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TEACHER BELIEF SYSTEMS TOWARDS COMPUTEX-MEDIATED LANGUAGE LEARNING:
COLLEGE ESL INSTRUCTION
Geoffrey Philip John Lawrence
A thesis submitted in the conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts
Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Leaming Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the
University of Toronto
O Copyright by Geoffrey Philip John Lawrence 2000
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Teacher Belief Systems towards Cornputer-Mediated Language Lemming: College ESL Instruction
Submitted for the degree of Master of Arts November, 2000
by Geoffrey Philip John Lawrence
Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Lemiing Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the
University of Toronto
Abstract
This research suweyed college-level English-as-a-Second instructors to
define the nature of second language teacher belief systems towards computer-
mediated Ianguage leaming. Focus group interviews and questionnaires
revealed two principal factors influencing belief systems: affect and the
perceived utility of computers in second language education. A theoretical
framework defining belief systems and the demographic, contextual and
experienfial constructs directing belief systems and consequent actions using
computer technology is outlined. The majority of partiapants reported having
used computer teduiology in their practices, and demonstrated positive attitudes
towards computers in E L instruction. The reguiar use of computers kvas found
to positively influence both teachers' attitudes and perceptions that cornputer
technology is an effective teadùng tool. Teachers with 10 to 20 yem of teaching
experience most positively perceived computers as valuable resources in ESL
instruction. Gender, age, education level, college affiliation and cornputer
training did not significantly iduence teacher belief systems towards computer-
mediated language leaming.
Acknowledgements
In no way is an academic thesis a solitary work. My journey in
completing this research was greatly facilitated by several individuals who
deserve my u h o s t thanks.
1 owe a substantial part of the success of this paper to my thesis
supervisor, Miles Turnbull, who guided and encouraged me throughout ths
often arduous process. 1 have been so fortunate to have such an accessible,
conscientious and dedicated supervisor, willing to share his time, energy,
experience and wisdom with me throughout this process. I also thank Jim
Cummins for his inspirational comments, his advice and his participation in
reviewing my thesis. 1 would like to thank my professors throughout my
graduate program who have helped expand my knowledge in the area of second
language education and educational technology, allowing me to focus and direct
h s research.
1 would also like to thank al1 the college ESL teachers who shared their
time, experience and opinions while participating in this research. Without their
insight, 1 would have littie to share. 1 sincerely thank al1 my friends and
colleagues in the colleges who helped me throughout this process, faalitating my
access to ESL faculty and allowing me the opportunity to address their staff and
promote this research.
Thanks also to Jeanie Stewart and Sue Elgie who shared their respective
manuscript preparation and statistical knowledge with me in order to help me
prepare this thesis manuscript and understand and present the data that 1
obtained.
And last, but not least, 1 want to thank Jim for his guidance, inspiration
and tolerance whose love, friendship and support empowered me throughout
this joumey.
Dedica tion
This work would never have been possible without the continued
inspiration, support and love from my parents. 1 dedicate this work to you,
Mom and Dad, who have always inspired me to enlighten myself about the world around me, expand my horizons and contribute fully to society. The
confidence you have both shown me throughout my Iife has enahled me to
undertake and succeed in such projects and 1 ultimately owe the success of this
thesis to your continued love, support and guidance.
Table of Contents . . ......................................................................................................................... Abstract ii
... .................................................................................................... Acknowledgements 111
.................................................................................................................... Dedication iv
Chapter 1 Introduction and Rationale ................................................................... 1 .............................................................................................................. Introduction 1
............................................................................................. Research Objectives 2 Rationale for this Study ........................................................................................ 3
.......... Computer-Mediated Language Leaming and ESL Instruction: My Story 6 Surnmary ................................................................................................................... 9
..................................................................................... Chapter 2 Literature Review 10 The Nature of Teaching, Teacher Belief Systems and Educational Innovation 10
.............................................................................. Ins ti tu tionalised Resis tance Il ........................................................... The Changing Classroom Environment 13
Lack of Training and Support ....................................................................... 14 ............................................ Underuse of Educational Compter Technology 14
Reported Benefits of Computer Technology and ................................................... ...................... Second Language Leaming ...... 16
Second Language Teacher Belief Systems and ............................. ...... Cornpu ter-Mediated Educational Enviromnents ... 1 7
..................................................................... Inadequate Training and Support 19 Defining Teacher Belief Systems ......................................................................... 20
Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behaviour .............................................................. 22 Teacher Belief Systems Towards Educational hovation: A Theoretical Definition .................................................................................... 23
................................................................................................................. Summary 26
Chapter 3 Research Methodology ........................................................................ 2 8 ..................................................................................................... Research Design 28
Partiàuants ........................................................................................................ 2 9 A
................................................................. Focus gr ou^ Interview Partiauants 29 ~uestionnake Participants ................................................................................. 31
.............................................................................................. Research Procedures 32 Focus Group Interviews .................................................................................... 32 Questionnaire Research Procedures ................................................................. 33
.................................................................. Questionnaire piloting 34 .............................................. Questiomaire collection and analysis 35
Summary ................................................................................................................. 37
Chapter 4 Results and Findings ................................................................................ 39 Contextual Factors in Surveyed Teaching Environments .................................. 39
..................................................................................... Focus Group Interviews 4 1 Focus Group Data ............................................................................................... 41 The Impact of Focus Group Data on the Questionnaire ................................. 43
Questionnaire Findings ......................................................................................... 44 Questionnaire Distribution ........................................................................... 4 5 Questionnaire Participants .......................................................................... 4 5 Teacher Belief Systems Towards Cornputer-Meciiated Language Leaming . 48
Reliabili ty analysis of theoretical conshcts ....................................... 50 Factor analysis of belief system data ................................................ 51 Reliability analysis of factors and theoreticai constmcts ....................... 54
C Factor-defined belief systems ......................................................... 37 Differences in prrtiapant belief systems ........................................... 59
Reported Uses of Computer Technology ..................................................... 62 Non-users of computer technology .................................................. 65 Non-users' intentions to use cornputers ............................................ 66
Summary of Questionnaire Data ........................................................................ 67
Chapter 5 Discussion ............................................................................................. 6 9 Second Language Teacher Belief Systems Towards Cornputer-Mediated Language Learning ....................................... 69
Theoretically Defined Belief Systems ........................ .... ............................ 69 ESL Teacher Belief Systems Towards Cornputer-Mediated Language Learning ............................................................................................................ 74 Demographic and Expenential Influences on Belief Systems ........................ 75
Computer use and belief systems .................................................... 75 Teaching experience and belief systems ............................................ 77 The likelihood of computer use and belief systems .............................. 77 Factors not impacting on belief systems ............................................ 78
Teacher Belief Systems and Their Muence on Reported Practice or Intended Practice Using Computer-Mediated Language Learning ................................. 80
Location of Computer Use ................................................................................. 82 Limitations of This Research ................................................................................. 85 Recommendations For Future Research .............................................................. 85 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................. 87
References ................................................................................................................. 9 0
Appendices
Appendix A: Focus Group Information Letters and Consent Forms .................... 97 Appendix B: Focus Group Participant Screening Questions ............................... 101 Appendix C: Focus Group Procedures and Questions ........................................ 103 Appendix D: Participant Questionnaire ................................................................ 107
List of Tables
Table 4.1: Table 4.2: Table 4.3:
Table 4.4: Table 4.5: Table 4.6: Table 4.7: Table 4.8: Table 4.9: Table 4.10:
Table 4.11:
Table 4.12:
Table 4.13: Table 4.14:
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
................ O v e ~ e w of S w e y e d College Teadùng Environments 40 .................. Questionnaire Distribution and Collection per College 45
Descriptive Statistics on Teachers' Level of Education. Ages and Experience ......................................... 46
............ Reported Weekly Use of Compu ters among ESL Teachers 47
............ Types of Cornputer-Based ESL Teacher Training Received 47 ............................. Instmctor Response to Belief System Statements 49
Alpha Reliability Andysis of Original Theoretical Constnicts ....... 51 Factor Loadings for Belief System Variables .................................... 53 Factor-Defined Belief System Questionnaire Statements ................ 56 Resul ts of One-Way ANOVA Analyses Comparing Partiapant Betief Systems in Demographic
............................................................... and Experiential Groupings 61 Participant Belief System Means by Weekly Hourly Cornputer Use ..................................................... 62 Reasons Given for Using
......................................... Computer-Mediated Language Learning 64 .... Exphnations Given for How Cornputers Helped ESL Learners 65
Reasons for Not Having Used Cornputers in ESL Teaching ........... 66
List of Figures
Factors influenang teacher behaviour towards educational innovation ........................................................ 24 Frequency of means of participant belief systems as defined in Factor 1 .............................................................................. 58 Frequency of means of participant belief systems as defined in Factor 2 .............................................................................. 59 Factors influenang teacher behaviour towards
....................................................................... educational innovation 73
Chapter 1
Introduction and Rationale
When it cornes to technology in education, you can create it, you can design it, you can produce it, you can legislate it, you can order it, restructure it, give it standards, and write outcornes for it. But the bottom line is that if it is going to happen, teachers have to make it happen.
. . .Jacqueline Goodloe, Teacher (I~ivesti~ig in tendiers, 1995, p.1)
Introduction
As this educator's quote illustrates, the power of teachers to direct and
shape educational environrnenb should not be underestimated. Teachers play a
key role in the success or failure of educational innovation. Over the last
century, the teaching profession has been regularly confronted with change in
the form of new methodologies, approaches, organisational structures and a
wide range of technological innovations. From the technological promises of
radio, television and audio-cassettes of the Iast century, the cornputer now offers
educational systems a broad-based electronic medium with the potential to
dramatically transform, individualise and enhance education programs
(Armstrong, Yetter-Vassot, College, & College, 1994; Chun, 1994; 11ivestbig i~ i
tencliers, 1995; Mes kill & Mossop, 1997; nie nehuork remlut ion, 2000; Warschauer,
1998b). While the cornputer has made some inroads into educational systems in
many developed countries, its progress in schooling has not reflected its
transformative impact elsewhere in so&t-y, where e-mail communication, web
surfing and online businesses have become cornmonplace.
With the recent explosion of Internet use and continually evolving
technological applications, the potential computer technology offers second
language education is enormous. Uses of the computer medium in its many
manifestations have shown increased student-centred participation in this
motivating environment (Warschauer, 1996a, 1 9 9 6 ~ ) ~ increased exposure to
authentic target language material (Moore, Morales, & Carel, 1998; Wen, 1996).
opportuni ties for increased target language output (Chun, 1994; Nagata, 1996),
and for collaborative, cross-cultural interaction and rnulti-modal second
language input targeting a variety of learning styles (Brett, 1997; Grace, 1998; 1
Viteli, 1989). Nevertheless, in spite of these grandiose promises, many second
language education programs operate without any integrated technological
support. In many colleges in urban Canada, Engiish-as-a-Second language (ESL)
programs are still mainly based on text-based, blackboard cumculum where
teachers remain the principal deliverers of the target language. Given the
compter 's reported benefits in the area of second language education, what
continues to prevent this broad-based medium from transforming our second
language educational systems into more empowering, progressive
environments? Could part of the answer be the belief systems of second
language teachers?
Research Obiectives
This study aims to provide insight into the issue of undenise of computer
technology in second language education by examining the complex nature of
teacher belief systems towards computer-mediated language learning. The
multi-faceted nature of belief systems and the effects of these belief systems on
educational innovation using computer technology will be analysed in the
context of college-level ESL instruction. Specifically, ths research will examine
the Çollowing questions:
What are second language teachers' belief systems towards computer-
media ted language leaming?
How do contextual factors, personal experience and perception of others'
expectations contribute to second language teachers' belief systems towards
the use of computers in second language education?
How do these belief systems affect second language teachers' intentions and
reported practices using computers?
Relatively few studies have examined the belief and/or attitudes of
second language teachers and specifically ESL language teachers towards
cornputer-mediated language leaniing (Akbaba & Kurubacak, 2000; Albaugh,
1997; Cuban, 1986; Lam, 2000; Lowther & Sullivan, 1994). Fewer studies have
explored the multi-faceted nature of second language teacher belief systems; how
these multiple factors define belief systems and the effect of these belief systems
on directing action using educational technology. In contrast, a wealth of
research has explored students' attitudes and beliefs towards computer-use in
second language classrooms (Brett, 1997; Chun, 1994; Warschauer, 1996a. 1996c,
1998a). While students, as the receivers of educational delivery prograrns, and
their reactions to technology are undoubtedly important, the reaction of teachers,
as educational deliverers. is equally important. As the quote at the beginning of
this chapter illustrates, the importance of the teacher to transform educational
practices using educational technology cannot be underestimated. Scholars have
noted the fact that when educational technology is first implemented, it has been
commonplace to examine student reaction first, followed by teacher reaction
much later, if at al1 (Cuban, 1986, 1990; Schofield, 1995). As cornputer technology
becomes a much more established form of educational technology, 1 think the
time has come to better define teachers' reactions to this potentially
transfomative educational innovation.
Rationale for this Studv
I t has been said that the teacher's attitudes towards any educational
innovation are the most critical factors in determining the success of that
innovation in the educational environment (Akbaba & Kurubacak, 2000; Collins,
1991; Cuban, 1986, 1993; Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Sandholtz, 1991; Fullan &
Hargreaves, 1992; Investing in tenclters, 1995; Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996).
Teachers and their beliefs dictate how students are taught, what they learn and
the success or failure of any educational approach. (Armstrong et al., 1994;
[itvestittg in tenchers, 1995; Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996; Larson, 1999; Nabarra &
Shaw, 1994). The growth of any educational technology as an instructional tool
is influenced by the teacher's attitudes towards this technology. Teacher beliefs
are crucial to the success of any educational innovation and their attitudes can
also influence students' attitudes towards technology (Akbaba & Kumbacak,
2000). While educational scholars generally agree on the importance of teacher
beliefs and attitudes in directing teaching practices and ultimately learning
outcomes, the definition of these common conceptual constructs remains i11-
defined in much research (Akbaba & Kurubacak, 2000; Chisholm, Irwin, &
Carey, 2000a; Dwyer et al., 1991; Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996; Mitra, Hazen,
LaFrance, & Rogan, 1999; Nabarra & Shaw, 1994). The question remains what
exactiy are beliefs and what exactly are attitudes?
The term beliefs and attitudes are often used interchangeably, referring to
either affective feelings towards an innovation or a degree of cognitive
acceptance over that innovation. The term beliefs is also sometirnes used to
describe composite conceptual dimensions that are both affective and cognitive,
conveying the idea of simultaneously valuing and understanding an innovation
(Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Sandholtz, 1990; Schofield, 1995). Other scholars examine
only the concept of attitudes which they say are influenced by a number of
contextual factors induding social, political and cultural influences, and one's
expectations or perceptions of other individuals' opinions about an innovation
(Akbaba & Kumbacak, 2000; Chisholm et al., 2000a; Green, Kluever, Lam,
Staples, & Hoffman, 2000; Mitra et al., 1999; Morris, 1988). While, at the same
time, others define beliefs as incorporating affective and evaluative dimensions
(Lowther & Sullivan, 1994; Nespor, 1987). The vague definition of these key
constnicts that form the foundation of educational practices and influence the
integration and use of educational technology make generalisations and
cornparisons of educational belief-based research difficult.
In their discussion of teacher attitudes and change implementation,
Kennedy and Kennedy (1996) discuss a tlieory of plcziz~zed belinviour, proposed by a
social psychologist, Ajzen, who develops a theoretical mode1 illustrating the
relationship between behavioural intentions and action. Ajzen (1988) defines
beliefs towards a specific behaviour as the cognitive foundation of a system
combining attitudes towards that behaviour with one's perception of societal
views of tha t behaviour and one's sense of behavioural control (Ajzen, 1988).
Kennedy and Kennedy use Ajzen's framework to propose a similar theory
behind the system of beliefs guiding teacher behaviour towards educational
innovation. Here, teachers' actions using educational technology are desa-ibed
as being directed by a system of beliefs. These belief systems are based on core
cognitive knowledge about this innovation that in turn are influenced by the
affective dimension, or attitudes towards that innovation. These cumulative
beliefs are then shaped by the educator's perception of extemai opinion over the
innovation and his/her sense of control over the use of the innovation. This
systematic theoretical definition attempts to clarify the multiple factors
contributing to a system of beliefs that in turn influences an individual teacher's
behaviour towards an innovation, such as computer technology.
My study will attempt to further clarify this definition of teacher belief
systems and the influence of these belief systems on reported practices and
intended practices using computer technology in secend language education.
Computer technology is becoming increasingly ubiquitous in Our North
American societies and, in many ways, its pewasiveness in Our societies has
minimally infiltrated educational systems. Computer networks, despite their
benefits, rernain unused by most schools as reported in a report by the Amencan
National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering
(Re iment iq sdzools: nie tedinology is nozu!, 1995) In the area of second language
education, where global access to target language communities and native
speakers are just a mouse click away, it seems distressing that computer
technology is not more fully integrated into second language educational
programs. Computers often remain superficially used, adjunct teaching tools
often used for their entertainment value in second language programs, rather
than pedagogical tools fully integrated into second language curriculum
(Lawrence, 1999). Ln colleges around urban Canada the large majority of ESL
programs use cornputers in an isolated, laboratory-based setting, often at the
whim of a motivated technology-savvy teacher. With the promise of making the
language learning process more empowering, more individualised, more
collabora tive and more student-centred, a great potential is being left untapped.
1 hope that my research will enlighten the relationship between teacher belief
systems and pedagogical practice, and will explain some of the barriers and
influencing factors that prevent the more productive exploitation of this
educational technology.
Com~uter-Mediated Laneurne Leamine and ESL Instruction: Mv Story
My interest in investigating the use of educational technology in second
language learning originated in my childhood. As a dùld learning second and
foreign languages, 1 was always thrilled and fascinated when my French or
Spanish teacher would bring in audio-cassette tapes or show us films depicting
the lives of people who 'actually' spoke the language we were studying. Finally,
'real' speakers and members of these language groups would communicate
indirectly to us and finally we could listen to someone other than the teacher,
someone with a 'real' accent - which was often very difficult to understand!
When 1 began teaching ESL to adults, 1 began to appreciate the benefits of
educational technology. As an ESL teacher, 1 developed the habit of speaking
relatively clearly and slowly to faalitate my students' comprehension, and was
somewhat surprised when my students would come to me and express their
concern that they could understand me perfectly, but they could not understand
a word anyone else says outside of class. This comment made me value and
realise the potential that educational technology offered second language
learners in classroom-based education. From that moment forward, 1 would
make an effort to integrate educational technology such as cassette tapes of the
Iatest radio news broadcasts, Canadian singers, and bnng in films and
commercials on video to enhance the target language exposure 1 could offer my
ESL students.
My experience with cornputer-mediated language learning began in 1994
when 1 was teaching a LINC (Language Instruction for Newcomen to Canada)
program to new immigrants. In addition to fulfilling the basic LINC wriculum
guidelines, I was responsible for teaching basic computer skills to my students
along with exploring the use of a number of drill and practice ESL software
programs. Whle teaching computers and ESL was sexy at the time, 1 remember
being so unbelievably hs t ra ted at having to teach computers and ESL, as the
majority of students had no knowledge of computers, keyboarding skills and
Iittle interest in learning these skills. My students would often become frustrateci
at having to wait for me to come around and help them as 1 was alone with over
20 computer naïve students. They would often begin pressing every button on
the keyboard until the whole cornputer network would crash and the computer
component ~ o u l d have to be postponed. As a result, 1 would often leave work
wondering why 1 had got myself in this mess. Nevertheless, in spite of my initial
frustration, the computer component eventually evolved into a welcomed
opportunity for collaborative projects, content-based wnting enhancement and
for fun, student-centred grammar and spelling practice.
