Argumentation in the Science Classroom

Cheryl DunhamArizona Department of Education

Explanation and ArgumentationConstructing Explanations Engaging in Argument from Evidence

The goal of science is the construction of theories that can provide explanatory accounts of features of the world. A theory becomes accepted when it has been shown to be superior to other explanations, in the breadth of phenomena it accounts for, and its explanatory coherence and parsimony. Scientific explanations are explicit applications of theory to a specific situation or phenomenon, perhaps with the intermediary of a theory-based model for the system under study. The goal for students is to construct logically coherent explanations of phenomena that incorporate their current understanding of science, or a model that represent it, and are consistent with the available evidence.

In science, reasoning and argument, are essential for identifying the strengths and weaknesses of a line of reasoning and for finding the best explanation for a natural phenomenon. Scientists must defend their explanations, formulate evidence based on a solid foundation of data, examine their own understanding in light of the evidence and comments offered by others, and collaborate with peers in searching for the best explanation for the phenomena being investigated.

Paraphrase Passport1. In your group - after all are done reading.2. One person begins by making a comment related to

the topic. 3. The next person to speak must paraphrase the first

comment before stating their comment. *4. After paraphrasing the prior comment, the group

member can add their comment. 5. Repeat the process (paraphrasing the person before

you and adding your comment) continue for a predetermined time, or until the topic has been thoroughly discussed.

* It helps if one person designated to facilitate this process.

Next Generation Science StandardsConnection between

Constructing Explanations and Argument

Practice 6: Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions

ConnectionPractice 7: Engaging in Argument from Evidence

Scientific explanations are conclusions based on evidence and link theories to observations or phenomena

There are often competing explanations offered for the same phenomenon- deciding on the best is a matter of argument.

Scientific arguments are used to evaluate competing explanations of a phenomena, new theories or solutions to a technological problem.

Arizona’s Common Core StandardsArizona Speaking and Listening Standards in Science and Technical SubjectsComprehension and Collaboration3. Evaluate a speaker’s point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric. Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas4. Present information, findings, and supporting evidence such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning and the organization, development, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. Arizona Reading Standards Literacy in Science and Technical SubjectsIntegration of Knowledge and Ideas8. Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, including the validity of the reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence. Arizona Writing Standards Literacy in Science and Technical SubjectsText Types and Purposes1.Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

Argumentation

Logical discourse to tease out the relationship between ideas and evidence

Plays a central role in the development, evaluation, and validation of scientific knowledge and is an important practice in science that makes science different from other ways of knowing.

MESSAGELOGOS

SPEAKERETHOS

AUDIENCEPATHOS

PURPOSE

CULTURE

CONTEXT

EntertainInformShockPersuadeEducateCall to Action

The situation that generates the need for writing; time period, location, current events, cultural significance

Age, social class, education, past experience, culture/subculture, expectations

Logical Appeal (logos)

- the strategic use of logic, claims, and evidence to convince an audience of a certain point.

» When used correctly, logical appeals contain the following elements...˃ Strong, clear claims ˃ Reasonable qualifiers for claims ˃ Warrants (assumptions) that are valid ˃ Clear reasons for claims ˃ Strong evidence (facts, statistics, personal experience,

expert authority, interviews, observations, anecdotes) ˃ Acknowledgement of the opposition

» When used poorly, logical appeals may include…˃ Over-generalized claims ˃ Reasons that are not fully explained or supported ˃ Logical fallacies (error in reasoning) ˃ Evidence misused or ignored ˃ No recognition of opposing views

Ethical Appeal (ethos)

• When used incorrectly, the writer can be seen as…– Unfair or dishonest – Distorting or misrepresenting

information (biased) – Insulting or dismissive of other

viewpoints – Advocating intolerant ideas

- establishes the writer as fair, open-minded, honest, and knowledgeable about the subject matter.

» When used correctly, the writer is seen as... ˃ Well-informed about the topic ˃ Confident in his or her position ˃ Sincere and honest ˃ Understanding of the reader's concerns

and possible objections ˃ Humane and considerate

Emotional Appeal (pathos)

• When used improperly, emotional appeals…– Become a substitute for logic and reason – Uses stereotypes to pit one group of people against

another – Offers a simple, unthinking reaction to a complex

problem – Takes advantage of emotions to manipulate (through

fear, hate, pity, prejudice, embarrassment, lust, or other feelings) rather than convince credibly

- targets the emotions of the reader to create some kind of connection with the writer.

» When done well, emotional appeals...˃ Reinforce logical arguments ˃ Use diction and imagery to create a bond with the

reader in a human way ˃ Appeal to idealism, beauty, humor, nostalgia, or pity

(or other emotions) in a balanced way ˃ Are presented in a fair manner

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

Scientific Argumentation

Process skills include• Reasoning based on scientific theories,

models, and laws or unifying concepts• Applying the Nature of Science to develop and

evaluate claims• Participating in the social processes that shape

how knowledge is communicated, represented, argued, and debated in science.

Creating a Classroom Community for Argumentation

Climate that is safe for students to be wrong as they work toward more complete explanations.

Asking rich questions that have multiple plausible answers that enable students to construct knowledge through building explanations and engaging in argumentation.

Argumentation Session

Sampson,V., Grooms,J., Walker,J., (2009) Argument-Driven Inquiry. The Science Teacher. 76(8), 43-47

Our Community Agreements In our scientific community, • We share our observations,

ideas, and explanations.• We listen to one another and

respond to ideas respectfully.• We stay focused and

participate thoughtfully.• We support the participation

of others. • We expect scientific reasoning

of ourselves and others.

