Transcript of Benson voller learner autonomy
- 1. Feb. 2010, Volume 7, No.2 (Serial No.74) Sino-US English
Teaching, ISSN 1539-8072, USA 1 Promoting language LearnersAutonomy
in Cooperative Learning WANG Xu-sheng (Foreign Language Department,
Liaoyuan Vocational and Technical College, Jilin 136201, China)
Abstract: Learner Autonomy (LA) is the desirable goal of the
education. To date, many Learner Autonomy training programs have
been carried out in foreign language teaching. Cooperative Learning
(CL) is a language teaching and learning strategy which gets
learners actively and cooperatively involved in learning a foreign
language in groups. Both of them have been respectively advocated
from pedagogical point of view and from the perspective of
philosophy. However, being autonomous does not necessarily mean
learning alone. Language learners should learn cooperatively and
autonomously. It is the authors contention that CL is a good method
to promote LA. CL has positive effects on both students readiness
and their ability to be more autonomous. CL enhances self-esteem
and self-confidence, increases high motivation, encourages learners
responsibility for learning, enhances self-management skills,
increases support for language learners to move from
interdependence to independence. The paper stresses in the end that
promoting LA is the teachers long-term pedagogic goal. Key words:
Cooperative Learning; language learner; autonomy 1. Introduction
Over the last three decades, autonomy in language learning has
taken on a growing importance in the field of language education.
David Little (1991, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 1) has
described autonomy as a buzz-word of the 1990s, and this is borne
out by a number of books (Dam, 1995; Dickinson & Wenden, 1995;
Gardner & Miller, 2002), Anita Wenden (1991, cited in Benson
& Voller, 1997, p. 1) states that few teachers will disagree
with the importance of helping language learners become more
autonomous as learners. Many Chinese language teachers are
convinced of the importance of learner autonomy into their
practice, they have done a lot of programs to improve the learner
autonomy and write some papers on it (ZHOU, 1998; ZHENG, 2000; HUA,
2001; PENG, 2002; WEI, 2002; DAI, 2004HE & WANG, 2007; ZHANG,
2009). Many of these contributions deal principally with the
theoretical background of learner autonomy, and the program to
promote the learner autonomy. LA can be promoted, but it does not
mean it can only be promoted through designed program or
self-access resources. In this paper, the author wants to suggest
that by CL learners can be more autonomous. Cooperative learning
seems to be contradicting to promote the learner autonomy. Because
CL demands the learners to learn cooperatively while learner
autonomy emphasizes learners independence. Little attention has
been paid to the contribution CL does to promote learner autonomy.
The paper will first deal with the definitions of LA and CL, then
sum up the characteristics of the autonomous learner and CL, and
analyze what individual learner can get from the cooperative
learning which is helpful to promoting his autonomy. 2. Literature
review WANG Xu-sheng (1972- ), female, associate professor of
Foreign Language Department, Liaoyuan Vocational and Technical
College; research field: English teaching methodology.
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2 LA is the desirable goal of the education. However, with regard
to what is LA and the approaches to the promotion of LA, there
exists controversy. In this part, definition of LA and
characteristics of autonomous learner will be reviewed. It also
includes the definition of CL and the characteristics of CL. 2.1
Definition of learner autonomy The concept of autonomous originated
from debates about the development of life-long learning skills in
the 1960s. By 1981, Holec (1981, cited in Benson & Voller,
1997, p. 1) had defined autonomy as the ability to take charge of
ones own learning. He has been a major influence in the debate
about autonomy in language learning. Definitions of autonomy have
of course varied. Dickinson (1987, p. 11) accepts the definition of
autonomy as situation in which the learner is totally responsible
for all of the decisions concerned with his or her learning and the
implementation of those decisions. It defined as the techniques in
order to direct ones own learning (Pemberton, 1996, p. 3). It
refers to learning in which the learners themselves take
responsibility for their own learning (Thomson, 1996, p. 78). This
implies that an autonomous learner is capable of setting goals and
objectives, choosing material, methods and tasks, carrying out and
evaluating his/her work/learning. Learners are able to make
significant decisions about what is to be learned, as well as how
and when to learn it. On a general note, the term autonomy has come
to be used in at least five ways (Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 2):
(1) for situations in which learners study entirely on their own;
(2) for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in
self-directed learning; (3) for an inborn capacity which is
suppressed by institutional education; (4) for the exercise of
learners responsibility for their own learning; (5) for the right
of learners to determine the direction of their own learning. 2.2
Characteristics of the autonomous learner Most of the
characteristics imputed to the autonomous learner encapsulate a
wide range of attributes not commonly associated with learners. For
instance, Benn (1976, cited in Candy, 1991, p. 102) likens the
autonomous learner to one whose life has a consistency that derives
from a coherent set of beliefs, values and principlesand who
engages in a still-continuing process of criticism and
re-evaluation, while Rousseau (1981, cited in Candy, 1991, p. 102)
regards the autonomous learner is obedient to a law that he
prescribes to himself. Within the context of education, though,
there seem to be seven main attributes characterising autonomous
learners (Omaggio, 1978, cited in Wenden, 1998, pp. 41-42): (1)
Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and