Since those early days of cornputer-rnediated language leaming, 1 have
made an effort to inform myself about the evolving potential of educational
technology ranging from video to cornputers. My principal motivation for
pursuing graduate studies was to hrther investigate the use of educational
technology in second language education. Throughout my studies, 1 have been
continually impressed with the potential that appears to exist using these
technologies (Brett, 1997; Chun, 1994; Levy, 1999; McCain, Morris, Green, & Al-
Najran, 1999; Moore et al., 1998; Warschauer, 1998a). However, as a practising
teacher, 1 can sincerely relate to the concerns expressed by second language
instructors when discussing their hesitation to use this educational technology in
their practices. My mernories of my own frustration are still very fresh and 1
appreciate teachers' reluctance to explore this technology when access is so
limited in many educational contexts and when computer integration demands
so much additional time and planning to integrate this technology into a
cumculurn designed without any predisposition to technology use. 1 have been
amazed in reading Cuban (1986) who chronicles the continual resistance
educational systems have demonstrated when confronted with educational
technology and innovation. 1 have been amazed when 1 see myself contributing
to this resistance, teaching ESL in a class using a chalkboard and standing in the
cenh-e of the classroom, listening to one student speak, while 29 others listen. 1
have been amazed when realising that al1 students in my writing classes are
destined to leam English writing skills kom communicating with only me, the
teacher, in a written form in a relatively artifiaal linguistic context.
Yet, 1 have also been amazed at the potential this computer technology
offers second language learning. In an advanced college-level English dass I
have been teaching recently 1 integrated a cornputer conferencing medium into
the curriculum. While the experience was often frustrating, as it took so much
additional preparation and t h e to prepare my students, guide them in the use of
this medium and so much more time to read through everyonefs comments each
week, 1 \vas thrilled at what 1 saw unfold in my class. Finally, 1 began seeing
examples of what scholars had been reporting (Brett, 1997; Chun, 1994; Levy,
1999; McCain et al., 1999; Moore et al., 1998; Schofield, 1995; Viteli, 1989;
Warschauer, 1 9 9 6 ~ ~ 1998a, 1998b). My students were writing in an authentic
context. No longer was the communication artificial. My students were
connecting with each other, becoming motivated to wnte and interact and
conshuct knowledge together, independent of me, in bue Vygotskian style
(Vygotsky, 1962). 1 saw an immediate and surprishg decentralisation of power
in our class and 1 saw how this medium offered a less threatening, more secure
communication medium for those students who rarely communicated in our
face-to-face classroom. For my second language learners, it was a perfect
medium where they could expenment with the target language and extend their
output without substantial fear of embarrassrnent (Swain, 1993). Their writing
demonstrated their enriched online interaction, exhibiting more in-depth
analysis of the topics being discussed than a similar dass 1 had that was not
using the online instructional medium. Students who hl ly participated in t h s
cornputer-enhanced environment demonstrated superior writing skills
incorporating more advanced lexical and grammatical structures, and building
upon ideas presented by other classrnates.
As a result of my increasing exposure to the potential of computer-
mediated language learning, I have chosen to examine what lies beneath the
motivation of second language instructors to use or reject the use of computer
technology. Based on my own expenences with college-level ESL instruction, 1
have chosen to examine teacher belief systems towards computer technology
among college-level adult ESL insfructors. Recognising the lack of research in
this area, 1 hope that this research will somehow enlighten teacher educators,
administrators and teachers themselves about the complex nature of second
language teacher belief systems toward computer technology. It is hoped that
this study will assist in revealing the constitution of these belief systems and how
these systems influence action using educational innovation such as cornputer
techology .
Summarv
The rationale for this research is based simultaneously on my own
persona1 interests and expenence using educational technology in second
language learning and my recognition of a gap that exists in Our understanding
of teacher belief systems and how those belief systems promote or restrain
practices using educational teduiology. This research will attempt to further
define teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning and
examine how these belief systems influence practices in the context of college-
level ESL education. Chapter 2 will examine previous research in this area and
define a proposed theoretical framework of teacher belief systems towards
educational innovation.
Chapter 2
Literature Review
This chapter will review research that examines the nature of teacher
belief systems and the effect of teacher belief systems on teaching practice and
the use of educational technology. The first section will examine the nature of
the teaching profession and its impact on defining teacher belief systems and on
classroom practices using educational technology. The second section will
explore the evolving uses of educational computer technoiogy in general and in
second language education specifically and the reactions of teachers to this
innovational technology. A proposed theoretical framework defining teacher
belief systems towards educational innovation will be outlined in the third
section, followed by examples of how this applies to second language
educational contexts.
The Nature of Teachine Teacher Belief Svstems
and Educational Innovation
It is generally accepted that teachers' belief systems significantly affect
their classroom practice (Cuban, 1986; Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992; Kennedy &
Kennedy, 1996; Nespor, 1987; Newman, 1987). These belief systems guide
teachers in their classroom behaviour, and act as support when change and
innovation threaten this behaviour (Cuban, 1986; Nespor, 1987). The
introduction of the computer medium into educational contexts can significantly
transform educational environments, often necessitating dramatic redefinition of
teacher and learner roles (Bumett, 1998). In order to effectively integrate this
technology into the dassroom context, teachers must adjust their practices, often
entailing a redefinition of belief systems. As a result, computers, like other forms
of educational innovation, have often met with institu tionalised resistance that
has been cultivated within the teaching profession (Cuban, 1986).
Institutionalised Resistance
Throughout the past century the teaching profession has been confronted
with change and attempts to revitalise educational practices resulting from
evolving perspectives on the psychology of learning, political influences, and
technological innovation. In spite of these repetitive attempts to transform
educational systems, the nature of teaching has in many ways remained
relatively immune to these threatened changes. Contributing to this resiliency is
the nature of the teaching profession itself, which is uniquely steeped in tradition
and culture. Teaching is one of the few professions where every new employee
has learned first-hand about the job for an estimated 13,000 hours, and has been
totally conditioned into the culture of teadung. Those going into teaching have
usually been cornfortable with the teaching practices they have experienced and
have tended to reaffirrn rather than challenge educational systems (Cuban, 1986).
As a result, teacher belief systems have remained deeply ingrained and
perpe tua ted through the generations.
Teaching is also a profession with vague and often contradictory goals
that are characterised by a paradox of constancy and change (Cuban, 1986).
Teachers are often responsible for ensuring their students obtain learning
ou tcomes that are qui te contradictory. These conflicting expectations of
educational systems have induded goals such as:
socialise d l children, yet cultivate individual crea tivity
teach literature, classical knowledge but ensure practical skills for
marketability
demand obedience to authonty but encourage individual thought and
aï ticism
cultivate cooperation, but prepare children to compete (Cuban, 1986, p.2)
In order to cope with these conflicting messages, teachers have
constructed a practical pedagogy, based largely on their belief systems that
provide a supportive framework in such chaotic environment. Many of the
problems that occur in the contexts in which teachers work are "ill-defined" and
"deeply entangled", reinforang their reliance on individual belief systems which can make relative sense of such contexts (Nespor, 1987, p.324). Beliefs and
attitudes therefore become a source of guidance in times of uncertainty and "play
a major role in defining teaching tasks" (Dwyer et al., 1990, p.39).
Given the ins titutionalised nature of teacher belief sys tems, the stagnancy
that has characterised educational systems is somewhat understandable.
Teachers have developed a pedagogy that functions well in these continuously
threatened contexts and has maintained continuity between generations while
encouraging individual change in duldren (Cuban, 1986). When confronted with
innovation and change as in the case of educational technology, teachers are
understandably resistant. Resistance to change has been instilled in an
educational environment where comfort and security have been continually
threatened by outside influences and a practical pedagogy has been constmcted
in defence (Henson, 1987).
Within this defensive pedagogical environment, scholars have noted a
number of specific reasons for resistance to computer-based innovations within
the general teaching profession. In his review of the recurring cycle of resistance
to technological innovations over the past eighty years, Cuban (1986) states that
teachers opera te under a system of "constrained choice", altenng classroom
behaviour selectively to the degree that technologies help them solve problems
they define as important (p.70). Teachers will evaluate technological innovations
according to a developed "practicality ethic", which measures persona1 cost to
integrate the technology versus its return and efficiency. If the innovation is not
compatible with the educator's beliefs, attitudes, past experiences and / or
teaching context, the likelihood of the innovation's success is substantially
diminished (Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996). Teachers, as practical professionals,
have been suspitious of daims and promises surrounding technical innovation
such as cornputers, without clear proof of their effectiveness. There has been a
tendency to question the legitimacy of video-based cornputer software and
innovations that resemble forms of popular entertainment rather than serious
educational tools (Albaugh, 1997).
The Chaneing Classroom Environment
Adding to these reasons for resistance, computers, unlike previous, more
passive technological innovations su& as radio and television, have been shorvn
to significantly affect the social environrnent of the dassroom (Bumett, 1998;
Cuban, 1986,1993; Dwyer et al., 1990; Schofield, 1995). A hiadic relationship has
been reported to develop in computer-mediated environments where the
computer CO-produces the learning dong with the teacher and students (Burnett,
1998). The computer acts as a third participant in the dassroom, dramatically
altering the social dynamic within the dassroom by trawforming teacher-student
interaction and teacher-student roles. Consequently, the role of the teacher
redefines itself and requires substantial organizational change and psychological
preparation to adapt to this new educational environment. Learning
environrnents using computers have been known to become increasingly learner-
centred, shifting teaching methodology away from a transmissive, teacher-
fronted approach into a more collaborative, constructivist method (Armstrong et
al., 1994; Starr, 1996; Warschauer, 1998a). Distractions resulting from noise,
monitors and the nature of the computer medium transform teachers into
facilitators, necessitating considerable changes in teacher practice, often
fundamentally challenging teacher belief systems. As a result, the intense
human interaction between teacher and students that has characterised teaching,
where imagination, improvisation and teacher-student rapport are highly
esteemed, is transformed by machine-student exchanges that teachers can find
disillusioning (Cuban, 1986; Schofield, 1995).
Cornputers as an educational innovation can also significantly threaten a
teacher's sense of authority and cornpetence in the classroom. As the computer
is a relatively recent form of technology, many teachers feel uncomfortable using
a computer and have little experience and training integrating this technology
into the classroom. It has been reported that teachers receive less technical
support than does any other group of professionals (Investing i ~ z tenclters,l995).
While computers occupy the desks of most professionals in North Amenca,
teachers are often left with limited access. In classrooms, it is generally students
using computers who have been brought up in technological environments, and
are often much more comfortable with computers than teachers, contributing to
the loss of authority felt by teachers and the potential threat educators face from
this technology.
Lack of Trainine and S u ~ ~ o r t -
The majority of teachers who do venture into cornputer-assisted
instruction often do so at their orvn expense, using their own resources, time and
equi pmen t (Inves f ing in tendiers, 1995). As educational budgets tighten, career
development is often one of the first areas to be eliminated, leaving educators
lvi thout any significant technical and pedagogical training to comprehensively
integrate this technology into their practices. A study on sources of training for
teachers familiar with computers (11zvesti?tg in tediers, 1995) found that 96
percent of these teachers report being self-taught with fa. fewer undergoing any
established, comprehensive, institutionally-based training. Given this endemic
lack of professional development to prepare teachers for the integration of this
dynamic educational medium combined wi th the insti tutionalised belief systems
cultured into this profession, teachers are often reluctant and unprepared to
modify their practices to include this te ch no log^ for benefits that are largely
undefined and uncommunicated (Kassen & Higgins, 1997).
Another factor shaping teachers' belief systems towards cornputer
technology has been the fact that the introduction of this innovation has often
been dictated from external authonties. By its nature, teaching has been a
relatively independent, often isolated profession where teachers have had to
exercise persona1 control over their classroom environment, and are therefore
reluctant to accept innovations initiated from higher authorities in a top-down
manner that may in tum threaten their authority (Terrell et al., 1995).
These perceived threats that computers have on conventional teaching
practices have contributed to a documented underuse of cornputer technology in
educational settings. A number of studies examining the use of computers by
educators and their belief systems towards this new medium found that, even in
schools where computers were readily available, this technology was rarely used
(Marcinkiewicz, 1994; Moore et al ., 1998; Sofranova, 1993). Sofranova (1993)
found that, in spite of a positive attitude among teachers regarding the use of
cornputers, the technology was used on a regular basis by less than eight percent
of the teachers in the schools studied. Marcinkiewicz (1994) exaniined 170
teachers in elementary school settings, in which computers had been readily
available for over three years, and found that nearly half (45%) did not use
computers at all, rvhile almost the remaining half (47%) used computers
minimally and not integraliy to their teaching. This is significant as Cuban (1986)
describes elementary s&.ool environments as the most conducive to innovation
given teachers' increased flexibility with scheduling and their increased contact
hours with students. Reasons for this underuse of computer technology,
included pragmatic considerations such as la& of accessibility, training, time or
familiarity with computers (Moore et al, 1998; Sofranova, 1993), and an absence
of specific personality traits among some teachers who lacked innovativeness
and self-confidence (Marcinkiewicz, 1994). In survey research conducted to
identify qualities among teachers who had adapted to using computers in their
instruction, Marcinkiewicz (1994) conduded that high degrees of i~ovativeness
and self-cornpetence were characteristic among the smail percentage (8%) of
teachers who substantially integrated computers in their practice.
In a longitudinal study, sponsored by Apple Cornputer Incorporated,
researchers found that it was not until teachers had undergone one or two years
of working in a dramatically reformed and supported educational environment
that their inherent belief systems towards teaching and learning began adopting
more constructivist approaches, characteristic of the cornputer environrnent
(Dwyer et al., 1990). These researched environments were specifically designed
and supported to facilitate cornputer-mediated iearning. Each teacher and
student was given a laptop computer and al1 participants underwent
comprehensive training to familiarise themselves with the technology. The
results from this research, reporting a substantial adjustment period for the
adaptation of teacher belief systerns in such a dramatically transformed and
unreal is ticall y supported environment, demonstra tes the challenge to e ffectively
integrate computer technology into educational environments. Understandably,
Dwyer and colleagues paint an optimistic picture of computer integration in
these ACOT (Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow) schools given the biased nature of
this corporate sponsorship. However, the revelation from this study is that in
spite of the exaggeratedly comprehensive implementation, that would be quite
unli kely in the majority of educational environments, i t took substantial effort,
resources, support and time for teachers to become confident with this modified
teaching environment.
Contributing to this difficulty in adapting teaching practices to the
transformed computensed dassroom is the fact that much of current educational
curriculum has been principally designed to be delivered in conventional
teaching and learning environrnents. As a result, the integration of the computer
medium, which tends to encourage constructivist, more student-centred
learning, requires substantial effort on the part of teachers to adapt computêr use
to this conventionally designed curriculum. Dwyer and colleagues noted that
"although the sheer number of computers in ACOT classrooms radically
transformed the physical environment, for the most part student learning tasks
remained unchanged in the early years" (p.10). One teacher in the ACOT study
summarised the challenge that teachers face when integrating computer
technology by stating, "1 guess 1 have to redise that what 1 am doing is leaming
how to undo my thinking" (p.23).
Reported Benefits of Cornouter Technolopv and Second Laquage Learning
Despite these factors inhibiting pedagogical innovation using computer-
assisted instruction, there has been a gradual, increasing awareness of the
benefits that the computer medium can afford leaming environments. In the
area of second language learning, the computer's use has evolved through
various stages, refiecting technological developments and historical changes in
second language pedagogical theory. The computer, like the book, is essentially
a medium through which any format of educational delivery can take place. As
a result, cornputer-mediated language learning approaches have ranged from
behaviounstic form-focused learning to cross-cultural exchanges, multi-modal
simulation-based language practice, to collaborative learner-centred activities
(Brett, 1997; Cardillo, 1997; Chun, 1994; Levy, 1999; Moore et al., 1998;
Vvarschauer, 1998a).
Throughout the recent history of computer-mediated language learning,
the reported benefits of computer integration on student learning have been
wide-ranging and varied. Benefits have included increased target language
comprehension through the cornputer's rnulti-modal presentation of language
(Bre tt, 1997; Wen, 1 W6), increased linguistic competence (Cardillo, 1997; Nagata,
1996; Nu tta, 1999), and increased cultural understanding through Intemet access
to authentic, target language cornrnunities (Burnett, 1998; Lee, 1997; Osuna, 1998;
Singhal, 1998). Networked computer environments have encouraged leamers to
adopt more active roles in discourse management, and have promoted greater,
more egalitarian participation and increased peer interaction (Chun, 1994; Kern,
1995; Warschauer, 1998b). Computer-mediated second language learning
environments have been shown to provide a positive affective environment,
offering an empowenng, learner-centred, motivating atmosphere, that actively
engages learners in the language learning process (Chun, 1994; Warschauer,
1996c, 1998a). This environment has been shown to provide increasingly
individualised insûuction, targeting individual learner styles where leamers can
work at their own pace in an anxiety-reduced context, resulting in increased
second language intake (Grace, 1998; Shen, 1999; Vi teli, 1989).
Second Lamuane Teacher BeIief Svstems and
Cornputer-Mediated Educational Environments
However, despite the reported benefits of computer integration in second
language educational programs, research has demonstrated that the computer
remains minimally used in second language dassrooms as observed in the few
studies available (Harvey, 1987; Hopwood, 1989; Leh 1995; Moore et al., 1998;
Olsen, 1980). Reported reasons for the undenise of the computer medium
principally result from cultural, organizational and pedagogical constraints, and
research only minimally alludes to constraints denved from teacher belief
systems. Issues discussed underlying this lack of use range kom computer
illiteracy, technophobia among teachers and computer inaccessibility to
entrenched teacher-fronted methodologies reinforced by educational
administrative bodies and local communities (Cormor, 1984; Dunkel, 1987;
Easûnent, 1986; Pickard, 1994). In a study of 388 public elementary and high
school foreign language teachers' use of technology in teadiing foreign language
culture, Moore, Morales and CareI (1998) identified the characteristics and
experiences of teachers and their resulting use of technology in the dassroom.
Their analysis revealed that teachers of Japanese integrated technology most
frequently into their curriculum, compared to teachers of other foreign
languages, likely due to their familiarity with computer networking software
used during the in-service training programs of these Japanese instntctors.
While this hypothesis suggests that familiarity with technology made these
teachers appreciate and value the potential that computerised approaches offer
their teaching practices, nothing was expliatly analysed concerning the effect
this previous cornputer experience had on influencing these teachers' belief
systems.
In a discussion of technophobia among language teachers, Connor (1984)
equates technophobia with a defensive response to innovation, observations that
have been echoed by other scholars examining general teacher resistance to
technology (Cuban, 1986; Dwyer et al, 1990; Henson, 1987). In an examination of
the use of concordancers' in Hong Kong schools, Pickard (1994) described the
surprising degree of cornputer phobia arnong teachers, who see the computer as
a subject to be taught, rather than a tool to be used in teaching (p.308). She also
noted that the traditional Hong Kong classroom culture socially constrains the
introduction of computers into non-cornputer-based subjects, as teachers fear a
loss of authority. Pickard noted that as many English second language teachers
are less than fluent in English in Hong Kong, as in many other parts of the world,
their dependence on fixed, more conventional, secure classroom methods
increases, making the threat of more constnictivist approaches introduced by
computers increasingly threatening.
' Concordancers are simple cornputer prograrns that can quickly analyse electronic texts to find occurrences of a given word, part of a word or phrase and display it within its irnmediate context.
