Valenciennes, Béguines, (Doc. Hist. Franc. Vol I), 1273 Béguines, (Doc. Hist. Franc. Vol I), 1273 de de autres princes, autres princes, Relation d’ambassadeurs, ibid. Relation d’ambassadeurs, ibid.

mauveismauveis not not malveismalveis

Following {/a/e/o/}, /l/ Following {/a/e/o/}, /l/ /u/ before a /u/ before a consonant , e.g. in consonant , e.g. in malveismalveis

Spelling forms record the earlier Old Spelling forms record the earlier Old French pronounciations, cf French pronounciations, cf eskoltet, eskoltet, mals, voldretmals, voldret (Eulalie). (Eulalie).

benben

BienBien, not , not benben

Pronounce /i/ before /e/ in words such Pronounce /i/ before /e/ in words such as as bien, mieuzbien, mieuz, etc, not before 1st e , etc, not before 1st e in in tenez, beveztenez, bevez etc. etc.

Again, an area where change had Again, an area where change had taken place from earlier Old French. taken place from earlier Old French. MelzMelz (Eulalie l. 16) (Eulalie l. 16) seule <- saeculumseule <- saeculum (l. 24), (l. 24),

Glosses in BibbesworthGlosses in Bibbesworth

The author says ‘n’est pas mester tut a The author says ‘n’est pas mester tut a descrivere/du fraunceis descrivere/du fraunceis ki chescun seit direki chescun seit dire.’ .’

The English glosses can hardly have been The English glosses can hardly have been supplied by the original author, since they supplied by the original author, since they ignore this point. Immediately after the ignore this point. Immediately after the above passage, words that Bibbesworth’s above passage, words that Bibbesworth’s text presents as common knowledge - text presents as common knowledge - ventre dos echine, espaul bras, poitrine -ventre dos echine, espaul bras, poitrine - are glossed into English, in the Cambs Gg are glossed into English, in the Cambs Gg 1.1 ms. used by Rothwell 1990 and Owens 1.1 ms. used by Rothwell 1990 and Owens 1929.1929.

Glosses in BibbesworthGlosses in Bibbesworth

The words The words notnot glossed into English in the ms glossed into English in the ms edited by Rothell (1990) include many items edited by Rothell (1990) include many items squarely within the vocabulary area of activities squarely within the vocabulary area of activities related to the land:related to the land:

haterel (41) entruit, aubume (202) eschele (238) haterel (41) entruit, aubume (202) eschele (238) arure (286) semaus (345) curteller (414) canois arure (286) semaus (345) curteller (414) canois (416) pestour (381) pessel (428) vivere (514) (416) pestour (381) pessel (428) vivere (514) aumail (549), enclume (571) navet (656) aumail (549), enclume (571) navet (656) curtillage (776) blaret (788) feoun (819) chaltil, curtillage (776) blaret (788) feoun (819) chaltil, becheus (855) hurteurs (858) chartil (869) becheus (855) hurteurs (858) chartil (869) caruer (900) vayour/vaez (909-11) zoke, zouche caruer (900) vayour/vaez (909-11) zoke, zouche (924), maillet (927) aguilloun (936).(924), maillet (927) aguilloun (936).

Likewise Likewise celer, pielerceler, pieler (950-1) (950-1) traestraes (957) (957) gymel gymel (993) relate to house-building but are (993) relate to house-building but are not glossed. not glossed.

The Bibbesworth ms cannot be presented as a The Bibbesworth ms cannot be presented as a systematic attempt to teach French systematic attempt to teach French vocabulary using English as a medium of vocabulary using English as a medium of instruction. Rather, it offers technical instruction. Rather, it offers technical vocabulary enhancement in specialised vocabulary enhancement in specialised areas to a young bilingual person already areas to a young bilingual person already having a fairly accomplished ability to having a fairly accomplished ability to comprehend via French.comprehend via French.

ConclusionConclusion

Outside aristocratic circles, Outside aristocratic circles, French was learnt in later French was learnt in later medieval England until c. 1350 medieval England until c. 1350 as a childhood second language as a childhood second language in an institutional context in an institutional context experienced before grammar experienced before grammar school: the church school.school: the church school.