strategies; (2) take an active approach to the learning task at
hand; (3) are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the
target language at all costs; (4) are good guessers; (5) attend to
form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy
as well as appropriateness; (6) develop the target language into a
separate reference system and are willing to revise and reject
hypotheses and rules that do not apply; (7) have a tolerant and
outgoing approach to the target language. 2.3 Definition of
Cooperative Learning Cooperative Learning may be broadly defined as
any group learning situation in which students of all levels of
performance work together in structured groups toward a shared or
common goal. Brody and Albany (1998, p. 8) defined it as students
work in groups toward a common goal or outcome, or share a common
problem or task in such a way that they can only succeed in
completing the work through behavior that demonstrate
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3 interdependence while holding individual contributions and
efforts accountable. Jack C. Richards (2000, p. 108) listed four
reasons to support such an approach to learning which is said to
increase students learning: (1) It is less threatening for many
students; (2) It increases the amount of student participation in
the classroom; (3) It reduces the need for competitiveness; (4) It
reduces the teachers dominance in the classroom. While the
Cooperative Learning in this thesis refers those learners learn in
groups, working together towards a common goal, being individually
accountable for the group success. 2.4 Characteristics of CL
Cooperative Learning requires social interaction and negotiation of
meaning among heterogeneous group members engaged in tasks in which
all group members have both something to contribute to and learn
from the other members. CL shares the following essential
characteristics (Crandall, 1999, p. 227): (1) positive
interdependence; (2) face-to-face, group interaction; (3)
individual (and group) accountability; (4) development of small
group social skills; (5) group processing. Breen and Mann (1997, p.
134) combine eight qualities that characterize autonomous learners:
(1) the persons stance towards the world; (2) their desire for what
it is they are learning; (3) their robust sense of self; (4)
metacognitive capacity; (5) management of change; (6) their
independence from educational process; (7) their strategic
engagement with learning; (8) their capacity to negotiate.
According to Breen and Mann, and Crandall, not only metacognitive
strategies are essential for autonomy, but also learners attitudes
towards the world, the educational environment, and themselves as
language learners play a critical part. CL has been shown to
encourage and support most of the affective factors with correlate
positively with language learning (Crandall, 1999, p. 227), i.e.,
reducing (negative or debilitating) anxiety, increasing motivation,
facilitating the development of positive attitudes toward learning
and language learning, promoting self-esteem, as well as supporting
different learning styles and encouraging perseverance in the
difficult and confusing process of learning another language. All
of these are important factors to be more autonomous. 3. The
Cooperative Learning and Learner Autonomy Cooperative Learning does
help to promote the Learner Autonomy. Individual learner can get a
lot from the Cooperative Learning which is helpful to promoting his
autonomy in learning. 3.1 Learner autonomy does not mean learner
isolation
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4 The concept of autonomy has traditionally been associated with
individualism. Independence is used sometimes as a synonym for
autonomy (Sheerin, 1991, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 2).
Dickinson (1992, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997, p. 2)
associates autonomy with the idea of learning alone and
independence with active responsibility for ones own learning. This
is not surprising because autonomy, as known to many in present day
western and non-western societies was born in the rationalistic
tradition of 18th century Europe. Although terms, such as learner
independence and autonomy may mistakenly be interpreted as solitary
learning, autonomy does not mean that students go off by themselves
and study all alone. Claims have been made, however, that autonomy
should not necessarily imply total independence. Little (1991,
1996) shows that second language learner requires interaction. From
a communication point of view, Benson (1997) argues that the
individualistic view of autonomy leads to social atomism, which
disempowers individuals; he emphasizes the importance of collective
autonomy in the exercise of autonomy. Candy (1991, p. 337) points
out that the teacher and the learner can work towards autonomy by
creating a friendly atmosphere characterized by low threat,
unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect
for the ideas and opinions of others, approval of self-improvement
as a goal, collaboration rather than competition. Learners need a
supportive environment in order to learn to be more independent.
Ryan (1991, cited in Littlewood, 1999) surveyed a number of studies
of his own and others which suggest that autonomy develops most
effectively in an interpersonal environment which supports it. LA
is not only individual, but also social. It entails a capacity and
willingness to act independently and in cooperation with others, as
a socially responsible person (Dam, 1995, p. 1). Learning does not
take place in a vacuum and that self-direction does not necessarily
imply learning on ones own (Pemberton, 1996). CL is an important
factor in the promotion of the learner autonomy. 3.2 Cooperative
Learning contributes a lot in promoting Learner Autonomy Autonomy
combines well with cooperation, because cooperation offers a
powerful means of promoting and enacting autonomy among foreign
language learners. Phil Benson (1997, p. 33) listed eleven
activities through which autonomy can be promoted. The second one
is collaborative group work and collective decision making.