Much of the research on second language teacher belief systems towards
computer technology notes positive, someivhat enthusiastic attitudes towards
this medium among many teachers, but observes little integration of the
technology into tead-iing practices (Diamond, 1997; Harvey, 1987; Hopwood,
1989; Leh, 1995; Moore et al., 1998). For example, in her survey of foreign
language inshctors attending technology training sessions at Arizona State
University, Leh (1995) noted that while the 12 teachers questioned had positive
attitudes towards computer technology before and after the training, few had
used it in their practice. Çhe condudes that the integration of technology
requires a major adjustment to teaching practice that conhadicts conventional
practice in many ways and therefore requires considerable adjustment in
teaching philosophies (p. 334). Dunkel (1987) summarises some of the issues
concerning teacher resistance to computer integration in her discussion of the
past dilemmas and future prospects for CALL and cites the issue of redefinition
of teacher roles prompting skepticism among teachers. She also notes attitudes
that viewed cornputer-assisted instruction (CAI) as an unsuitable academic
instructional tool, that teachers would often interject themselves between
programmed instructional materials and students, in an attempt to regain some
control (p.251). Dunkel concludes by stating that "a further impediment to
rvidespread adoption of CA1 surfaced in the perceived threat to the classroom
teacher in the teacher-versus-machine shuggle for stage centre in the dassroom"
(p.259), reinforcing the presence of institutionalised resistance among the
teaching profession against a more constnictivist transformation. Harvey (1987)
noted generai enthusiasm about cornputer technology used in foreign language
composition instruction in a survey of 208 instructional faculty, but a significant
number of instmctors felt threatened by the computer and some questioned the
quality of writing done using this technology.
Inadequate Training and Suv~ort
Contributing to this fear of cornputer technology is the pervasive lack of
û-aining, professional development and required time for this development in
second language educational institutions that have incorporated computer
technology. In 1991/92, Michael Levy (1999) surveyed 104 CALL practitioners
from 18 countries to establish factors for successful use of this educational
technology. In addition to prodaiming the teacher as the most important factor
in the success of CALL, respondents agreed that time for staff education and
matenals development was of the utmost importance in ensuring successful
integration of this innovational technology. Aside from time as the most
important factor, whch Levy says is often the most overlooked, appropriate
facilities must be provided and teachers must harbour a sincere understanding
and appreciation of the potential of this teduiology in their teaching practice for
it to be effectively integrated. In order for this to happen, Levy reports that
respondents strongly acknowledge the need for institutional decision-makers to
be convinced of the value of CALL. Only then will enough support be
coordinated along with staff release time for educational and materials
development purposes. Unfortunately, given the current cornmitment to CALL
in many language institutions, technology is integrated to Save money on
teachers or to provide a less costly educationai service, further compounding
teacher negativity and resistance to t h s educational technology (Levy, 1999).
de fin in^ - Teacher BeIief Svstems
WhiIe issues of second language teacher resistance to computer
technology have been discussed in a number of studies (Diamond, 1997; Dunkel,
1987; Harvey, 1987; Hopwood, 1989; Lam, 2000; Leh, 1995; Moore, 1998). the
nature of the relationships among factors contributing to teacher belief systems,
which ultimately influences teachers' use of technology, remains ill-defined.
Earlier research generally limits its analysis to attitudes or beliefs which are often
discussed interchangeably, neglecting hrther analysis of the multiple factors that
may be contributing to those belief systems, thereby failing to define belief
terminology (Cuban, 1986; Diarnond, 1997; Dwyer et al., 1990; Harvey, 1987;
Hopwood. 1989; Leh, 1995; Moore et ai., 1998; Olsen, 1980; Schofield, 1995). Even
within the literature that discusses the impact of computer technoiogy on
educational environments in general, very few scholars specifically attempt to
define the complex, multiple variables that create belief systems.
Within the literature that attempts to break down the complexity of factors
directing teacher behaviour, there appears to be little consensus and substantial
confusion over definitions of factors constituting belief systems, and their
composite impact on teaching practice. A number of scholars take a
comprehensive view of attitudes as being made up of cognitive and affective
elements, not referring to beliefs (Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996, p.355). For
example, a study by Kluever, Lam, Hoffman, Green and Sweanngen (1994)
revealed that teachers' attitudes towards computers have distinctive affective
and evaluative components. Nespor (1987), on the other hand, in her discussion
of teacher belief systems, defines beliefs as relying heavily on affective and
evaluative components. Sofranova (1993) who specifically studied teacher
attitudes towards computer technology, defines attitudes as a somewhat
subconscious state which would be revealed "without thinking too much" (p.7).
Newman (1987) writes of the importance of uncovering assumptions when
teaching, again implying that subconsaous belief systems influence teaching
practice. In a discussion of teacher belief systerns, Lowther and Sullivan (1994)
acknowledge that numerous factors including teachers' needs, wants, beliefs,
and practices, as well as educational settings are important in determining
attitudes towards the use of technology in teaching. In a study examining
teacher attitudes towards an innovational teaching approach in Hong Kong
schooIs, researchers found again that despite positive attitudes towards the
innovation, contextual constraints, attributed partly to soaological and cultural
biases, limited the integration of this innovation in the curriculum (Morris, 1988).
A number of studies have more recently identified specific factors
influencing teacher attitudes, beliefs towards computers and subsequent use of
computer applications in education by teachers. A study examining Mexican
teachers and high school students across different states in Mexico found that
teacher and student attitudes towards computers were influenced by issues of
access to computer technology and the degree of quality of computer equipment
(Morales, 1998). In this shidy, more general access and better quality and variety
of computer applications resulted in more positive attitudes towards computers
among both students and teachers.
Two studies found that perceptions of the functionality or uG:ity of
computers had an influence on teacher attitudes and beliefs towards computer
technology in education (McEneaney, Soon, & Linek, 2000; Mitra et al., 1999).
One of these studies examined pre-service teacher attitudes towards computer
technology and found four factors intluencing these attitudes. These four factors
consisted of the teachers' general attitudes towards computers, positive feelings
about computers, negative reaction towards computers and their perceptions of
the utility of computers (McEneaney et al., 2000). This study based itself on an
earlier study by Woodrow (1991) that had identified three significant factors, one
representing positive attitudes toward cornputers, the second defining the soaal
and educational impact of computers and the third desaibed as a manifestation
of computer anxiety. Another study (Mitra et al., 1999) concluded that positive
expectations about the functionality of cornputer technology positively affected
the degree of computer use among college faculty. A study by Lam (2000) found
that the principal reason affecting second language teacher choices to use
educational technology in practices stems from teachers' persona1 beliefs in
technology's benefits. Lam found that the main reason underlying a second
language teacher's intention to use technology depended on whether that teacher
rvas personally convinced of the benefits of technology in second language
insbuction.
Increased computer experience has also been linked to more positive
attitudes towards computers in education (McCain et al., 1999). Research
examining relationships between expenence with networked computing and
attitudes towards computers (McCain et al., 1999) found that increased
experience with networked computers lead to a higher sense of power and
control over this technology and more positive attitudes towards compu ters.
Aizen's Theorv of Planned Behaviour
As can be seen, there are many interpretations of the numerous factors
influenang teacher behaviour and to what degree attitudes and beliefs represent
cognitive, affective or evaluative qualities. In a discussion of factors influenang
teacher behaviour, Kennedy and Kennedy (1996, p.354) cite Ajzen (1988), a soaai
psychologist, who proposes a theory of plamed behaviour that attempts to
clarify the complrx inter-relationships between beliefs, attitudes and actions,
suggesting that one's behaviour depends on a number of internaliy motivating
factors. In the context of implementing educational innovation, Ajzen's theory
distinguishes between attitudes and beliefs, stating that beliefs are cognitive and
reflect the knowledge or information an individual has about a specific
innovation, whereas attitudes refIect an individual's affective and evaluative
response to that innovation (p.355). Beliefs form the foundations of not only
attitudes, but also what Ajzen refers to as subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control. Subjective norms are an individual's perceptions of what
authority figures and others believe about that innovation. Perceived
behavioural control describes an individual's perceptions of one's degree of
conh-01 over his/ her capability of implementing the innovation. This perception
of control can be internai, relating to one's confidence and/or skills necessary to
implement the innovation, or can be extemal constraints limiting an individual's
conbol over the innovation. These three factors: attitudes, subjective norms and
perceived behavioural control, al1 influenced by one's beliefs, together shape an
individual's intentions whch eventually translate into specific actions applying
the i ~ o v a t i o n .
Teacher Belief Svstems Towards Educational Innovation: A Theoretical De finition
Kennedy and Kennedy (1996, p.359) note that while Ajzen's theory
clarifies the complexity of beliefs that underlie behaviour, it lacks a dynamic
quality integrating factors such as past expenence including positive and
negative feedback, and increasing familiarity with an innovation, that can in tum
shape one's attitudes. In response to this lack of a comprehensive model of
teacher belief systems, 1 have proposed the following diagram (Figure 1)' which
presents a more fluid and comprehensive interpretation of the relationships that
exist among the complex factors influencing teacher behaviour towards
educational innovation. This model is based on Kennedy & Kennedy's (1996,
p.354) interpretation of Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour, in the context of
teacher behaviour towards educational innovation, but is enhanced with
influential factors such as past experience, which c m significantly affect core
beliefs and attitudes towards an innovation. The model illustrates more fluid
and interconnected re!ationships arnong the multiple factors that influence
teacher practice in the context of educational innovation such as computer
technology .
Belie f Sy stems
Past experience
Attitudes
Beliefs Perceived expec tations Intentions
3 + L Actions Perceived control
Figure 1
Factors influencing teacher behaviour towards educational innovation
In this model, teacher belief systems originate from beliefs or acquired
knowledge about the innovation, which are cognitive in nature and form a
central part of the belief system. These beliefs then combine with a number of
factors including: perceived feelings of control over the innovation (perceived
control), perceptions of societal, cultural and collegial beliefs about the innovation (perceived expectations), and attitudes which are affective and
evaluative feelings about the innovation. A teacher's past experience is also
significant in this mode1 as 1 believe it influences a teacher's core beliefs about the
potential of the innovation and at the same time becomes part of the more
affective, evaluative attitudes towards the innovation. In addition, a teacher's
perceptions of both interna1 and external control over the innovation will
influence actions using the innovation. This is particularly relevant in the context
of technological innovation, for no matter how enthusiastic a teacher is towards
an educational innovation, confidence using the innovation and accessibility to
that innovation are centrai factors in its use in his/her teaching practice.
Together, these intercomected factors direct intentions and achid practice using
the innovation.
To further clarify this theory of the multiple factors shaping a teacher's
behaviour, let us consider an example of an individual second language teacher
ivho reads an article by a prominent scholar such as Mark Warschauer (1996a) on
the effectiveness of computer networking in second language learning.
Accepting Warschauer's conclusions, the teacher then adopts the belief that using
computer networking in a second language classroom encourages increased
participation and increased target language writing quality. While the teacher
believes in the potential of this innovation, the teacher's attitudes and subsequent
beliefs derived from this newly accepted knowledge will be affected by his/her
past expenence using computer multimedia software, when the systems kept
crashing, students were continually distracted and wouldn't stay on task (past
experience). His/her intentions will also be influenced by feelings of
unfamiliarity and lack of self-confidence with this networking system and
perceptions that a number of students in the class use cornputers regularly and
will be mucli more familiar with the system than him/her, resulting in potential
embarrassment (perceived control). His/ her intentions to implement this
networking activity may however be favourably influenced by perceptions that
external authority figures such as the educational ministry and school
administration have encouraged the use of computer applications in curriculum
over the past year (perceived expectations), as witnessed by the recently
completed computer lab faalities and newsletters on integrating teduiology into
the classroom. These factors will together shape this teacher's intentions and
subsequent actions to adopt or reject the use of these computer faalities into
his / her second language cumculum.
Should perceived community opinions favouring computer use and
his/ her new knowledge of the benefits of networking outweigh this teacher's
persona1 insecurity and negative experience with the technology, computer
technology will likely be integrated into his/her curriculum. Over time, this
teacher's subsequent perceptions of the effectiveness of the technology will
further influence hs/ her attitudes and beliefs positively or negatively towards
the use of this technology, based on increased experience. However, ths being
said, should the recently installed computer laboratory be unavailable, as a result
of maintenance problems for example, the teacher's actions will be constrained
by this situation (perceived control), despite favourable intentions to use the
technology. This issue of accessibility which falls under perceived control is
extremely significant in the area of computer technology, as many teachers, with
the best of intentions, who wouid Iike to use this technology in their teaching, are
constrained by issues of technology access in their teaching environments.
This proposed model attempts to offer a more holistic definition of the
causal relationships among the varied contextual and behavioural factors that
define teachers' intentions and actions concerning educational innovation such
as cornputer technology. It is evident that more than attitudes or beliefs shape a
teacher's behaviour when confronted with educational innovation. This model
helps to explain why there often exists a mismatch between expressed attitude
by teachers and their actual teaching practice (Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996).
Summarv
As has been shown, teacher belief systems are a network of multi-faceted
factors originating from a variety of sources. The insular nature of the teadiing
profession is one factor that has conhibuted to institutionalising teacher belief
systems that in tum have sheltered the teaching profession from undergoing
dramatic change over the last century (Cuban, 1986). Teacher belief systems
have been charactensed by a resistance to change and have been reported to
contribute to resistance to educational innovation su& as educational technology
( Albaugh, 1997; Cornor, 1984; Eashnent, 1986; Schofield, 1995; Sofranova, 1993).
Despite the xsearched potential of educational technology such as computer
technology, this technology often remains minimally used (Moore et al., 1998).
In second language education programs, a range of potential benefits of
cornputer-mediated language learning has been documented (Cardillo, 1997;
Singhal, 1998; Warschauer, 1998a). However, this technology has rarely been
used and little research has analysed the influence of second language teacher
belief systems on integrating this technology into second language teaching.
In an attempt to clanfy the complex nature of teacher belief systems
towards educational innovation, a proposed theoretical definition of these belief
systems was outlined. This mode1 illustrates the influencing factors of cognitive
knowledge about an innovation and the impact of attitudes, past experience,
perceived expectations and perceived sense of control over the innovation and
how thêse factors direct intentions and action using the innovation. This
framework will provide the theoreticai foundation of this research and will be
further exarnined and defined in the discussion of the results of this study. It is
hoped that this research will furiher refine the definition of teacher belief systems
towards edwational innovation and show the impact of these belief systems on
action and intended action to integrate the technology into teaching practices.
Chapter 3 outlines the methodology used in ths research.
Chapter 3
Research Methodoiogy
This chapter, divided into three sections, describes the research design, the
participants and the methods used in this survey research. The first section
describes the research design for the shidy. The second section describes the
participants. The third section describes the procedures adopted for the study,
including the instruments used for data collection (locus group questions,
questionnaires), along with the analysis of the focus group data and the
quantitative and qualitative analyses of questionnaire data.
Research Desi=
In order to obtain a broad oveMew of the multiple factors contributing to
college-level ESL instructors' belief systems towards cornputer-mediated
language, I adopted a survey research approach for this study. Surveys are
described as ideal research approaches for obtaining quantitative and qualitative
data on issues such as attitudes and beliefs, behaviour and for the measurement
of the intensity of feelings towards an item such as an educational innovation
(American Statistical Association, 1998). Suwey research appeared the best
suited to the research goals of this study, as survey research is knovvn to be an
efficient, effective means of eliciting a wide number of issues from a
representative subset of a sarnple population (Johnson, 1992).
As the goal of this research was to identify and desaibe second language
teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning, a two-fold
approach was adopted beginning with initial focus group interviews, followed
by questionnaire-based survey research. Focus groups excel at providing in-
depth qualitative insights gleaned from a relatively small number of participants
(American Statistical Association, 1998). As a result, 1 decided that focus group
interviews would be appropriate instruments to effiaently obtain a broad variety
of second language teacher perspectives on cornputer-rnediated language
learning and an overview of the issues influencing teacher belief systems and
reported practices using cornputers. The information obtained from these focus
groups would then be used to modify and refine a draft version of a
questionnaire designed to examine individuai teacher belief systems and
reported action or intended action using computers in ESL practices.
Partici~ants
Al1 participants in this study were ESL instmctors with college-level
teaching experience. Partitipants were recruited from five college teaching
environments in an urban setting in Canada. These five surveyed ESL teaching
environments were based in four community colleges from the same urban
setting in Canada. Pseudonyms will be used to protect the confidentiality of the
participants in the study. The five coilege environments indude Turner College,
MacGregor College, Monfort College, Jadcson College and participants from an
English Language Institute within Jackson College, Jackson College English
Language Institute (ELI). These five college teaching environments offered a
range of computer access to ESL instructors and students, and offered a varied
and limited degree of computer integration in their ESL curriculum. For the f i rst
stage of this research, participants were recruited kom among two of these
college teaching environrnents for partitipation in focus group interviews. in the
second stage of this research, participants were recruited from ESL faculty within
the five college teaching environments and were invited to individually complete
questionnaires.
Focus Group Interview Participants
Two focus group interviews were conducted, one at Monfort College and
one at Jackson College ELI, to identify issues influencing second language
teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language leaming and action
using computers in college-level ESL teaching. These two college environments
were selected as the Monfort College ESL teaching environment was
characterised by a general absence of computer integration in ESL cumculum,
while Jackson EL1 offered the most comprehensive integration of computer-
enhanced language leaming in their ~ m c u l u m among the five environments.
Monfort College had computer labs that ESL inshvctors could use, that were
reportedly rarely used on a voluntary basis. On the other hand, Jackson EL1 had
a minimum of seven hours weekly of cornputer-mediated language learning use
integrated into their ESL curriculum, two hours of which were instructor-driven.
Given these two substantially different degrees of computer accessibility and
integration, 1 thought that instructors working in these two different
environments, with a variety of computer exposure, may be able to present a
range of perspectives and information on the factors influencing teacher belief
systems towards computer-mediated language learning.
In order to ensure a variety of perspectives on these issues, a screening
process was developed to ensure individual focus group participants brought
with them to these interviews a range of teaching experience, exposure to
cornputer-mediated language learning and computer familiarity. A notice
informing potential participants of the purpose of this research, inviting them to
participate in these focus group interviews, was distributed to ESL faculty at
these two colleges (see Appendix A). Stipends of $30.00 were offered to selected
participants as compensation for their time and participation. Signed consent
forms were then revierved and potential participants were contacted and
questioned with a series of screening questions to ensure a range of teaching and
computer experience in each focus group (see Appendix B). Ten potential
participants were screened at each college. This screening procedure informed
potential participants of the research objectives, confirming their willingness to
participate, and ensured that focus group participants represented a wide range
of expenences and perspectives on cornputer-mediated language learning.
Following this screening process, six participants were selected for the
focus group interview at Monfort College and five participants were selected for
the interview at Jackson ELI. The six participants at Monfort College were al1
female ESL college instxuctors and possessed teaching expenence ranging from
hvo years to over 20 with a range of exposure to and expenence with computer-
mediated language leaming approaches. The five participants at Jackson College
EL1 consisted of four female participants and one male participant again offering
a range of teaching experience from five through 25 years, and a wider, more
practiced knowledge and experience using cornputers in ESL teaching.
Ouestionnaire Participants
Participants for the questionnaire stage of the research process were
recruited from al1 five suweyed colleges. Questionnaires with information
letters and an offer to partiapate were distributed to 155 potential participants
throughout these five teaching environments. This number of questionnaires
kvas deemed appropriate to ensure a response rate of approximately 65%,
ensuring a return of 100 questionnaires (Cox, 1996). The target of 100
questionnaires is desired as at least 96 partiapants are required to ensure a
representative sampling within 10% of any surveyed population estimated over
3000 individuds (Cox 1996, p.63).
The method of distribution of these materials varied in each of the five
environments, depending on administrative consent and recommendations. A t
Turner College, 26 questionnaires were distributed to ESL faculty currently
teachng at the college. At this college, 1 personalised questionnaire information
letters, having been given individual teacher names from administration,
included stamped, self-addressed envelopes and the ESL program coordinator
distributed the Ietters and questionnaires to potential participants. A t
MacGregor College, 1 distributed 20 questionnaires and information letters
direct1 y to poten tial participants and collected comple ted questionnaires during
an ESL faculty staff meeting. These questionnaires were distributed to
participants at the beginning of the meeting following a brief introduction to the
research and an invitation to participate. At Monfort College, 1 distributed 53
questionnaires directly to potential participants at a professional development
conference for ESL faculty. These questionnaires were accompanied by an
information letter and a return, inter-office envelope to ensure completed
questionnaires were retumed directly to my mailbox within the college. 41
questionnaires were distributed to potential participants at Jackson College
during a part-time ESL faculty meeting. This distribution, again, followed a bnef
introduction to the research and invitation to partiapate at the beginning of the
meeting, and I collected completed questionnaires from individual participants
during the meeting. Finally, 15 questionnaires, accompanied with information
letters and stamped, self-addressed envelopes were distributed to potential
participants at Jadcson College EL1 by administration at a full-time ESL faculty
staff meeting.