Development of a Lab Based Activity for Scientific Argumentation

• Identify a researchable question to answer, a problem to solve, or task to complete

• Generate data from a student developed method (experiment or systematic observation)

• Produce an explanation that includes a claim, evidence and their reasoning.

• Critically examine all explanations to determine the explanation that is most valid or acceptable (Argumentation)

Central Framework for both Scientific Explanations and Arguments

ClaimAn assertion or conclusion that answers the original question.EvidenceScientific data that support the claim. The data need to be appropriate and sufficient to support the claim.ReasoningA justification that links the claim and evidence and shows why the data count as evidence to support the claim by using the appropriate scientific principles and theories of a conceptual framework.

9-12 Grade Band Example

Have students construct explanations on the merits of energy production using nuclear energy ,solar energy or fossil fuels. (input/output data, production, and storage costs about energy production methods. Use argumentation to evaluate the method that has the most merit.

Current Arizona Science Standard Strand 5: Physical ScienceConcept 3: Conservation of Energy and Increase in DisorderUnderstand ways that energy is conserved, stored, and transferred.Describe the following ways in which energy is stored in a system: mechanical, electrical, chemical, and nuclear. Describe various ways in which energy is transferred from one system to another (e.g., mechanical contact, thermal conduction, electromagnetic radiation.)

9-12 Grade Band Example

How does altruistic behavior affect survival and reproduction of individuals/populations? Have students use empirical evidence with reasoning to develop explanations. Have students engage in argument to evaluate their explanations.

Current Arizona Science Standard Strand 4: Life ScienceConcept 4: Biological EvolutionUnderstand the scientific principles and processes involved in biological evolution.Identify the following components of natural selection, which can lead to speciation: potential for a species to increase its numbers, genetic variability and inheritance of offspring due to mutation and recombination of genes, finite supply of resources required for life, selection by the environment of those offspring better able to survive and produce offspring. Explain how genotypic and phenotypic variation can result in adaptations that influence an organism’s success in an environment.

9-12 Grade Band Example

Construct scientific arguments to support the claim that dynamic causes, effects, and feedbacks among Earth’s systems result in continual coevolution on the planet and the life that exists on Earth.

Current Arizona Science Standard Strand 4: Life ScienceConcept 4: Biological EvolutionUnderstand the scientific principles and processes involved in biological evolution.Analyze how patterns in the fossil record, nuclear chemistry, geology, molecular biology, and geographical distribution give support to the theory of organic evolution through natural selection over billions of years and the resulting present day biodiversity.

Concept 3: Interdependence of OrganismsAnalyze the relationships among various organisms and their environment.Describe how organisms are influenced by a particular combination of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors in an environment.

Current Arizona Science Standard Strand 6: Earth and Space ScienceConcept 1: Geochemical Cycles Analyze the interactions between the Earth’s structures, atmosphere, and geochemical cycles.Identify ways materials are cycled within the Earth system (i.e., carbon cycle, water cycle, rock cycle).

Concept 2: Energy in the Earth System (Both Internal and External)Understand the relationships between the Earth’s land masses, oceans, and atmosphere. Explain the causes and/or effects of climate changes over long periods of time (e.g., glaciation, desertification, solar activity, greenhouse effect).

Investigate the effects of acid rain, smoke, volcanic dust, urban development, and greenhouse gases, on climate change over various periods of time.

Current Arizona Science Standard Strand 5: Physical ScienceConcept 5: Interactions of Energy and MatterUnderstand the interactions of energy and matter.Describe various ways in which matter and energy interact (e.g., photosynthesis, phase change.)

Designing Argument Lessons

Step 1: Identify the question and data

Step 2: Imagine the ideal student response

Step 3: Create classroom supports

Step 1: Identify Question and Data

• What question will you ask students?

• Criteria for a “good” question:– Is the question clear in terms of what claim(s) a

student should provide? – Is there data the students could use as evidence?– Is there reasoning students could use to explain

why their evidence supports their claim?

Step 1: Identify Question and Data

What specific data will you either provide students or have students collect?

Characteristics of data:Complexity and type of dataAmount of data

Step 2: Imagine the ideal student response

• Draft an “ideal” student response– Does the claim align with the original question?– Does there seem to be appropriate and sufficient

evidence to use to support the claim?– Does the question and context provide

opportunities for students to include appropriate reasoning?

– How complex is the response? What type of additional support might students need?

Step 3: Create classroom supports

• Visual representations– E.g. poster

• Curricular scaffolds– E.g. sentence starters, prompts, etc.

• Activity structures– E.g. Specific ways to structure instruction such as

time to work in pairs/groups before writing individually or engaging in a full class debate

CER Graphic Organizer

Evaluation of Written Scientific Explanations/Arguments

General rubric can be adapted to a specific task.Krajcik & McNeill: Assessing Middle School Students’ content knowledge and scientific Reasoning Through Written Explanations, Workshop presented at the University of Maine, “No Question Left Behind: Bringing Guided Inquiry Curriculum Materials into the Classroom”, June 24th, 2011

Evaluating an Investigation ReportStudents write a report that explains the goal of the work and the method used, and provides a well-reasoned argument.

Double-blind peer review ensures quality feedback.

Students revise report based on feedback and then include an explicit and reflective discussion about the inquiry.

Sampson,V., Grooms,J., Walker,J., (2009) Argument-Driven Inquiry. The Science Teacher. 76(8), 43-47

Thank You!K-12 Academic Standards Section

High Academic Standards for Students DivisionArizona Department of Education

Cheryl DunhamScience Education Program Specialist

602-542-4734Cheryl.Dunham@azed.gov

Lacey WieserScience Education Program Director

602-364-2332Lacey.wieser@azed.gov