Cooperative Learning promotes Learner Autonomy in the following
ways: 3.2.1 CL enhances self-esteem and self-confidence Self-esteem
is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the
attitudes that the individual holds towards himself (Coopersmith,
1967, cited in Andres, 2000). If the learner has a robust sense of
self, to quote Breen and Mann (1997, cited in Benson & Voller,
1997, p. 134), his relationship to himself as a learner is one
which is unlikely to be undermined by any actual or assumed
negative assessments of themselves or their work by significant
others in the teachinglearning process. Conversely, a lack of
self-esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his
capability as a learner, and to a deterioration in cognitive
performance, thus confirming his view of himself as incapable of
learning (Diener & Dweck, 1978, 1980, cited in Wenden, 1998, p.
57). In CL environment, learners help each other and in doing so
build a supportive community which raises the performance level of
each member. CL fosters a higher level of performance by learners.
Their critical thinking skills increase and their retention of
information and interest in the subject matter improves. When
learners are successful, they view the subject matter with a very
positive attitude because their self-esteem is enhanced. This
creates a positive cycle of good performance building higher
self-esteem which in turn leads to more interest in the subject and
higher performance yet. Students share their success with their
groups, thus enhancing the individuals self-esteem.
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5 Formerly shy language learners acquire the confidence to
participate in small groups, where they can share ideas, receive
feedback and rehearse potential contributions to the larger group.
Students with more limited language proficiency also have been
reported to speak more in cooperative contexts (Crandall, 1999, p.
236). An increase in self-confidence learning and self-esteem will
lead to increased learner effort in language learning and a greater
willingness to take risks or to continue attempting to make ones
views understood (Crandall, 1999, p. 234). These are the necessary
characteristics of autonomous learner. 3.2.2 CL increases high
motivation Motivation is one of the key factors that influence the
rate and success of foreign language learning. Motivation provides
the primary impetus to initiate learning the foreign language and
later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious
learning process. Peer support can be a powerful motivator for shy,
insecure or even uninterested students. For most learners, being a
member of a group of peers who are all striving towards similar
ends, and who are struggling with similar difficulties and
problems, can be a tremendous help in maintaining morale and in
motivation. In cooperative groups, individuals know that they can
get feedback and assistance in making their contributions as clear,
relevant and appropriate as possible. This, in turn, can motivate
them to continue to try, especially when peers encourage and
support their contributions. Cooperative Learning involves task or
reward structures which better ensure that all members of the group
will participate and do so at their own level of proficiency.
Resource, goal and reward interdependence contribute to motivation,
and enjoyable activities encourage participation as well (Crandall,
1999, pp. 234-235). 3.2.3 CL encourages learner responsibility for
learning CL means sharing, encouraging, and accepting
responsibility for ones own learning and that of others, not
leaving all responsibility to the teacher and the others. By CL,
learners will be provided with more opportunities to manipulate the
process of their own learning, thus will take on more
responsibility for their learning. In CL teams, learners assist
each other and take different roles within their groups (such as
reader, recorder, time keeper, etc.), mutual support and positive
interdependence can be formed, therefore, learners will have more
freedom to form discussions about their learning, to identify and
solve problems in their shared learning tasks. Besides, they would
learn to evaluate their learning process and outcomes, would
develop more skills in organizing learning activities, and would
raise their awareness of learning, thus gradually become autonomous
learners. 3.2.4 CL enhances self-management skills CL inherently
calls for self-management by students. In order to function within
their groups they need to come prepared with assignments completed
and they must understand the materials which they are going to
contribute to their groups. Learners must know their
responsibilities toward the group and how to be an effective group
member. They also have to spend time to process group behaviors,
such as checking with each other to make sure homework assignments
are not only completed, but also understood by each group member.
These promotive interactions help learners learn self-management
techniques. From a psychological view, CL fosters self-efficacy
among learners. Learner self-direction is generated in part by the
high expectations by the group members and the high degree of
responsibility placed upon the students for their learning. 3.2.5
CL increases support for language learners to move from
interdependence to independence Cooperative Learning promotes
self-determination among students, helping them to become more
autonomous and self-controlled, and less dependent upon outside
authority. Students learn greater autonomy gradually, relying first
on each other for direction and assistance, and over time, through
leadership experiences in
- 6. Promoting language LearnersAutonomy in Cooperative Learning
6 their groups, acquiring greater independence in their own
learning, actively choosing to use the resources of the teacher and
other group members, rather than merely relying on them to get
things done. In carrying out various cooperative activities and
tasks, learners engage in an increasing variety of procedures
formerly limited to the teacher (for example, planning the task;
monitoring its progress; identifying and obtaining needed
resources). They also become much more responsible for the groups
and their own learning. The step to independence is one which
gradually unfolds, as learners become increasingly autonomous
(Crandall, 1999, p. 240). 4. Conclusion There is no reason for
teachers to ask the learner to work in isolation. Equally, there is
no compulsion for them to work cooperatively. As a teacher, what we
must do is to help the learners be more autonomous through kinds of
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