Research Procedures
This survey research approach consisted of two stages. The first stage
involved focus group interviews to identify and confirm issues influencing
second language teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language
learning based on my theoretical framework. Responses from the focus group
interviews would be used to refine a general questionnaire used to survey
participants in these five colleges. The second stage involved the collection of
responses to individual questionnaires, eliciting individual teacher belief systems
and reported practices using computers from college-level ESL teachers.
Focus gr ou^ Interviews
Two focus group intenfiews were conducted lasting approximately an
hour in duration at two of the colleges suweyed. Following an introduction to
this research and participant introductions, a series of questions elicited
participants' views on pedagogical and innovational changes occurring in ESL
instruction over the past ten years and their predictions on changes over the next
10 years. Prompts guiding these interview discussions were derived from my
theoretical framework outlined in Chapter 2 of ths thesis (see Appendix C for
specific focus group interview procedures and questions).
Attempts were made to identify and confirm cognitive beliefs of the uses
of computers in second language instruction among these partiapants, to discuss
participants' past experiences using computers and the resulting impact on
beliefs and attitudes of computer use among these participants. Issues of control
were also discussed, identifying any training participants had undergone in
computer-mediated language learning and the impact of that training on belief
systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning. Prompts eliciting
expectations of the opinions of colleagues, students and administration were also
included to examine their impact on influencing participant belief systems
towards computer use in ESL instruction.
The interviews were tape recorded and selectively transcribed to isolate
recurring themes and factors influencing teacher belief systems towards
cornputer-mediated language learning. 1 also took notes during the interviews
and made an attempt to continually focus the discussions on the research issues.
These factors and themes identified witlun these interviews were then used to
refine and adapt the questionnaire instrument to more effectively elicit relevant
data from this sample population. A full description of the findings of these
group interviews and the impact of these findings on this study's questionnaire
developrnent are outlined in Chapter 4.
Ouestionnaire Research Procedures
The questionnaire (see Appendix D) was designed to elicit individual
teacher belief systems and reported practices using computers or reported
intentions to use computers in the future. The questionnaire instrument was
divided into three parts. The first part consisted of a series of Likert scale
statements eliciting belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language
learning. These statements were based upon the constructs defined in the
theoretical framework outlined in Chapter 2 and refined following the focus
group interviews. Çtatements were designed to elicit responses on statements
categorised within one of the following Eive constructs: cognitive beliefs about
the potential of computers in second language education, previous experience
with computers in ESL instruction, attitudes towards computers, perceived
expectations of colleagues' opinions about computers, and perceptions of one's
degree of control over this technology. Questions concerning the computer
attitude conshuct were based on the Technology Attitude Survey developed by
Terry A. McFarlane, Eleanor R. Hoffman and Kathy E. Green (1997) which was
shown to be a reliable measure of teacher attitudes towards technology in
general through numerous correlational and statisticd analyses.
The second part of the questionnaire eliated information about practices
using computers in ESL instruction or intentions to use computers in ESL
instruction in the future. This section began with a prompt determining
participant expenence with computer use in their ESL teaching. Following this
prompt, participants were guided into one of two branches. Those reporting
some experience using computers in their ESL teaching were instructed to
answer oniy the questions specifically on those experiences. In t h s section
questions elicited a profile of each insûuctor's experiences and thoughts on
hisfher experience using cornputer-mediated language learning. Issues
addressed included the location of the computer use, the types of computer
applications used, reasons for the use of these applications and the instmctor's
opinions about the usefulness of the computer as an educational tool.
Participants reporting no experience using computers were insh-ucted to answer
only those questions eliciting their reasons for not using computers in their
teaching, identifying barriers restncting their use and identifying their intentions
to use computers in the future.
The third section of the questionnaire elicited personal demographic and
expenential information on individual participants to determine if any of these
factors impact on teacher belief systems or practices. This section focused on
identifying age ranges, gender, educational background and teaching experience
of participants. It also attempted to elicit the degree of computer use on a
personal Ievel, familiarity with computer applications and any training received
on integrating computer technology into ESL instruction. This section also had a
question to ensure that al1 questionnaire participants in this study had college-
level ESL teaching experience.
Questionnaire ~ i l o t i n g Following modification of the questionnaire to
examine issues raised in the two focus group intewiews, a draft questionnaire
was finaIised and piloted. This draft questionnaire was piloted with ten ESL
instructors from Monfort College and from an educational institute at a major
university in the same urban area of the coileges. Six of the ten participants had
college-level teaching expenence. The remaining four were undertaking
graduate studies in second language education, but had al1 taught ESL to adults.
Piloting was conducted to eliminate any ambiguous or awkwardly worded
statements and to ensure clarity of instructions and appropnateness of the
instrument.
Partiapants were given a summary of the research objectives and asked to
note the time taken to complete the questionnaire and to critically note and edit
any awkwardly, undear phrases or statements. They were also asked to identify
any issues that they felt were relevant to this research and omitted from this draft
ques tiomaire.
Comments from partiapants piloting the questionnaire were generally
positive. However, a number of comments helped darify Likert scale statements
in Section 1 of the questionnaire. Some of the statements, as originally worded,
were somewhat undear and the piloting helped illustrate this. For exarnple, one
statement, original phrased 'classroom interaction' in the statement "1 would
miss the classroom interaction if I were to use computer in my teaching" was
changed to 'student-teacher interaction' to speafically focus on the interaction
and not the dassroom time. Some statements were omitted following feedback
from piloting participants. For example, one participant suggested that the
statement "the lack of technical support in my institution discourages me from
using computers" was not really relevant and that the real issue in college ESL
contexts is the issue of accessibility to teduiology, not technical support. While it
was recognised that both issues may affect belief systems and action using
computers, the issue of access appeared the most important to address in this
research as it would appear to dramatically Iimit teachers use and represent a
significant manifestation of the perceived control consh-uct in my theoretical
framework. As a result, the statement, as originally rvritten, was omitted and
this issue \vas integrated into the non-cornputer user branch in Part 2 of the
questionnaire.
Questionnaire collection and analvsis. As outlined above, questionnaires
from Turner College, Jadcson EL1 and Monfort College were sent directly to me
by individual participants in self-addressed, starnped envelopes. 1 collected
questionnaires from participants immediately upon completion at MacGregor
and Jackson colleges during ESL faculty staff meetings. To ensure an adequate
response rate of over 65% of the total distributed sample, follow up reminder
notices were sent to al1 potential participants from surveyed institutions.
Following a period of two weeks, reminder notices, accompanying
questionnaires and self-addressed inter-office envelopes were sent to a number
of potential participants at Monfort College, as return rates for this institution
were still well below the targeted 65%. Reminder notices were individually
addressed to participants at the individual workshops at the professional
development day conference. Following another week, 1 made phone calls to
these potential partiapants in an attempt to increase the response rate.
Quantitative data from the Likert scale and other sections of the
questionnaire rvere analysed using SPSS version 10.05. Responses on the Likert
scale section of the questionnaire were coded from one to five, whereas one
represented the most negative response towards computer-mediated language
leaming and five represented the most positive response. For example, with the
statement "1 enjoy using computers", strongly disagree was labelled one,
disagree was two, neither disagree nor agree was given a value of three, agree
was labelled four and strongly agree was labelled five. The coding of the
negatively rvorded statements was accordingly reversed to ensure the most
positive view of computers as educational tools was labelled five and the most
negative labelled one. This was done to facilitate the quantitative analyses of
these variables.
Descriptive statistical analyses were conducted on these Likert scale items
to report a general analysis of teacher belief systems towards computer-mediated
language learning. In addition, a principal component factor analysis was
conducted on the Likert scale belief system data to identify any common factors
or constructs linking the variables defined by this research. The purpose of the
factor analysis was to explain the relationships among these observed variables
in the Likert scale section of the questionnaire by extracting a smaller number of
unobserved conshcts (Rindskopf, 1992, p.486). These constructs would then be
examined, defined and compared to the constructs proposed in my theoretical
framework defining teacher belief systems. These extracted constmcts would
also then be used to faalitate the statistical analyses of belief systems, comparing
various participant groups to identify any factors influencing teacher belief
sys tems toward compu ter-mediated language learning. An alpha reliability
analysis was conducted on the extracird factors to verify the reliability of these
factors in explaining the variance of the selected variables.
Al1 partiapant written responses to open-ended questions were typed into
a word processing program and reviewed for any commonalities that could be
coded as new variables. Items recumng among ten or more partiapants were
coded into new variables if this information further described teacher belief
systems towards computer-mediated language learning or represented factors
influencing reported or intended actions using computers in ESL teaching.
Participant belief systems were compared through examining the
ditferences among the means of participant responses to the variables as grouped
by the factors extracted through the factor analysis. These factor-defined
response means were compared between participants grouped by demographic,
contextual and experiential aiteria. Two-tailed independent t-tests and one-way
analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted to compare differences among
these means of participant responses in order to identify demographic,
contextual and experiential factors influencing teacher belief systems and
reported or intended actions using computers among the study's participants.
Summary
This chapter desaibed the research methods used in this survey researdi
process, including the rationale for the design of this approach, the participant
recruitment process and the specific research procedures used in this study. A
factor analysis was used to identify theoretical conshcts linking the belief
system data and refining the theoretical definition of second language teacher
belief systems as outlined in my proposed theoretical framework. Through one-
way ANOVA and two-tailed independent t-tests, cornpansons were conducted
behveen the means of participant responses to the factor-grouped variables
defi ning teacher belief systems. These analyses were conducted to identify any
noticeable impact demographic, contextual and expenential factors may have on
teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning and
reported actions and intentions using computers in ESL instruction. The findings
from this research process are descnbed fully in Chapter 4 to address the
research questions posed in Chapter 1:
1. What are second language teachers' belief systems towards computer-
mediated language leaming?
2. How do contextual factors, personal experience and perception of others'
expectations contribute to second language teachers' belief systems
towards the use of computers in second language education?
3. How do these belief systems affect second language teachers' intentions
and reported practices using computers?
Chapter 4
Results and Findings
This chapter reporting results is divided into three sections. The first
section outlines contextual factors characterising the rive surveyed teaching
environrnents. In the second section, a summary of observations and findings
from the focus group interviews is presented. The third section reports results
from the questionnaire research conducted in the five ESL college-level teaching
environments. This section includes descriptive statistical breakdowns of the
findings from this research and results of the factor analysis conducted on the
belief system data.
Contextua1 Factors in Surveved Teachine Environments
As this research is exarnining contextual factors that may influence teacher
belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language leaming, it is necessary to
outline differences and cornmonalities among the five teaching environments of
surveyed partiapants. A summary of characteristics of the five environments
suweyed ob tained from administrators is outlined in Table 4.1. Information
obtained includes the employrnent status of the faculty surveyed, the degree of
teacher accessibility to cornputer equipment, the breadth of software available
for student and teacher use, and the extent that computers are integrated into the
current teaching environment.
As one can see from Table 4.1, the employment status of faculty surveyed
varies depending on the college but ranges between full-time and part-time
facdty. ESL teaching in al1 but the Jadcson College English Language Institute
(ELI) environments may consist of teaching within post-secondary full-time or
continuing educational programs, English for Academic Purposes and/ or in the
federally funded Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC)
program. Teaching in Jackson College EL1 generally accommodates foreign
students, imrnersing themselves in English for career or academic purposes.
Table 4.1
Overview of Surveved Colle~re Teachine Environments
College Computer
Faculty Lab Access Software Integration - - - - - - -
Turner Coilege PT,SESS, FT Optional Varied Adjunct
MacGregor College PT,SESS Optional Varied Adjunct
Monfort College PT,SESS,FT Optional Varied Adjunct
Jackson College PT No access
Jackson College EL1 FT Mandatory Varied Integra ted
Note. Information omitted where computer access is unavailable. PT = Part- time ernployment status (contracts of six hours a week or less); SESS = Sessional status (contracts of between twelve and sixteen hours a week); ET = Full-time status (permanently employed faculty).
Computer access in al1 five environments was Iimited to computer
laboratory contexts. No classroom environments had accessible computer
technology integrated within the dassroom. Computer laboratories for second
language students were accessible to ail but one of the five environments,
Jackson College Continuing Education, whereas only one of the remaining four,
Jackson College ELI, used the computers as an integral part of the ESL
curriculum. In al1 of the remaining three environments access generally
depended on the initiative of the ESL instructor, as computers were not
integrated into course cumculum. Turner College students studying in the post-
secondary (not the English for Academic Studies) section were encouraged to use
computers outside of class time and were offered a five percent bonus mark
incentive to spend at least one hour a week in the lab. Lab technicians, rather
than ESL inshuctors, supervised students in the computer labs at Turner and
MacGregor colleges and dunng five out of a total of seven hours of computer Iab
time scheduled at Jackson College EL1 where student participation was
conducted after face-to-face classroom hours. ESL insûuctors could coordinate
laboratory time at al1 colleges dunng dass hours where computer faalities were
accessible on a first-corne, first-served reserve basis. Jackson College EL1
required its students to spend a mandatory five hours a week in the techniuan-
monitored lab along with two hours a week in an instructor-lead listening
laboratory using cornputer equipment. Software available in all the labs ranged
from grammar-based programs to wn ting / editing support, and Intemet access.
Focus gr ou^ Interviews
Two focus group interviews were conducted at two of the surveyed
college teaching environments. The first i n t e ~ e w consisted of six college-level
ESL instnictors from Monfort College from a wide vanety of age groups, levels
of teaching experience and familiarity with cornputer-mediated language
leaming. The second group consisted of five college-level ESL instructors from
Jackson College EL1 with an equdly wide range of experience and age levels but
with generally increased exposure to computer-mediated language learning,
given the mandated integration of cornputer applications in their ESL
cumculum.
Focus Group Data
Responses from focus group participants were generally positive when
discussing the potential of cornputers in second language education but were
more wide-ranging and mtical about the current uses of computers in ESL
college-level education. Most participants agreed that computers offer second
language education a vanety of benefits induding: increased affective benefits,
acceçs to immense quantities of cultural resources and information, enhanced
opportunities for remedial and individualised support, and more egalitarian
access to communication mediums arnong al1 genders.
The discussions within these interviews revealed issues related to three
areas defining teacher belief systems towards computer-rnediated language
learning: teacher attitudes towards cornputers, the current educational
infrastructures within college-level learning environments and teacher
perceptions of the educational effectiveness of second language computer
applications. The following sub-section lists issues brought up in these three
categories.
Themes oresented in focus g o u ~ interviews constraining the use of computer-
mediated second l a n m a ~ e learning
Teacher Attitudes
Fear of using computers among second language teachers results from a
variety of factors including: inadequate computer training; la& of computer
experience; the overwheiming and mystifying nature of evolving technology;
generational factors resulting in a lack of exposure to computers among older
teachers; institutionalised educational and teaching experiences and
philosophies; and general unfamiliarity and discomfort with educational
corn puter technology
Ferceived loss of control in cornputer-enhanced environments where students
become distracted by technology, have superior computer Iiteracy and where
the cornputer-mediated environment dramatically changes the nature and
location of student-teacher classroom interaction.
Current Educational Infrastructure
Laboratory use and the absence of ESL inshuctor presence in laboratory
environments
Lack of thoughtful and pre-plamed pedagogical integration of computer
applications in current ESL cumculum discouraging computer use
Constraints imposed by ESL curriculum and the time limitations to explore
compu ter-enhanced teaching / leaming
Logistical difficulties in coordinating use of educational computer teduiology
including inadequate computer access, inadequate computer facitities,
technical and pedagogical support, and time required to coordinate and
prepare for computer use
Weaknesses of computer literacyl keyboarding skills of some ESL students
Educational Effectiveness of Second L a n m a ~ e Com~uter A~~l ica t ions
Pedagogical limitations of accessible software programs including limited
feedback, behaviouristic drill programs, and failin& inadequaaes of existing
word processing and second language educational software, inability of
software to interpret the nuances of language
Isolating nature of writing-based technology
Perceptions that the pedagogical effectiveness of computer applications in
second language learning has not yet been proven
When asked to identify factors contributing to second language teacher
beliefs towards cornputer-mediated language learning, participants agreed that
persona1 experience and computer use combined with computer training
significantly influenced instructor beliefs and attitudes towards computer-
rnediated language learning. One participant mentioned the importance of the
innovational nature of an individual's character, stating that instructors
embracing change would likely be more positive towards computer use and
related educational technologies. Sotietal hype and collegial expectations to use
computers were aiso identified as factors that influence teacher belief systems.
Most participants agreed that students value computer use, find
cornputers motivating and as a result administrative bodies have unfortunately
introduced computer technology with little pedagogical planning and adequate
integration. Some partiapants expressed a perception that the computer drives
the curriculum rather than the cumculum directing the use of the computer as
an second language educational tool. When asked their opinions on how they
see ESL instruction evolving in the future with respect to technology,
participants acknowledged the inevitability of increased computer use in second
language education and that ESL insû-uctors would soon be required to possess
the skills necessary to integrate computers into their practices.
The Impact of Focus gr ou^ Data on the Ouestionnaire
The exploratory nature of these focus group interviews introduced a
number of unantiapated themes relevant to the design of the questionnaire for
this research. Several of these issues were grouped according to the
corresponding construct within my theoretical framework and were then
incorporated into the Likert scale section of the questionnaire. These induded
the innovational nature of one's character and the degree to which ESL
instructors would embrace the challenge of integrating computer tedinology into
their ESL teaching. While being categorised as an attitudinal factor. I did
recognise that this newly introduced character-dependent variable (Likert scale
statement # 13) may be more than simply a manifestation of attitude and result
in a more permanent, independent construct. The issue of perceived limitations
of inadequate computer literacy among students and the converse threat of
superior student computer literacy was raised and prompted the creation of two
additional attitudinal statements (statements #16 and #7 respectively) eliating
teacher attitudes about the influence of student computer skills.
It appeared evident from these interviews that some teachers perceived a
lack of substantiaf proof that computers cm enhance second language learning.
resulting in the addition of a related statement (statement #9) into the
experiential construct to elicit views on this area. The impact of societal and
collegial pressure to use computers and be up-to-date with ths teduiology also
became more evident and prompted the inclusion of this element in the Likert
section of the questionnaire (statement #Il) categorised under the perceived
expectations construct. A statement to eliut opinions about the perceived change
in student-teacher interaction in cornputer-enhanced environments, brought up
in the interview data, was also included under the attitudinal conshc t
(statement #15). In addition to modifications to the Likert scale section of the
questionnaire, the potential impact of issues such as training, cornputer
accessibility and pedagogical and technical support became apparent and
necessi ta ted prompts wi thin the questionnaire to address these issues.
Ouestionnaire Findings
The following section will report the results from the questionnaire data.
including the distribution process, demographic data on individual participants,
and descriptive statistical breakdowns of belief system data. This will be
followed by results obtained from the factor analysis of the belief system data
and an alpha reliability analysis of this data. Statistical analyses exarnining the
impact of selected demographic and expenential data on teacher belief systerns
will then be presented. This will be followed by a descriptive statistical
breakdown of reported uses and intended uses of cornputer-mediated Language
leaming in ESL practices.
Ouestionnaire Distribution
117 completed questionnaires were returned from ESL teachers reporting
college-level teaching experience. From the original 155 distributed, this yielded
a total return rate of approximately 75.5%. Table 4.2 outlines specific details on
the number of questionnaires distributed and returned in each college teaching
environrnent and the percent each college group represents of the total sample of
returned surveys.
Table 4.2
Questionnaire Distribution and Collection Der College
College No.Distributed No.Returned % Returned % of Total
Turner College 26 22 84.6 18.8
MacGregor College 20 20 100.0 17.1
Monfort College 53 26
Jackson College 41 39 95.1 33.3
Jackson College EL1 15 10 66.7 8.5
Totals 155 117 75.5 100.0
Ouestionnaire Participants
Of the 105 questionnaires indicating gender, 81 (77.1%) were completed
by females and 24 (22.9%) by males. Twelve partiapants did not indicate gender
on their questionnaires. Addi tional demographic data outlining level of
education, age ranges and teaching experience are outiined in Table 4.3-
Table 4.3
Descriptive Statistics on Teachers' Level of Education. Aees and Exuerience
Education Level No. Ages No. Experience No.
TESL Certificate 72 20-29 12 (1 year 7
Bachelof s level 71 30 - 39 32 1 - 5 34
Masters level 37 40 - 49 38 6-10 27
Doctoral level 4 50 or over 32 1 1 -20 27
<20 years 18
Missing data 3 4
When asked to identify computer applications used on a regular basis, a
large majority of the 117 instructors reported using e-mail (82.9%), word
processing (88%) and the Internet (76.1%) regularly. Only 3.4% of respondents
reported not using a computer on a regular basis. Reported weekly per hour
computer use ranged among the 116 responding partiapants as outlined in Table
4.4 with the majority of partiapants (n=65 or 55.6%) using computers behveen
one and seven hours a week.
Few partiapants reported having received training in computer-mediated
language learning. Over half of the responding participants (n=58 or 50.4%)
indicated having received no training on integrating computers in ESL
instruction. 32 (27.8%) of the total 115 responding participants indicated
engaging in some degree of self-training. Of the 25 participants having received
some training on cornputer-mediated language leaming, the majority (76%)
report some degree of informal training from colleagues as outlined in Table 4.5.
Table 4.4
Reported WeekIv Use of Com~uters amone ESL Teachers
-
Hoursweek of Computer Use -
Frequency Percent
None
Fewer than 1
1 - 3
4 - 7
7 - 10
More than 10
Missing data
Totals 117 100.0
Table 4.5
mes of Cornputer-based ESL Teacher Training Received
Types of Training No. Percentage of Total with Training
College-sponsored
Self-funded & Self-initiated
Informa1 from colleagues
Informal from friends
Total indicating training
Teacher Belief Svstems Towards Cornauter-Mediated L a n w e Learning
Descriptive statistical breakdowns summarising participant responses to
Part One of the questionnaire (the Likert scale statements), defining partiapant
belief systems, are listed in Table 4.6. The figures listed are the number of
participants per category and not the percentages of participants.
By combining the agree and disagree response groups, one c m determine
a general sense of participant response to these individual statements. For
example, it is clear that the majority of instructors suweyed enjoyed using
computers (77% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they enjoy using
computers) and few felt nervous (8.6% of respondents agreed and strongly
agreed with statement #2) or threatened (4.2% agreed or strongly agreed with
statement ti7) by increased cornputer literacy arnong students. 56.5% of al1
participants reported enjoying the challenge of integrating cornputers into their
ESL practice over a 9.6% who reported not enjoying the challenge. Overall,
67.6% felt excited about the potential of computers in ESL teachng, whereas
9.4% reported felt no exatement. In spite of this general enthusiasm, a noticeable
25% of respondents did agree with the possibility of missing the student-teacher
interaction if using cornputers, whereas 44.8% reported not missing this
interaction.
Table 4.6
Instructor Res~onses to Belief Svstem - Statements
- --
Statement SD D AD A SA Total
Frequencies per Category
1.1 enjoy using cornputers. 1 4 22 54 36 117
2. Cornputers make me nervous 24 5û 32 10 O Il6
3. Computers can enhance leaming. 1 2 10 73 31 117
4. Computers improve my teaching. O 11 32 58 16 117
5. Computers motivate students. 1 9 43 49 13 115
6. Cornputers increase autonomy. 2 11 32 58 14 117
7.1 feel threatened using cornputers. 32 60 19 3 2 116
8. Cornputers distract ESL students. 13 68 26 10 O 117
9.1 need more proof that CALL works. 6 36 34 35 4 115
10.1 feel pressured to use cornputers. 17 57 29 13 1 117
11. Teachers need to know CALL. 1 13 24 64 14 116
12. I'm confident teaching with CALL. O 22 26 56 12 116
13.1 enjoy the challenge of cornputea. O 11 39 51 14 117
14.1 would use cornputers with training. 2 7 23 59 23 114
15.I'd miss student interaction. 8 44 35 23 6 116
16.Computer illiteracy stops CALL use. 15 62 31 7 1 116
17.1 a m excited about cornputers in ESL. 1 10 27 56 23 117 - --
No te. S ta tements are summanes of actual quest io~aire statements to faali tate data presentation. (See Appendix D: Questionnaire for complete, unedited statements). SD = Strongly Disagree; D = Disagree; AD = Neither agree nor disagree; A = Agree; SA = Strongly agree; ESL = English-as-a-second language; CALL = Cornputer-assisted language l e a ~ n g .
In terms of cognition or beliefs about the effects of computers in second
language education, 88.9% of al1 participants felt that computers can enhance
ESL leaming, far outweighing the 2.6% minority disagreeing with this statement.
A majority of participants agreed that computers could help improve their ESL
teaching (63.3%). motiva te leamers (53.9%) and give ESL students greater control
over their leaming (61.6%). Nevertheless, despite these beliefs that computers
can help improve ESL teaching, a substantial33.9% of teadiers agreed that they
had not seen enough proof that computers can help ESL students to l e m . This
\vas only slightly below the majority (36.5%) who did not agree with this
statement. 29.6% neither disagreed not agreed with this statement.
In the area of perceived expectations, 67.3% did agree that it is important
for ESL teachers to know how to use computers in their teaching, while 12%
disagreed. In addition, 63.2% of respondents reported feeling pressured to use
computers in their ESL teaching. Overall, a total of 58.6% of participants felt
confident of their abilities to integrate computer technology into their ESL
teaching. In spite of this general sense of confidence, teachers generally reported
that they would be more willing to use computers with more training (72%),
ivhile ody 9% would not.
It is important to note that there were a noticeable number of participants
rvho had no strong feeling about these 17 statements, as the neither agree nor
disagree responses were substantial throughout this section. Anywhere between
approximately 16% and 33% of respondents had no strong feelings towards the
statements dealing with attitudes towards cornputer-mediated Ianguage
leaming. Betrveen 9% and 37% of participants indicated that they neither agreed
nor disagreed with the four statements addressing partiapant knowledge about
cornputer-mediated language leaming capabilities. Approximately 20 - 29% of
participants had no opinion on the six statements addressing issues of control,
expectations or expenence in the questionnaire. On average, approximately 24%
of participants had no opinion on these statements indicating a substantial lack
of knowledge, expenence and/ or interest in these issues.
Reliabilitv analvsis of theoretical consmicts. In order to examine the
validity of the original five theoretical constructs defining belief systems in my
theoretical framework, alpha reliability analyses were conducted on the Likert
scale data assotiated with these five constructs. The resulting alpha measures
examining variables as originaüy categonsed under the five constructs are listed
in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7
AIvha Reliabilitv Analvsis of Orieinal Theoretical Constructs
Constmct No. Variables Alpha
Attitude 7
Beliefs 4
Control 3
Expectations/Expenence 3
As shown in Table 4.7 the alpha reliability measures are significantly less
than a reliable level of 0.75 in the control and expectations/experience constructs
defined in the theoretical framework proposed in this research, indicating a
general unreliability of these three constmch defining belief systems. However,
the alpha measures obtained for the attitudinal and belief constmcts are both
20.75 confirming the validity of these two constructs categorising these eleven
variables. Due to these mixed reliability results on the original five constructs, a
factor analysis was conducted to identify any unidentified constructs underlying
this data.
Factor analvsis of belief svstem data. In order to determine whether the
variables measuring belief systems in the questionnaire c m be explained by a
smaller number of factors or constructs, a factor analysis was conducted on the
data obtained from the seventeen Likert scale statements in Part 1 of the
questionnaire. As the data was of a categorical, ordinal nature, the one to five
Likert scale measures were treated as scores for these particular analyses.
Although this may not be a conventional approach to analyse ordinal, non-
continuous data, it is an approach that has been used in a number of similar
studies examining teacher belief systems and attitudes in survey research
(McCain et al., 1999; McEneaney et ai., 2000; Mitra et al., 1999; Mcore et al., 1998;
Mordes, 1998; Morris, 1988)
An exploratory factor analysis, looking for underlying factors that c o ~ e c t
or link the variables together, was undertaken revealing two significant factors
explaining a cumulative total of 39.4% variance in the data. These two factors
were determined to be the most significant to account for the variance of the
data, as their Eigenvalues were 5.588 and 2.099 respectively. Although a total of
four factors did report Eigenvalues over 1.0, which are deemed significant
(Speamtt, 1988, p.649), the respective increases of cumulative variance explained
in factors three and four were under 5.0% each, and were consequently rejected
on the grounds of their lack of relative importance (Spearritt, 1988, p.649). The
defined factor Ioadings of each of the seventeen Likert scaie variables from the
analysis are shown in Table 4.8.
As illustrated in Table 4.8, al1 the proposed variables are more positively
associated with one of the two factors, having a factor loading greater than 0.3,
which is generally recognised as demonstrating a significant relationship
behveen the variable and factor (Hatch & Lazaraton, 1991, p.494). Variables
loading ont0 Factor 1 generally deal with affective, emotional issues surrounding
computer use in ESL teaching, whihile variables more strongly associated with
Factor 2 deal with perceptions of the educational effectiveness of cornputers in
ESL instruction. While a more detailed analysis will be undertaken in Chapter 5
discussing these findings, it is important to develop a mdimentary description of
these factors in order to clarify the associated variables and to explain the
findings of any further sta tistical analyses using these factors.
As can be seen in Table 4.8, a total of eight variables reveal the highest
degree of association with (or load onto) the attitudind factor (Factor 1) and nine
variables load ont0 the perceived utility factor (Factor 2). The attitudinal factor
demonstrates positive associations with five out of the seven of the variables
originally categorised under the attitude conshc t in my theoretical framework
defining teacher belief systems. This factor also attracts one variable originally
categonsed under the Perceived Expectations construd dong with two variables
originally under the Perceived Control construct. Al1 these variables address
affective, emotional issues surrounding computer use in ESL instruction.
Table 4.8
Factor Loadin~s for Belief Svstem Variables
1 enjoy computers (AENJOY)
Computers make me nervous (ANERVOUS)
Computers can enhance ESL leaming (BENHANCE)
Computea help me teach more effectively (BTEACH)
Cornputers motivate learners (BMOTIVAT)
Cornputers give students autonomy (BCONTROL)
Students' computer literacy is a threat (ATHREAT) Cornputers can distract students (ADISTRAC)
1 need proof that computers help ESL (XPROOF)
1 feel pressured to use computea (TPRESSUR)
Cornputer knowledge is important (TCAREER)
1 am confident using computers (CCONFID)
1 enjoy the challenge of computers (ACHALLEN)
I would use computers with more training (CTRAIN)
1 would miss interaction using computers (AINTERAC)
Student computer illiteracy is a problem (CUNFAMIL)
1 am excited about computers (AEXCITED)
Note. Values less than t.30 have been printed as 'x'. Variable names include the letters A, B, C, T, X plus a term describing the variable content. A = variables describing attitude; B = variables descnbing beliefs; C = variables describing perceived control over computers; T = variables describing perceived expectations of computers; X = past experience using computers; comps. = Computers; Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring; Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization; Rotation converged in 17 iterations.
A11 four of the variables originally defined under the Beliefs construct
exhibited positive assoaations with the perceived utility factor (Factor 2), along
with a range of variables originally categorised under the Attitude, Perceived
Expectations and Past Expenence constnicts. These nine variables commonly
address issues surrounding the educational effectiveness of cornputer use in ESL
teaching and leaming. Only one variable, addressing the issue of increased
computer training and its relationship on computer-mediated language leaming
use, had a significant negative relationship with any of the two factors (20.3).
This may be a result of the conditional wording of this statement "1 would be
rvilling to use computers to teach ESL if 1 had more training" and may suggest an
absence of computer training among participants. This would therefore result in
a negative relationship with the attitudinal factor, as the emotional reaction is
being elicited in an abstract, hypothetical context that does not currently exist.
This factor analysis suggests that the proposed variables used to
determine teacher belief systems concerning cornputer-mediated language
learning faIl under hvo significant constnicts, one defining attitude toward
computer-mediated language leaming and one defining perceptions of the utility
of the computer in ESL instruction.
Reliabiliw analvsis of factors and theoretical constructs. To confirrn the
reliability of these two factors as theoretical constructs, an alpha reliability
analysis was computed for the variables grouped withn these two identified
factors. Both groupings revealed reliable alpha values of >0.75 with the
attitudinal factor variables measuring 0.7729 and perceived utility factor
variables measunng 0.8387, suggesting reliable, cornmon constructs linking these
h v o groups of variables (Norman & Streiner, 1986).
As illustrated in Table 4.8, al1 but one of the variables clearly loaded ont0
one of the two factors. Statement no.13, "1 enjoy the challenge of integrating
computers into my teaching", indicated a similarly significant positive
association with both factors (c 0.4 on both factors 1 and î), aithough a slightly
stronger association with the perceived utility factor (-498 on Factor 2 vs. .450 on
Factor 1). In order to determine the most suitable grouping for this challenge
variable, an additional alpha reliability analysis was conducted. Instead of
including ths variable addressing the challenge of computer-mediated language
leaming under the perceived utility factor where it loaded most positively, this
variable was moved to the attitudinal factor grouping where a further reliability
analysis on the two factors was conducted.
Including this challenge factor under the attitudinal grouping, the
reliability analysis revealed a higher, more reliable alpha reading of 0.8028 for all
attitudinal factor variables and an alpha of 0.8103 for all variables under the
perceived utility factor, whch is slightly reduced from the original alpha of
0.8387. This configuration yields a more consistently reliable grouping of
variables now yielding alphas of greater than 0.8. In addition, the attitudinal
variable was originally classified under the attitude construct along with the
other five attitude variables loading onto this factor. Given these more consistent
reliabilities and the attitudinal content of this 'challenge' variable, these hvo
revised variable groupings within these two factors will be used to define and
compare belief systems within this research.
Table 4.9 lists the complete statements as listed in Part 1 of the
questionnaire that are associated with each factor. Statements are listed in
descending order of those with highest loadings (thus most positively associated
with the factor) listed first.
Table 4.9
Factor-Defined Belief Svstem Ouestionnaire Statements
Attitudinal (Factor 1) Ouestionnaire Statements:
1 feel threatened using computers because my students are more computer
literate than 1 am.
Working with computers makes me nervous.
1 enjoy using computers.
1 feel confident of my abilities to integrate computer technology into my
ESL teaching.
Cornputers distract ESL students from their language leaming.
1 enjoy the challenge of integrating cornputers into my teaching.
1 would miss the student-teacher interaction if 1 used computers in my
teaching . My ESL students are unfamiliar with cornputers, making it difficult for me
to use computers.
1 feel pressured to use cornputers in my ESL teaching.
Perceived Utilitv (Factor 2) Ouestionnaire Statements:
1 am excited about the potentiai of computers in ESL teaching.
I t is important for ESL teachers to know how to teach using cornputer
technology . I would be more willing to use cornputers to teach ESL if 1 had more
training.
Cornputer teduiology gives students more control over their learning.
Cornputers help motivate ESL students to learn English.
Using computers would help/helps me teach my ESL students more
effectiveiy . Cornputer technology can enhance English-as-a-Second language (ESL)
learning.
1 haven't seen enough proof that computers can help ESL students leam.
As one can see, the nine statements in the Factor 1 grouping generally
consist of statements eliciting varying degrees of emotionai reaction to the use of
computers in ESL instruction. As can be seen from the ordering, statements 1 ,2
and 3 (examining threat and enjoyment using computers) reveal the strongest
loadings ont0 the attitudinal factor of .607, .745 and .784 respectively. Factor 2,
on the O ther hand, consists of eight sta tements addressing more knowledge-
based issues conceming the perceived educational effectiveness and utility of
cornputers in ESL instmction.
As can be seen by examining the content of these statements, attitudinal
elements and perceptions of utility of cornputer-mediated language learning are
often present in both factors. For example, statement 1 in the Perceived Utility
Factor elicits excitement over the potential of computers in ESL teaching.
Despite this affective, attitudinal component, the statement loads strongly ont0
this utilitarian factor (.657), likely indicative of its content eliuting perceptions of
educational effectiveness of this construct. Similarly, the statement relating
student computer illiteracy with educational computer use in the attitudinal
factor also addresses the utility of computers but remains most positively
associated with the attitudinal construit, likely resulting from the threat of
perceived difficulty with computer use in such a situation. A complete
interpretation of the meaning of these two factors will be discussed in Chapter 5.
Factor-defined belief svstems. Given the two distinct constructs that
hüve been determined defining teacher belief systems towards computer-
mediated language learning, it is important to determine this study's
participants' belief systems as defined by these two constnicts. An overail mean
was calculated of al1 participants' responses to the variables grouped by the two
factors extracted through the factor analysis. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the
variance and range of the means of a11 responding participants on the nine
variables associated with the attitudinal factor (Factor 1) and the eight variables
associated with the pcrceived utility factor (Factor 2). For exarnple, Figure 2
identifies the number of respondents obtaining similar means on al1 of the nine
variables associated with the attitudinal factor (Factor 1). The common mean
response of d l 117 participant responses to these nine statements (3.69) and the
standard deviation (-54) among these responses are indicated to the right side of
the figure. Given that the total partiapant average mean on Factor 1 variables is
greater than 3.0, and the most frequent mean registering 4.0 on a Likert scale
measuring responses from one to five, from most negative to most positive, it can
be said that surveyed participants generaily possess a positive attitude towards
cornputer-mediated language leaming.
Ln Figure 3, portraying respondents' average perceptions of the utility of
computers in ESL instruction, the average mean of al1 117 participants was
equally positive at 3.66 and again the most frequent mean registered 4.0. As a
result, it appears that tlus study's participants generally have a positive attitude
towards computer-mediated language learning and possess a generally positive
perception of computers as usefui tools in ESL education.
30- I
% O C a 3 O 9 0 - IL
10 - SM. [3ev = -54
Mean = 3.89
0 . , . , . . . . . . . . . N = ll7.ûû
F i a r e 2. Frequency of means of participant belief systems as defined in Factor 1.
SU. aev =.!x Meen = 3.66 N= 117.00
Figure 3. Frequency of means of participant belief systems as defined in Factor 2.
Differences in ~articivant belief svstems. In order to identify and
examine contextual, personal and perceptive factors influenting participant
belief systems toward cornputer-mediated language leaming, the mean response
of various groupings of participants were compared. Groupings compared
included participants from vanous demographic, contextual and expenential
classes. Analyses included two-tailed independent t-tests and one-way ANOVA
to determine any statistically significant variance between the means of
participant responses from selected groups to the variables defining the two
factors. Two-tailed independent t-tests revealed no significrnt differences
between the means of participant attitudes towards cornputer-mediated
language leaming nor their perceptions of the uti:ity of computers in ESL
instruction when comparing participants grouped by gender, higher education
(graduate degrees), or expenence using computers in ESL instruction. There was
ho wever a signi ficant difference (-030 where statistical significance is defined as
p s .05) between the Factor 2 means of the 29 non-users of computers indicating a
likelihood of using computers in the future compared with the two non-users
unlikely to use computers in the future. Non-users of computers likely to use
computers in the future revealed a substantially higher means on the variables
defining the perceived utility of computers (M=3.7124) than the same means of
the hvo non-users indicating no intention of using computers in their ESL
instruction in the future (M=2.5625). While this difference was significant, it is
important to note that only two out of a total of 31 non-users of computer-
mediated language learning noted their intention to not use computers in the
future. This finding future hirther supports the generdly positive perception
participants have of the effectiveness of computers in EÇL instruction.
Results from comparisons of the means of these bvo belief constructs
among participants from selected demographic and expenential groupings are
listed in Table 4.10. These results were obtained using one-way ANOVA
analyses to identify any significant differences bebveen participant means in the
hvo factorial constructs determining attitudes towards cornputer-mediated
language leaming and perceptions of utility of computers in ESL instruction.
As can be seen in Table 4.10, comparisons of the means of participant
responses in these two constructs reveals only two grouping factors in which
there were statistically significant difierences (p a .05) between participant
attitudes towards cornputer-mediated language leaming and/or perceptions of
utility of computers in ESL education. There were no differences among
participants from different age groups, working at different colleges or having
received computer training. In the groupings showing a statistical difference, a
more comprehensive post-hoc Tukey multiple comparison analysis (p s .05) was
conducted to identify the participant groups within these categories
demonstrating a significant difference in these belief system constructs. In the
area of teaching expenence, a sigrjficant difference (.007) was found between the
means of the perceived utility construct (Factor 2) of the 27 partiapants reporting
between 10 and 20 years of teaching experience (M = 3.8717) and the 18
participants reporting more than 20 years of teaching experience (M = 3.3548).
Table 4.10
Results of One-Wav ANOVA Analvses Cornvaring Partici~ant Belief Svstems
Participant Grouping
*ge FI F2
Teaching Experience F1
F2
ColIege Affiliation FI
F2
Cornputer Training F1
F2
Weekly Computer Use FI
F2
Note. * p s .05; F1 = Factor one (Attitudinal Factor); F2 = Factor two (Perceived
Utility Factor)
Participants grouped by their reported weekly computer use
demonstrated noticeable differences in belief systems in both attitudinal and
perceived utility areas. In an effort to explore the substantial differences
demonstrated between participants grouped by weekiy computer use, 1 have
outlined the means and standard deviation of participant groupings in these
constructs in Table 4.11.
Table 4.11
Participant Belief Svstem Means bv Weeklv HourIv Cornputer Use
Weekly Computer Use No. Factor 1 Factor 2
Mean SD Mean SD
A s can be seen within these differences, positive attitudes toward
cornputer-mediated language learning increase in relation to the increased
weekly hourly computer use among participants. Similady, perceptions of the
computer as an effective pedagogical tool similarly increases with weekly
computer use with the exception of the 7 - 10 hours/week users when the means
drops slightly but again supersedes earlier increases arnong the greater than 10
hour per week users.
Reported Uses of Computer Technoloq
Of the 117 participants in this research, 85 (72.6%) reported to have used
computer technology in their ESL teachng, whereas 32 (27.4%) had not. Of the
85 participants repoting some expenence teadung with computers, 69 (81.2%)
reported using computers in a laboratory setting, while 14 (16.5%) reported
having used computers in the lab and in the classroom, leaving only 2 (2.4%)
indicating experience solely in the classroom. When indicating a preferred
location to use computers, a slim majority of 44 partiapants (52.4%) reported that
they would prefer the laboratory setting, while a significant number (n = 35 or
35.7%) indicated both withn the lab and classroom. A total of 10 participants
(11.9%) indicated their preference for exdusive dassroom use. As can be seen,
ivhile the majority of teachers have only used computers in a laboratory setting. a
substantial proportion of educators desire to use computers in a more integrated
classroom and laboratory context.
Expanding on this issue of location of cornputer-use, twenty-seven
respondents offered explanations for why their preferred location differed frorn
where they had used computers with their classes. The majority of these
responses were from instructors having used computers in a laboratory setting,
but who would prefer using computers in a classroom and possibly laboratory
context. Reasons listed varied and ranged from spatial concems, that cornputer
tables limit group work and distract lemers, to logistical reasons, that college
computer labs are often used by classes other than ESL classes and are therefore
difficult to book and time-consuming to coordinate classroorn relocation. A
number of instmctors expressed concern about the common practice of cornputer
language labs being staffed by lab monitors or technicians and not ESL
instructors. Several respondents expressed concem that this resulted in
unfocused learning and limited the effectiveness of the computer as a language
learning tool. A number of respondents emphasised that classroom integration
of this technology would result in a "sounder pedagogically integration of work.
When asked to identify the range of computer applications instructors had
used with their classes, the large majority (n=78 or 92% of the 85 computer users)
had used software approaches. A fewer 43 (50.6%) teachers with computer-
mediated language learning experïence had reported using the Intemet, 28 (33%)
had used e-mail and only 3 (3.5%) had reported using computer conferences with
their ESL students.
Participant responses explainhg the reasons for the use of such computer
applications were reviewed and coded into one of six categories. These
categories included the perceptions that the application was a pedagogical tool, a
student research tool, a communication tool, or that it helped attain affective
objectives (such as increasing student motivation), helped individualise the
teaching process, or simply because the application was a required part of the
curriculum and mandated b y some external authority. The number of
participant responses grouped into these categones is illustrated in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12
Reasons Given for Ushg Cornouter-Mediated Lan
Reason Given No. % of Respondents
Pedagogical Tool
Externally Dictated
Research Tool
Communication Tool
Affective Purpose
Individualisation
Total Respondents Indicating Computer Teaching Experience 85
As can be seen the majority of instmctors perceived the computer as an
instructional tool assisting in the delivery of second language education
programs. The large majority (n=75 or 91.5%) of computer users felt that
computers helped their students. A very small minority (n=4 or 4.9%) felt that
they did not heip, while 3 respondents felt they both helped and did n ~ t help
their ESL students. The responses from the 73 partiapants offerïng expianations
how computers helped their students were grouped into four categories as
illustrated in Table 4.13.
Table 4.13
Ex~lanations Given for How Com~uters Hehed ESL Leamers
Explanations No. % of Respondents
Affective Benefits
Individualised Leaming
Reinforced Leaming
Built Cornputer Literacy
Total Respondents Listing Explanations for Computer Success 73
As can be seen the majority of instructors having used computers felt the
computer helped them individualise and target learning for individual students
along with improving the affective leaming environment. Reported benefits
falling under these complementary categories included motivating students,
targeting individual learning styles, and making the class fun and relevant to
generations of leamers who will require computer skills in their careers.
A number of participants reported that the computer makes participation
more equitable among their students. One participant wrote, "I'm not sure
computers helped them learn more English but 1 did find that often the quieter
people in the class (the women) were able to excel on the computers because they
knew keyboarding while the men (who are more vocal in our class) were
shuggling. Consequently, it changed the power dynamic". As this quotation
implies, fewer numbers of participants felt that the computer helped reinforce
ESL leamhg being conducted within the dassroom, while even fewer saw its
success as faalitating computer literacy arnong student populations.
Non-users The main explanation for non-use of
cornputer-mediated language leaming among the 32 reported non-users of
cornputer-mediated language learning was a lack of computer access. This was
followed by lack of knowledge of how to integrate computers into ESL
curriculum and a lack of time. Exact numbers of participants offenng
explanations of their non-use of computer technology in their E L practices are
listed in Table 4.14.
Table 4.14
Reasons for not havinn used comvuter technoloev in ESL teaching
Reason No. Percentage of Non-Users
No access 20 62.5
No knowledge of integration 8 6.8
Not enough time 7 6.0
No t an effective teaching tool 3 2.6
Not cornfortable using computers 2
Need to see results first
Note. This prompt in the questionnaire encouraged participants to check off al1 reasons that apply. As a result, the responses will not represent 100% of the 32 reported non-computer users
When asked what would encourage the use of the computer among these
non-users, 22 (68.8%) mentioned access, 18 (56.3%) mentioned training, dong
with 18 (56.3%) mentioning increased support, and 13 (40.6%) indicating
increased time. Seven partiapants offered other reasons ranging from a need for
better software and more appropriate, targeted applications suitable for their
teaching context, offenng what the classroom situation camot. Only two
participants (6.3%) stated that nothing would make them use computers in their
teaching.
Non-users' intentions to use com~uters. If these reported constraints
preventing the use of computer-mediated language leaming among these non-
users were removed, a total of 22 (68.8%) respondents stated that they would use
computers because they feel their students should know how to use this
technology. A further 19 (59.4%) said they would use computers as they would
like to learn how to integrate this technology into their teaching. 17 or 53% of
respondents said they would use computers to motivate leamers and help
improve their ESL learning. Only one respondent said they would not use
computers even with these constraints were removed.
When asked about the preferred location of use, the majority (n=18 or
56.3%) of non-users preferred to use the computers in a more integrated context
in both the laboratory and dassroom. Ten respondents (31.3%) preferred the lab,
while 3 (9.476) preferred the classroom. In terms of computer applications, the
ovenvhelming majority of non-users (n=29 or 93.6%) stated they would likely
use software programs if the reported constraints such as lack of access and
inadequate computer knowledge were remedied. Similarly, 25 (89.3%)
respondents stated they would use the Intemet, while 24 (82.7%) indicated the
likelihood of using email and substantidly fewer 10 respondents (40%) reported
they would likely use conferenang mediums.
Summarv of Ouestionnaire Data
The questionnaire data revealed generally positive belief systems towards
cornputer-mediated language leaming among questionnaire participants. The
majority of respondents reported positive attitudes towards computer
technology, enjoying using computers and having confidence using them. A
substantial majority of participants appear to have a positive appreciation for the
potentiai of computers in second language education. Nevertheless, in spite of
this enthusiasm, a substantial rninority would like further proof demonstrating
the usefulness of computers in ESL teaching. The majority appear to recognise
the importance of cornputer-mediated language learning in the ESL profession,
recognising computer use as an inevitable and increasingly used educational
tool. Consequently, many teachers reported a desire to have hrther training to
help prepare them to integrate this technology into their practices.
A surprising 73% of al1 participants reported having used computers in
their ESL practices and the majority of those had used computers in a laboratory
setting. Very few of these users reported any organised training, with many
reporting self-training and training from colleagues and friends. When asked of
their preferred location for computer use, the majority of participants indicated
the desire to see computers more integrated into both dassroom and lab settings.
The majority of users reported feeling that the computer helped their çtudents.
Many felt that it helped individualise their teachng and helped improve the
affective environment in their practice.
Those participants not having used computers in their teaching generally
reported a likelihood of using computers in the future provided issues
constraining the use of such technology are remedied. The issue of access was
the primary barrier to computer use reported among non-users, followed by a
lack of training, and inadequate time. The non-users agreed with the users and
reported a desire to use computers in both a laboratory and dassroom context.
The analysis of the belief system data reveded hvo reliable, principal
factors explaining the variance within the belief system data. These two factors
mainly defined variables classified as attitudinal and those relating to the
perceived utility of computers in education. These findings reflected results
Çrom previous research in this area confirming the existence of two similar
constructs defining teacher belief systems (McEneaney et al., 2000; Mitra et al.,
1999).
Cornparisons of the means of participant responses to the two factor-
defined belief system constructs among various groupings of participants
revealed a statistically significant difference among participants grouped by
weekly computer use, teachùig expenence and the intention to use computers in
the future among current non-users. The most noticeable factor impacting belief
systems appeared to be weekly computer use, showing a positive relationship
behveen weekly computer use and positive attitudes towards computer-
mediated language leaming and positive perceptions of the educational
effectiveness of the computer in ESL instruction. There were no statisticai
differences arnong teacher belief systems of partiapants grouped by age, gender,
college affiliation or educational experience. A discussion of these findings will
be presented in Chapter 5.
Chapter 5
Discussion
This chapter will discuss and provide an interpretation of the findings
from the focus group interviews and the questionnaire data in an attempt to offer
answers to the research questions guiding this study. The definition of second
language teacher belief systems towards computer-mediated language learning
and the multiple factors influencing these belief systems are discussed in Iight of
the theoretical framework proposed in this research. The effect of teacher belief
systems on reported practices and intended practice using computers will also be
discussed. This study's limitations are then discussed in terms of the research
design and survey instruments. Finally, recommendations for future research in
this area will be outlined along with concluding remarks summarising the
implications of this research.
Second Lannuaee Teacher Belief Svstems
Towards Com~uter-Mediated Lannuaae - Learning
The first question posed in this study was what are second language
teachers' belief systems toward cornputer-mediated language learning. This
section will offer a response to this question and discuss the definition of teacher
belief systems in light of the theoretical framework proposed in this research.
This will be followed by an analysis of ESL teacher belief systems towards
cornputer-mediated language learning reported in ths research. The influence of
demographic and contextual factors on teacher belief systems will then be
discussed, followed by an analysis of significant factors shaping these belief
systems towards computer-mediated language learning.
Theoreticallv Defined Belief Svstems
The primary focus of this research was to define teacher belief systems
towards cornputer-mediated language learning. As discussed in the
methodology section of this research, belief systems defined in this research were
based on the proposed theoreticd framework outlined in Chapter 2. This mode1
categonsed belief systems into five unique consbucts that interact to influence
teacher intentions and actions to use an educational innovation; in the case of this
research, compu ter technolog y.
Results from the factor analysis of the Likert scale responses to the
questionnaire research indicate a reliable division of two independent factors
defining teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language leaming.
These two factors contrast with the original five constructs proposed in my earlier theoretical frarnework. Nevertheless, these two factors are not surprising
as they are both quite related to the two core theoreticai constructs 1 proposed in
my belief system definition which were defined as attitudes and beliefs.
The most apparent difference between statements associated with these
two constructs extracted from the factor analysis appears to be a degree of affect.
S tatements assoaated with Factor 1 that 1 have labelled the attitudinal construct,
al1 possess a reasonably strong degree of what can be described as an emotional
or affective dimension. Six variables (statements) assoaated with Factor 1 were
originally categorised under my attitudinal constxuct which was defined as
constituting pnmarily affective and evaluative elements of belief systems. Issues
of enjoyment, nervousness, threat, pressure and sentimentality are ail eliated in
some form in this grouping of statements. However, this factor did absorb hyo
variables originally categorised under perceived control over the use of
computers and one variable classified under perceived expectations using
computers. These three variables, not originally classified as attitudinal, are
defined by the following questionnaire statements:
1 feel pressured to use computers in my ESL teadung. 1 feel confident of my abilities to integrate computer technology into my ESL teaching. My ESL students are unfamiliar with cornputers, making it difficult for me to use computers.
Upon review of these statements one can see that these statements do al1
possess a significant affective dimension concerning the use of the computer in
ESL teaching. While certainly based on a teacher's perception of societal and
collegial expectations towards the use of computers in teaching, the first
statement actually eliats a significant emotional response originating from these
expectations. The next statement, originally classified under the control
construct, also deals with the affective issue of confidence, while the third
statement addresses the emotionaily charged issue of control. Teacher control in
educational settings is by its nature affective in some respect, as the introduction
of the computer has often been described as a third partiapant in the educational
environment (Bumett, 1998), thereby reducing teacher control and consequently
empowering students in the learning environment. While this may seem
advantageous from a cognitive perspective, the introduction of the computer into
educational contexts has been described as a somewhat threatening expenence
for educators and thereby maintaining a significant affective component.
(Albaugh, 1997; Cuban, 1986,1990,1993; Dunkel, 1987; Eastrnent, 1986; Jamieson,
1994; Kern, 1995).
The second construct, while possessing some statements of an affective
nature, focuses primarily on perceptions of utility of computer technology and
how the computer promises to enhance second language education. Statements
associated with this construct like "computer technology c m enhance ESL
Iearning" and "using computers would help me teach my students more
effectively" address a teacher's perception of how functional the computer tool is
in his/her teaching practice. Even statements presenting a more affective
dimension such as "1 am excited about the potential of computers in ESL
teaching" present a strong sense of the relationship of the computer to
potentially improving ESL teadung. Issues of training and knowing how to use
computers dong with knowledge about the effectiveness of computers appear in
this factor.
These results from this research demonstrate the fluidity of constmcts
defining belief systems and the difficulty in isolating distinct constructs from the
larger concept of belief systems. It appears evident that conceptual definitions of
constructs defining belief systems are quite interrelated and interact on a
multitude of levels to influence action and intended actions to use an educational
innovation. Results from ths research do suggest that there are two relatively
independent constructs underlying belief systems.
These two constructs reflect findings in earlier research examining
computer attitudes among teachers that found primarily two conceptual
dimensions defining teacher belief systems towards educational computer
technology (McCain et al., 1999; McEneaney et al., 2000; Mitra et al., 1999;
Woodrow, 1991). These studies found one area that is: generally affective in
nature and one that is a more cognitive perception of the utility of the computer
in education. One study (McEneaney et al., 2000) examining computer attitudes
among pre-service teachers identified four significant factors defining attitudes:
three representing affective dimensions of belief systems that induded positive
and negative feelings towards computer and another factor, independent of
these affective factors, representing an understanding of the utility of computers.
The research that this study was based upon (Woodrow, 1991) also identified
affective components to belief systems along with a perception of the educational
impact of computers. As one can see, this earlier research reinforces the findings
revealed in this study isolating an affective dimension along with a perceptive,
more cognitive dimension related to the effectiveness of computers in education.
Given the similarities behveen these earlier findings and this specific
research, it appears evident that teacher belief systems towards educational
innovations such as computer technology can quite reliably be determined to
consist of two principal dimensions. As found in this research, one dimension
can be described as affectively-based, representing attitudes of an individual
towards that innovation and another identifies a more cognitive dimension of
one's perception of the educational utility of that innovation
As a result of this analysis, the proposed theoretical framework for this
research has been modified to reflect these changes, as seen in Figure 8. From
this diagram one can see that 1 have now separated and defined the two
extracted principal constructs and shown the infiuence of the four previously
separated constructs, beliefs, past experience, perceived expectations, perceived
control, as one composite constmct influencing both newly defined conshiicts
equally. Scholars researching the constitution of belief systems towards
technology and educationai innovation have agreed that the attitudes towards an
innovation are influenced by what one has done with the innovation as well as
what one has observed or read about that innovation (Mitra et al., 1999). Ln other
words, belief systems are influenced by a combination of past experience with
the irmovation, cognitive understanding of the potential of the innovation
(beliefs) and perceived expectations of what others think about the innovation.
Teacher Belief Systems
1 Beliefr I 1 Past experience I Perceived expectations
1 Perceived control I
Figure 4
Factors influencing teacher behaviour towards educational innovation
I t has also been increasingly recognised that attitudes towards the
'purpose' of technology is an important factor in the decision to use an
educational innovation such as cornputer technology (Mitra et ai., 1999, p.3). A
study by Lam (2000) analysing reasons why second language teachers refrain
from using technology in their practices, concluded that it is the teacher's
perception of the usefulness of technology in his/her teaching practice that
govems the use of technology. A study by Davis (ated in McFarlane, et al., 1997)
developed a Technology Acceptance Mode1 to explain and predict attitudes
towards technology in the business world. This mode1 consisted of two
components, one being ease of use of the innovation and the second being
usefulness, defined as the degree to which an individual believes that innovation
will enhance job performance. This mode1 was supported by results of Davis'
study and validated in another shidy by Szajna (ated in McFarlane, et al., 1997).
Chisholm, h i n and Carey (2000) cite the importance of societal and
political valuing of computers that play a strong role in the development of
attitudes towards computers (p.3). They add that cultural values and socio-
economic factors (perceived expectations) influence horv people view computer
technology and direct action and intentions using this technology. Where
collaboration is valued in a culture, individualised cornputer use may not be
valued and therefore will be less commonly employed.
A shidy examining the relationship between expenence with computers
and computer attitudes among college students also concluded that values
towards computer technology will be determined primarily by the marketplace
and public policy (McCain et al., 1999). In addition, studies have shown that
attitudes and perception of effectiveness of computers used in educational
contexts depend on an individual teacher's ability to use the cornputer
successfully and his/her sense of confidence using the technoIogica1 tool
(Akbaba & Kurubacak, 2000; Armstrong et al., 1994; George, 1996). As a result,
there is little doubt that belief systems and actions using computers will be
influenced by a combination of expectations, expenence and beliefs regarding an
innovation in addition to one's sense of control over that innovation. This revised
interpretation of belief systems will be used in this discussion to define, analyse
and compare belief systems among second language teachers.
ESL Teacher Belief Svstems Towards Com~uter-Mediated Lannuaee Learning
Given the responses to the Likert scale portion of this questionnaire
research, it appears evident that ESL instructors sampled in this study
dernonstrated generally favourable attitudes towards computer-mediated
language learning and remarkably positive beliefs about its potential
effectiveness in ESL instruction. The majority (77%) of instnictors surveyed
reported enjoying computers and few felt nervous (8.6%) or threatened (4.3%)
using computers. In addition almost 89% felt that computers have the potential
to enhance ESL education, while 68% reported feeling excited about the potential
of computers in ESL instruction. An absence of strongly negative reactions to the
statements 'cornputers improve my ESL teaching' and '1 enjoy integrating
computers into my ESL teaching' reinforce these reasonably positive teacher
belief systems about computer-mediated language learning.
These favourable results reflect earlier research findings showing that
second language teachers generally have a favourable attitude towards
cornputer-mediated language leaming (Diamond, 1997; Harvey, 1987; Hopwood,
1989; Leh, 1995; Levy, 1999; Moore et al., 1998; Sofranova, 1993). Ln addition,
given the substantial majority (77%) of instructors who have reportedly used
cornputers in their teaching, it appears evident that instructors in this sample feel
quite corn fortable using computers as a teaching tool.
Demomaphic and Experiential Influences on Belief Svstems
In order to address the second question guiding this research, which was
to identify external factors influencing teacher belief systems toward computer-
mediated language leaming and examine how these factors impact on belief
systems, participant responses defining belief systems were isolated and
cornpared. These cornparisons were conducted in order to isolate specific
demographic, contextual or expenential factors influencing participant belief
systems. As shown in Table 4.10 in Chapter 4, there were only three
demographic and experiential categories demonstrating a significant impact on
participant belief systems. These categones included participants defined by
teaching experience, weekly computer use and having an intention to use
cornputers in teaching practices in the future. There were no statistically
significant differences (p s -05) among participant belief systems toward
computer-mediated language learning grouped by gender, age, education level,
college affiliation, computer training received, or whether they had used
compu ters in their ESL teadung.
Cornputer use and belief svstems. The most significant identified
difference in participant belief systems occurred among participants grouped by
weekly computer use. Results indicated a positive relationship between weekly
computer use and computer attitude arnong partiapants. Increasing weekly
computer use among participants resulted in increasingly positive attitudes
towards cornputer-rnediated language and increasingly positive perceptions of
the educational effectiveness of computers in second language instruction.
It is not surprising that those partiapants using computers on a more
regular basis have more positive attitudes and perceptions of their utility in
second language education. In a discussion of the effects of computer instruction
on attitudes towards computers, Green et al. (2000) cited nurnerous studies
showing a correlation between more positive computer attitudes and increased
computer experience. Cited in Green et al. (2000). a study by Gressard and Loyd
(1985) found that elementary school teachers in a staff development computer
training course were significantly less anxious and more confident about
computer use after training than before. Fuuiegan and Ivanoff (1991) (as ated in
Green et al., 2000) found significantly more positive attitudes towards cornputers
for a class of social work graduate students following a bnef cornputer course. In
addition, McCain (1999) found increased experience using computers lead to
increasingly positive attitudes towards cornputers in education.
An examination of faculty use and non-use of e-mail and the resulting
effects of this usage on attitudes towards computers indicated that more positive
expectations about the utility of technology resulted from increased use of this
technology (Mitra et ai., 1999). In their study of 388 public elementary and high
school foreign language teachers' use of technology in teaching foreign language
culture, Moore, Morales and Carel (1998) indicated that teachers of Japanese,
having used technology in their own pre-service training, had developed a more
positive awareness of the potential of t h s technology and therefore used it in
their teaching more frequently.
The ironic revelation of these findings is that research suggests that
negative attitudes and unfavourable perceptions of computers adversely affect
computer literacy (Chisholrn, Irwin, & Carey. 2000b). and as has been discussed,
computer expenence resulting in computer literacy increases positive attitudes
towards computers. While positive attitudes towards cornputers increase the
likelihood of achievement, negative attitudes decrease the attainment of
cornpetence and presumably favourable attitudes towards educational computer
use. As a result, this vicious a r d e of no experience, no use is a crucial area to
address in educational training to ensure a more effective use of computer-
mediated language leaming applications.
Teachine e x ~ e n e n c e and belief svstems. Teaching experience was
another factor that appeared to influence teacher belief systems in terms of the
educational effectiveness of cornputers. The most significant difference behveen
teacher attitudes in this area occurred between participants reporting behveen 10
and 20 years of teaching experience, who had more positive perceptions of the
utility of computers in ESL instruction and those with more than 20 years of
experience. 1 suspect that the difference in beiiefs between these two groups
stems hom the fact that teachers with a minimum of ten years expenence have
developed substantial confidence and security with their teaching practices and
are yet still motivated enough to explore educational innovations using
technology. The confidence and security provided through this degree of
teaching experience combined with the still unjaded enthusiasm and motivation
to expand teaching approaches likely empowers teachers with this level of
experience to examine educational technological approaches. On the other hand,
teachers having taught for twenty years may be considerably committed to their
teaching approaches and not necessarily interested in improving or modifying
their teaching practices and thereby less motivated to experiment with such
technological innovation. These teachers have considerable investment in their
teaching approaches and modifying those practices is likely seen as a
considerable threat. As a result, these most experienced teachers have less
intention to expose themselves to educational technology and are thereby less
aware of any educational potential these bols may have.
The likelihood of computer use and belief svstems. The only other
statistically significant area revealed among these partiapant groupings was the
difference between perceptions of the utility of computers among non-users of
cornputer-mediated language leaniing reporting a likelihood of using cornputers
in their future teaching practices and non-users indicating no intention of using
computers in the future. Those 29 non-users likely to use cornputer-mediated
language learning in the future demonstrated a more positive attitude towards
computers than the two reporting an udikelihood of using computers in the
future. Given the substantial difference in the sizes of these hvo groups any
conclusion from this finding would be difficult to support. Nevertheless, given
the substantially greater number of non-users reporting an interest in exploring
cornputer-mediated language learning approaches in the future, it is dear that
even those second language teachers inexperienced in cornputer use possess a
generally positive perception of the utility of computers as educational tools. It
is also clearly understandable that those reporting an intention to use computers
in the future likely have an increased perception of the educational effectiveness
of these technologid tools. As reported in the study examining faculty use and
non-use of e-mail, expectations about the promise of technology are related to
the actual use of technology (Mitra et al., 1999).
Factors not im~actine - on belief svstems. There were no statistically
si gni ficant differences between the belief systems of the minori ty of male
inshuctors and the majority of female instructors towards computers or among
instructors from separate institutions. This la& of difference in gender-based
samples was somewhat surprising, as there have been a number of discussions
that confirm a gender-based difference in attitudes towards technology among
men and women where men tend to have increasingly positive beliefs about
computer technology than women (Grossman & Grossman, 1994; McCoy &
Baker, 2000). Indications from more recent research has suggested that the
gender gap between computer attitudes is closing (Luchetta, 2000). Part of the
increasing equality of gender beliefs towards technology could be the overall
increased use of technology in everyday society increasing exposure to
computers among both men and women on a daily basis. McEneaney et al.
(2000) in their discussion of pre-service teacher attitudes towards computers
conduded that the inaeasing use of teduiology both in teacher education and in
many aspects of modem life is Iikely promoting more positive attitudes towards
computer technology in general among al1 groups (p.5).
The fact that there was no substantial differences between ESL instructors
in college environments was even more surprising, given the considerable
differences between Jackson EL1 and other colleges where cornputer access and
degree of integration in the cuniculum is quite different. Contributing to this
phenomenon may be the transient nature of the ESL profession, where many ESL
college educators regularly circulate among several colleges concurrently
working on a number of part-time contracts in a variety of institutions. As a
result, long-term loyaity to one institution is rare and ESL professionals tend to
have a broad base of experience in a range of educational contexts, exposing
them to a vanety of uses of educational technology. This phenomenon along
with lack of gender differences could also reflect the increased exposure to
technology in the general population. The absence of differences between gender
or institutional groups reflect findings from a study of teachers' attitudes
torvards technology in general which conduded that there were no differences in
teacher attitudes based on participant gender or school affiliation (McFarlane,
Hoffrnan, & Green, 1997).
Other factors not influencing teacher belief systems toward computer-
rnediated language leaming induded age, education level, or degree of computer
training or experience using computer technology in ESL teaching. The la& of
difference in belief systerns between participants of varying ages was rather
surprising as there tends to be a sotietal impression that younger people tend to
have more positive belief systerns towards cornputers in general. This
'generational' issue surfaced in the focus group interviews, surprisingly from
several younger participants. One thirty-year old participant stated that older
people have never been exposed to computers, that ivs "never been part of their
lives" and that "some of these faculty don't know how to use a mouse and are
temfied of computers". This statement was countered by two older participants
who gave examples of a vanety of aged teachers who use cornputers on a regular
basis cvith their class.
This reduced nurnber of demographic, contextual and experiential factors
influencing teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language
leawng observed in this research is likely due to the increasingly ubiquitous
nature of computer technology in North American society. The demographic
gaps that were once observed in computer attitudes, bebveen genders, generational groups, are now being described as a disappearing phenornenon, as
computer use increases in modem society (Luchetta, 2000). This is likely due to
increasing exposure to computer technology among al1 dernographic groups so
that these perceived differences detected in earlier research are now
disappearing.
Teacher Belief Svstems and Their Influence on Reported Practice or Intended
Practice Using Cornvuter-Mediated Lanruaee Leaming
This section will summarise and interpret the research findings in an
attempt to respond to the third question guiding this study, examining how
belief systems affect second language teachers' intentions and reported practices
using computers. The substantial difference behveen findings from this study
and earlier research is that the majority (73%) of teachers had actually reported
using computers in their ESL teaching practices. Much earlier research
examining second language teacher attitudes and beliefs conceming computer
use area demonstrated little integration of cornputers in teaching practices
despite favourable attitudes towards this technology (Diamond, 1997; Harvey,
1987; Hopwood, 1989; Leh, 1995; Moore et al., 1998). One of the reasons for these
Çindings is Iikely due to increased computer familiarity and inaeased computer
access in the general population at the beginning of this new millennium.
Cornputer technology has become a ubiquitous tool in many of today's Canadian
urban environments and as a result, many individuals use computers on a
consistent basis. Participants in the focus group interviews al1 reported using
computers as tools in Iesson planning and acknowledged the benefit of having
such a tool that facilitates the pedagogical planning process.
The majority of users in this study also recognised the computer as a
sound, effective pedagogical tool, while a substantial percentage of these
participants felt that the cornputer had actually helped their students. Of the 73
instructors who felt the computer helped their students, 64 percent of
respondents (n=47) felt that the computer helped them individualise instruction,
targeting learning to speafic students and improving the affective environment
of their practices. This recognition of the potential of the computer as a tool to
individualise second language instruction has been recognised in CALL research
(Grace, 1998; Viteli, 1989), and may be fulfilling teachers' practicality ethic that
Cuban (1986) said would direct teachers' acceptance of any educational
innovation. If the innovation is compatible with what teachers recognise as
important, the innovation is more likely to be accepted. Ln addition, Meskill and
Mossop (1997), in their analysis of teduiology use among New York state ESL
professionals, indicated that the computer is now being viewed more as an
integral part of socio-collaborative learning and less as a means by which
knowledge and skills are transferred to leamers (p.22). As pedagogical theory
evolves and theories of constructivist, collaborative pedagogy take hold
(Chisholm et al., 2000b; Collins, 1991), perhaps the usefulness of the computer as
an educational tool is increasingly being recognised, and this recognition
translates into practice.
This positive relationship between perceived utility and teaching using
computer technology has been demonstrated in other research in this area. For
example, a survey of college faculty investigating expectations about technology
found that positive expectations about the functionality of technology are related
to a Jxgher incidence of technology use (Mitra et al., 1999). This suggests that the
more one uses computers, the more one is likely to see and appreciate the
potential of these tools in education. Another survey of elementary school
teachers found that increased computer experience increases teachers' comfort
level with computers, reducing computer anxiety and therefore improving
attitudes towards technology (Marcinkiewicz, 1994). A study (McCain et al.,
1999) among college students using networked computer technology found that
more experience with computer leads to a higher sense of power and control
over this technology. The study concluded that more expenence with computing
technology leads to less strongly held negative attitudes towards the role of
computers in society.
As a result, it is therefore likely that positive belief systems resulting from
increased exposure and access to computer technology encourage the increased
use of technology in teaching. It is likely that this increased use of computer-
mediated language learning contributes to the generally positive belief systems
of the teachers reported in this study.
Location of Com~uter Use
One interesting phenornenon noted among users of computers in ESL
teaching, was the generally negative view of the use of computers in laboratory
settings and the general preference for computer use in a more integrated,
instructor-driven manner. Sixty-nine users reported using computers in a
laboratory context and while a majority of 44 participants stated preferring a lab
setting for computer use, a substantial group of 35 respondents indicated a
preference for using the computer in a more integrated manner, using both
classroom and lab. As one participant wrote, "1 would prefer classroom
computer use because 1 wodd like to integrate them into the normal dass - 1 do a
lot of interactive activities and move students around - ifs hard for students to
see each other and it changes dassroom layout in the lab". Many participants
felt that the prevalent lab use of computers in current college contexts removes
teachers from the learning process, as many labs are staffed not by ESL teachers,
but by lab monitors.
As an ESL instructor myself, 1 can relate to this sense of
disenfranchisement of ESL educators. Cornputer laboratory use represents the
most currently prevalent access to computer equipment in many college settings.
While the logistics and efficiency of using computers in a laboratory setting,
where access is open to students from a wide range of programs, the laboratory
context does prevent the educator from accessing this technology in a more
instructor-driven, interactive manner. In their discussion of key issues in
prepanng teachers to use language learning technology, Kassen and Higgins
(1997) emphasise the importance of appropriately integrating technology into the
classroom to improve teacher's access and curriculum integration with the
technology. In their discussion on building a computer-enhanced language
classroom, Sivert and Egbert (1999) discuss the unfortunate impact of the "cold,
sterile environrnent" (p.41) of the commonplace computer language lab, how this
environment reduces teacher involvement and also substantially limits the
effectiveness of this environment to foster second language leaming. One
participant surnmarised the concern many teachers have about being left out of
the laboratory environrnent by saying, "We need to have a t least one ESL teacher
in the room when ESL students are working on the computers, because the
technician is not qualified to handle ESL students' questions". Another
participant reiterates this concem by writing, "1 find that students think using
computers is a waste of time when the computer lab is not seen as part of the
lessons they're learning in the classroom". It appears evident that ESL
instructors in this study recognise the failings of these computer lab
environments and as a result, would prefer a much more integrated computer-
enhanced environment in which to explore cornputer-mediated language
learning approaches.
The fact that there was no statistical difference in belief systems between
users and non-users of computers in educational practices illustrates a
reasonable similarity of positive beliefs arnong teachers in generai. Whle there is
obviously a range of perceptions in the usefulness and appropriateness of
computer technology in language learning, al1 participants generally
demonshated a similarly positive view of the potential of cornputer-mediated
language learning.
The prirnary reason for this la& of use of computer technology in teadung
practices was lack cf access which almost 70% of the non-cornputer users
reported. Training issues and support were other substantial issues noted by
over half these participants, but access was primary. As outlined in the
description of these ESL environments, Jackson EL1 was the only institution in
which computers are used in an integrated marner and computer equipment is
readily accessible for students and teachers, in a laboratory context. The
remaining four college contexts have substantial limitations to computer access
wherein three out of four, access is shared with other departments using
cornputers in an adjunct marner, supervised mainly by tedinical assistants. In
addition, the labs available are sometimes not suited to the classes they are
meant to serve. For example, the recently completed computer lab at the main
campus of Monfort College consists of approximately 15 computers whereas the
ESL classes normally contain around 25 students. As one focus group
participant from this college stated, "computer accessibility in this college does
not promote cornputer use". The Jackson College environment, representing a
third of this study's participant sample, currentiy has no access to teduiology for
part-time faculty and students. As a result, it was even surprising that the
majority of these participants, almost 54% or 21 out of 39 participants from this
institution had actually reported having used computers in their teaching. Thts
is another illustration of the fluidity of college ESL educators, as many of these
cornputer-experienced instructors had to have picked up this expenence
elsewhere.
It is hopeful, however, that college administrators are anticipating greater
use of computer-mediated language learning and therefore reporting an effort to
facilitate access within these environments. Jackson College, which currently has
no computer access for its part-time instructors, plans on coordinating access for
its classes next semester on an optional basis. In addition, Turner College
indicated the development of a second computer lab in the near future, as the
currentiy used lab is operated through the Communications Department dong
with three computers in a Writing Centre that are often used for purposes other
than ESL education. Hopefully, this inaeased access will hrther improve ESL
educators' experiences and consequent belief systems about computer-mediated
language leaming.
A majoriv (69%) of these non-users of computer technology indicated that
if these bamers resû-icting computer access and barriers such as lack of training
and time were addressed, they would make an attempt to integrate computer
applications into their teaching. Mmost 60% of these participants reported their
motivation being linked to a self-centred desire to learn how to use this
technology in their teaching. This result undoubtedly illustrates the inueasing
perception of cornputer technology as a functional tool in today's second
language educational environments, and the increasing value educators put on
the potential of ths technology in second language education.
Limitations of This Research
As is characteristic of ail survey research using self-report mechanisms, it
must be recognised that the data obtained from this research may not be
completely accurate and merely represents individuai perceptions of actions and
opinions. In addition, an inherent limitation of questionnaire-based data is its
inability to explore the issues at a deeper, more profound level. As a result, this
study has only been able to scratch the surface of the issues it set out to explore.
The research instruments used in this research such as the questionnaire are new
instruments, developed for this study, and have not been ngorously tested to
ensure reliability and accuracy in examining these issues. The questionnaire
developed for t h s study focused on prinapally attitudinal variables and more
cognitive-based constructs. As a result, the factor analysis extracting two factors
in these two principal areas may be not wholly representative of the multiple
factors intluenang belief systems.
Demographic cnteria was limited to age, gender, teaching expenence and
educa tional qualifications. One participant recommended including a prompt to
identify the employment status of the teacher responding as they felt the
employment status of the teacher influenced his/her ability to devote time to
exploring cornputer-mediated language learning. In the area of ESL education,
this factor certainly appears relevant, given the ephemeral nature of ESL teaching
positions. In addition, results from this research, sampling oniy ESL instructors
and not other types of second language teachers, may be difficult to generalise to
other second language teachers, as the ESL profession is unique in its
employment opporhinities and the individuals it attracts.
Recornmendations For Future Research
While this research may have contributed some insight into our
understanding of the complex forces that drive teacher beliefs and actions using
educational innovation, a more complete understanding of this issue will only be
obtained through more in-depth analysis of these multiple factors shaping belief
systems. Given the penrasive nature of change in today's soaeties, innovation is
a recurring issue that professionals must confront on a regular basis. In the
teaching profession, more comprehensive investigations into how belief systems
influence teacher acceptance and evaluation of educational innovation can only
further enlighten today's teaching professionals and the professional
development programs that serve to prepare them. Research approaches
combining survey research with individual interviews and classroom
observations would provide more in-depth analysis of the constitution of second
language teacher belief systems and their impact on actions using cornputers in
second language instruction.
In addition, research surveying populations more representative of a
wider variety of second language teachers would provide a more hoiistic and
general view of the multi-faceted nature of second language teacher belief
systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning in a range of educational
contexts. The ESL profession is somewhat unique among second language
teaching, attracting a wide variety of individuals often motivated by travel and
innovation, who often adopt this profession after other professional activities.
Further research should be conducteci on a broader sarnple of second and foreign
language instructors to compare belief systems among these groups and identify
common characteristics of teacher belief systems towards computer-mediated
language learning that c m be generalised to second language teachers.
This research, expanding on earlier research findings, demonstrates that
teacher belief systems towards educational innovation consist pnmarily of two
dimensions, one being affective in nature and the other being a degree of
perception of the utility of an innovation. Future research in this area should
specifically examine these two conshcts to more comprehensively define them
and identify the influenang factors that shape these two constnicts. . Findings in
this area would serve to refine and validate the theoretical frameworks proposed
in this research. An investigation into the numerous contextual factors such as
teachers' persona1 educational experience, cultural backgrounds, employment
statu, educational philosophy and the degree of individual innovativeness that
influence the constnicts presented in these frameworks would provide further
insight into the constitution of teacher belief systems.
A thorough examination of how these constructç direct teaching practices
using educational innovations should be conducted, not only from a self-
reporting research approach but also hom an observational survey approach,
where individual teaching practices are monitored and analysed. A research
approach using direct observational strategies may be useful in illustrating the
actual effect of belief systems on educational practice integrating educational
technologies. These types of research approaches may provide further insight
into the consistency of teacher belief systems and how these belief systems
translate into actual practices using educational technology and educational
innovation.
Concludine Remarks
Results from this research demonstrate the enthusiasm second language
teachers have towards computer-mediated language learning. Given the
ubiquitous nature of computer use in North American societies, teachers, like
other professionals are increasingly recognising the value of this technology tool
in their profession. Second language teachers, like many educators, are seeing
computer technology more and more as a pedagogical tool that can enrich their
practices. As one participant stated in this study's questionnaire, "technology
c m certainly augment, but not replace what ESL teachers can do". Perceptions
of computer technology appear to be gradually evolving out of the technology
hype of earlier decades, into a more critical and analytical understanding of the
benefits and limitations of ths educational technology. The gaps reported in
previous research in teacher belief systems towards computer technology seem
to be dissipating, likely due to the more widespread use of this technology in
today's soaeties.
Unforhinately, despite this increasing enthusiasm and perception of the
effectiveness of educational computer technology among second language
teachers, second language educational practices exploring and using this
technology are often thwarted by bamers within educational environments
constraining the use of this educational technology. The most significant factor
preventing second language teacher use of this technology is restricted access to
computer facilities. Many opportunities for use of computer-mediated language
leaming approaches are currently restncted to laboratory settings, largely
independent of the influence of second language teachers. This understandably
frustrates many teachers who would like to be using computer-mediated
language learning approaches in a more integrated manner, directing and
exploring its uses in a more teacher-driven way. As Lam (2000) reported in her
analysis of second language teachers' use of technology, the longer teachers feel
alienated from tehology, the longer they will not see the benefits of using this
technology for language teachng. This constrained access to computer
technology in educationd environrnents reduces the opportunities for second
language teachers to explore and experience using computers in their practices.
As this study has shown the more one uses computers, the more one is likely to
see and appreciate the potential of these tools in education. As a result this lack
of access to technology likely perpetuates negative belief systems towards
compu ter-mediated language leaming.
It appears obvious that one of the keys to improving teacher belief
systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning is to increase teacher
exposure to computers. The drarnatic increases shown in positive attitudes and
perception of utility among participants in this research reporting increased
weekly computer use demonstrates the dear link between use and belief
systems. As Michael Levy (1999) concluded from his survey of CALL
practitioners, it is cruaal for teachers to develop a sincere appreciation for the
potential of these technological tools in order to ensure the successful use of this
educational i~ova t ion . This appreciation must equally extend to educational
administrators and be fostered with increased training opportunities, and time
allowances for professional development and planning.
One focus group participant who stated that she had a very negative view
towards computers in ESL education, said that it was "seeing the possibilities"
that changed her beliefs towards the potential of what computers had to offer.
As one participant wrote in their questionnaire, "1 think that teacher reluctance
in introducing new computer applications in the classroom stems from teachers'
insecurity in their cornpetence in this area". Positive teacher attitudes towards
computers are widely recognized as a necessary condition for effective use of
information technology in the dassroom (Woodrow, 1992). Kassen and Higgiw
(1997) emphasise that there are three key issues central to prepxing language
teachers for the use of educational technology: the establishment of a comfort
level with technology, the integration of technology into cumculum, and the
development of critical skills to evaluate technology and its uses.
Teachers are often left out of the planning stages of curriculum
innovation. One focus group participant stressed that much in-service training
preparing teachers to use technology is delivered in such an abstract, non-teacher
centred manner that these attempts at professional development actually serve to
inhibit teacher use of this technology, rather than promote it. Educational
technological innovation must be directed from the ground u p Teachers must
play a significant role in the planning and integration of educational technology
into second language educational practices. One way to persuade teachers of the
benefits of educational computer technology in second language teaching is to
involve them in the implementation process. In order to do this, adequate
facili ties, time, teacher-directed training and pedagogical and technical support
must be provided. Only then will second language teachers be able to hl ly
experience and explore the benefits reported in research examining computer-
mediated language leaming.
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APPENDIX A
FOCUS GROUP INFORMATION LETTERS AND CONSENT FORMS
Dear colleague,
Are you an a d d t ESL instructor with college teadung experience?
What do you think about computers used for second language teadiing?
Adult ESL college instructors are needed for focus group interview research examining adult ESL college teacher beliefs towards educationai computer technology.
If you're interested in participating in this research, please read the attached information letter and complete and sign the attached consent fonn and leave the form in the Consent Form trav at the reception desk in the English department office. If that is not convenient, you can c d or e-mail me at the numbers on the attached letter notifying me of your interest in pdcipating. Selected participants will be compensated for their time and participation.
Thank you for your consideration!
Geo ff Lawrence ESL Teacher and Graduate Student at OISE/ UT
Dear colleague:
1 am an ESL teacher and graduate student in second language education at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto. 1 am conducting focus group interviews related to the beliefs of adult ESL college teachers towards educational computer technology. The title of the study is Seco i id Lnug unge Tencher Bel ief Sys teins and Coi11p11 t e r - M d t e Lmzgzrnge Lennz ing . As very little is known about second language teacher beliefs towards educational computer technology, it is hoped that this study will shed light on second language teacher beliefs towards educational computer technology and the effects these beliefs have on shaping second language teaching practice and intended practice using computer technology.
Tlus interview wodd require no more than 90 minutes of your time. It involves responding to questions about your opinions on the use of educational computer technology to teach second languages. Should you accept to participate in this interview, the confidentiality of your responses will be ensured. Codes will be used to replace your name and no individu& will be identified in conference presentations, written reports or publications. The data collected will in no way be used for evaluative purposes. In addition, the name of your affiliated schools or educational organizations will not be identified in conference presentations, written reports or publications. All data from this research will be kept in locked files and will be accessible only to the researchers. Al1 data will also be destroyed after two years. Please note that while 1 will ask the other focus group participants who interview with you to maintain the confidentiaiity of the discussions, 1 will not be able to guarantee that my request will be honoured by al1 involved. When the study is complete, a report of the findings, in summary form, would be available shodd you be interested in receiving a copy.
In addition, should you agree to partiapate in t h s interview, you could, of course, withdraw at any time without any h m or discomfort to you. This project would reimburse you the amount of $30.00 to compensate for your time and participation. If you accept to participate in this interview, please complete, sign and retum the attached consent form to the Consent Form trav in the photocopy room in the English Language Institute, or you can cal1 me or e-mail me and keep the consent form for later collection. Following receipt of your form or cal1 / e-mail, 1 will contact you to arrange details for the interview. If you would like to receive more information about the study, please contact me or my supervisor, Dr. Miles Tumbull, at the numbers below.
Thank you,
Geoff Lawrence 416-691-9274 or email: glawrence@oise.utoronto.ca 7-122 Glen Manor Drive, Toronto, Ontario M4E 2x6 Dr. Miles Turnbull: Phone: 416-923-6641 Ext.2432; e-mail: m turnbuli@oise.u toronto.ca
Second Language Teacher Belief Systems and Cornputer-Mediated Language Learning
Focus Group Interview Consent Fonn:
Please complete and sign the lom and leave it in the Consent Form tray in the photocopy room at the English Department reception desk or keep the form for later collection and cal1 me or send me an e-mail notifymg me of your interest in participating.
Yes, 1 am interested in partiapating in a focus-group interview conducted by Geoff Lawrence
1 can be reached at the following phone numbers: Work: Home:
or at the following email address:
1 would NOT be available for focus group interviews on these days, at these tirnes (please list the days of the week and times when you wodd not be available to partiapate):
O No, 1 am not interested in partiapating in a focus-group interview conducted by Geoff Lawrence
Please sign below:
Signature Date
Name (please print)
APPENDIX B
FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW PARTICIPANT SCREENING QUESTIONS
Participant narne: College: Contact Phone: E-mail:
The interview will begin with a brief introduction to the research project, noting purpose, scope, goals of focus groups followed by these questions:
Would you be available and interested in participating?
Have you taught ESL to adults in college? Where are you currently teaching? What are you currently teaching? Where have you taught? For how long have you taught?
Do you use or have you ever used a computer at home or for personal reasons? What do you use it for? What have been your reactions to it?
What types of educational technology have you used in your classes?
Do you use or have you ever used computer technology in your ESL teaching? If not, why not? If so, what has been your reaction to its use?
What have you heard, or what do you know about cornputer-mediated ianguage learning? Where have you found out this information'?
Thank you for your time. Where can 1 reach you to let you know if your participation will be needed and to arrange a convenient interview time suitable to al1 participants?
APPENDIX C
FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW PROCEDURES & QUESTIONS
Focus Gro m I n t e e w pro ce dures/^ 1. Introductio~
Prrrpose: ro irztroduce project, its purpose, outline process, and answer questions Welcorne and bief introduction to the project; outlining purpose of this focus group Reminder that withdrawal possible at any time Outline data collection procedure, anonymity and confidentiality of audiotape
recordi ngs and participation Outline format, focus group etiquette, encourage questions Answer any questions participants may have
II. Warm-Up Purpose: to set the zone and set parricipants ut ease; question general e.rperietzce/corrte.rrs
Introductions: Names? Where are you teaching now? Where have you taught? Levels?
What is the first word that comes to mind when you think of computers? Do you use a computer at home? What for? Reactions to its
use/effectiveness/problems? How long have you used a cornputer? Cornfort-level with cornputer technology?
III. Clarification of T e r m Pwpose: to elicit group understanding of conlputer termirzoiogy that may be used in the discussion and clarifi: arzy terms rhat participants may not understand
As we'll be discussing computer technology, what terms do people know referring to computer technology? What about specifically dealing with second language teaching? (if not familiar, define terms such as software, multimedia, CALL, CMC, networking, Iearner-centered, constructivisrn etc.)
IV. Ouestions on beliefs/knowle@ about cowuter-memted learning Ptrrpose: to elicit beliefs about cornputer-rizediated language leartring and subsequerzt intentions and expected action using the rechnology
How has ESL teaching changed over the last 10 years? How do you see it changing in the next IO years? Do you think computer technology can be used in SL teaching? How can computer technology benefit second language classrooms? Why? Does the use of a computer in second [anguage classrooms change the teaching
environment? How? What are potential problems of using computers in second language teaching and
learning? What makes you think that? Specific experiences? If so, describe. If you were offered a classroom full of computers, would you use the technology
and if so, how and why wouId you use it that way? Or why wouldn't you use it?
What would help facilitate the integration of computer technology into your SL teaching environment?
Prrrpose: ro elicit conrexrrral facrors, pas2 experience, perceptions of conrrol over rechrzology, and perceprions of commrrniiy expectarions concernirrg technology use
How is computer technology currently used in general in your college? Technology in general? What are students' reactions to technology? Teachers* reactions? To cornputer technology? Why?
How is technology used in SL departments? Students' reactions? Colleagues' reactions? Group 1 (inexpe~enced computer users): Why havent you used corn puter technology in your teaching? What's preventing you from using the technology? What do you think are your colfeagues' views on the use of computer technology in SL teaching? If you were to start using computer technology how do you think your students/administration would react?
Have you ever received any professional training on using technology andfor computer technology i n your teaching? Describe if so, and if not, why do you think this hasn't been offered?
Has your traininglexperience using cornputers influenced your attitudes towards educational cornputer technology? Describe how?
Do you feel or would you feel cornfortable using computers in your teaching? Explain. Group 2 (experienced computer users): How have you used cornputer technology in your teaching? Why? Has it been effective? If so, how? If not, why not? How has it affected how you view computer approaches to teaching languages? How have students/colleagues/administration reacted towards computer technology in your classes? - Have you ever received any professional training on using technology and/or computer technology in your teaching? Describe if so, and if not, why do you think this hasn't been offered? - Has your traininglexperience using cornputers influenced your attitudes towards educational cornputer technology? Descri be how?
How do you feel now about using computer technology in your classroom? Why do you feel that way?
Purpose: to confirm and clarilFy understanding of major points presenfed by parricipants arzd see if the discussion itseif h a changed anyone's opinions
If you were offered a classroorn full of cornputers. would you use the technology and if so. how and why would you use it that way? Or why wouldn't you use it?
Briefly summarize each participants' beliefdattitudes towards computer-mediated second language learning, noting principal factors contributing to those bel iefdattitudes
Ensure that any conversational points not completed are mentioned Any questions or issues anyone would like to discuss?
VII. CIO- Prrrposei ro ensirre corzfident iality of participa [ion, express thanks and answer any q~restions
Answer any remaining questions Reiterate anonymity and confidentiality of audiotape recordings and participation Express thanks for participating Ask participants if they would like to receive a summary of research findings and if
SO, record names. Distri bute stipends
APPENDIX D
PARTICIPANT QUESTIONNAIRE
COMPUTER TECHNOLOGV IN ENGLISH-ASA-SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL) TEACHJNG
PART 1 : Please indicate your agreement with each statement by checking the box that most closely represento your feeling.
learning. Using computers would help/ helps me teach my ESL students more effectively. Computers help motivate ESL students
Strongly agree
Working with computer technology makes me nervous. Computer technology can enhance English-as-a-second language (ESL)
to learn English. Computer technology gives ESL students more control over their
Agree
I enjoy using cornputers. I~ I
learning. I feel threatened using cornputers because rny students are more computer-literate than I am. Computers distract ESL students from
Strongly disagree
their ianguage learning. I haven't seen enough proof that computers can help ESL students learn. I feel pressured to use cornputers in rny ESL teaching. It is important for ESL teachers to know how to teach using computer technology. I feel confident of my abilities to integrate computer technology into my ESL teaching. I enjoy the challenge of integrating computers into my teachinq. l would be more willing to use computers to teach ESL if I had more
Disagree
training. My ESL students are unfarniliar with computers, making it difficult for me to
Neither agrw nor disagree
use computers. I would miss the student-teacher interaction if i used computers in my teaching. I am excited about the potential of computers in ESL teaching.
1
PART 2: The following questions deal with your expmrienca urina computon. if you a rumr YES to qrmtion 1, please complete questions 2 through 6, then go to PART 3. H you answar NO to question 1, pkase a n m r questions 7 through 1 4 , then go to PART 3.
1. Have you ever used cornputers in your ESL teaching?
0 Yes (IF YOU ANSWEREO YES TO TnlS QUESTION, PLEASE COMPLET€ QUESTIONS 2 THROUGH 6 BELOW, AND THEN GO TO PART 3 )
CI1 No (IF YOU ANSWEREO NO TO THIS QUESTION, PLEASE GO 10 QUESTION 7 BELOW)
2. Where HAVE YOU USE0 COMPUERS with your ESL students?
0 In a computer lab. separate ffom my class
O ln my classroom
0 60th in my classroom and in a wmputer {ab
3. Where would you prefer to use camputers with your ESL students?
0 In a cornputer lab. separate from my class
al In my dassroom
a 60th in my classroom and in a computer lab
If your answer in question 3 is diffemnt from your anrwer in question 2. please describe why you would prefer to use the computers in a different location:
4. If you have used computers. what camputer applications have you used with your students? (Pleass check al1 that ~ P P ~ Y )
O Software (Wordprocessing, CD-ROMs. Multimedia Software)
0 E-mail
El Conferencing Systems
QI The lnternet
O Other (please describe)
5. Please explain why you used these applications.
- - --
6. Do you feel using cornputers helped your students?
O YES f3 NO
Please explain how they did or how they did not help:
PLEASE NOW GO 10 PART 3
7. If you HAVE NO1 USE0 COMPUTERS in your ESL teaching. why haven't you used them? (Plsase chock aII that ~ P P ~ Y
O I don't have access 10 cornputer facilities/sofhrvare.
0 I don't think cornputers would teach my students more effedively.
O 1 don't feel comfomble using cornputers.
n I would fint want to see the results from other teachen using cornputen.
0 I don? have enough time.
O l don? know how to integrate amputes in10 my ESL teaching.
O 1 haven't used computen because
S. What would make you more likely to use computers in your ESL teaching? (Please check al1 that apply)
0 Inueased actessibility to cornputer facilities and software
0 l ncreased training
0 lncreased time
0 lncreased technical and pedagogical support
O Other (please describe):
0 Nothing because:
9 If the above conditions were satisfied. would you use computers? (PleaSe check al1 thd apply)
0 Yes, because I think students shouM know how to use computer technology.
0 Yes, because I think cornputers can rnotivate students and help them leam better.
0 Yes. because I would like to team how to integrate cornputen into my teaching.
O Yes. because
O No, because
10. If you were to use computers in your ESL teaching. how would you prefer to use thern?
0 ln a computer lab. separate from my class
0 lntegrated into my classroom
fl 60th in my classroom and in a cornputer lab
11. If al1 the conditions in question 7 above were satisfied. how likely wouid you be to use the following amputer applications in the next three years? (Pkase check the box that most closeiy mpmsents your fdings)
SOnWARE WORDPROCESSING. CD-ROMS) E-MAIL CONFERENCING SYSTEMS
Very Likely Not Sure ,
THE INTERNET
Likely
1
Not Likely
PART 3: Please complete ttn following questions that d a c r i k your situation and experionco.
1. What type of amputer applications do you use on a regular basis?
O E-mail
O Word processing
O lnternet
0 I don? use a cornputer regularty
2. How many hours a week do you spend using a computefl
0 None O Fewerthan1 1 - 3 4 - 7 0 7 - 1 0 OMorethan10
3. Have you ever received training on how to integrate cornputer technology into your ESL teaching?
0 Yes O No 0 No. 1 have taught myself
If yes, has the training wnsisted of: (pluare check al1 that appfy)
[3 Coilege-sponsored professional development
0 Training I paid for on rny own time
0 Informal training Rom calleagues
0 Informa1 training from fnends and farnily
0 Other (please describe):
4. Have you taught or do you teach ESL to adults in college? 0 Yes No
5. If so, how many yean have you taught?
0 Less than 1 O 1 - 5 O 6-10 10-20 Morethan20
1 am: 20 - 29 years old I have a: 0 TESL Cerlificate
30 - 39 years old (Plelrs check O Bachelots Degree
O 40 - 49 yean old all that apply) Masteh Oegree
O Over 50 O Doctoral Degree
O Femab
O Male
Please share any further comments you may have on this research here:
mank you very much for your tirne and c o m m ~ t t l Please retum the completed questionnaire in the stlmped, self+ddmssed envelope-