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DOE/NASA
CONTRACTOR
REPORT
DOE/NASA
CR 150532
APPLICATION
OF
SOLAR ENERGY
TO
IR CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS
Prepared y
IBM
Corporation
Federal
Systems
Division
Huntsville, Alabama 35805
Under
Contract
NAS8-32036
with
National
Aeronautics
and
Space Administration
George
C
Marshall Space
Flight Center,
Alabama
35812
for
the Department
of Energy
,
(NASi-CR-150532)
APBLXCATIO OF. SONR
N78-17483
ENERGY TO
,.AIR
COZDIT-1iIG
-SYST
EMS {fl
Federal
Systems Div. . 82
p HC A05/MF
-A,01
CSC1
Unclas
0A
G3 44
05704
U.S. Department
of Energy
REPRODUCED
Y
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
INFO RMATION
SERVICE
U S
DEPARTMENT
OF
COMMERCE
Solar
Energy
SPRINGFIELD;
VA 22161
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NOTICE
This report
was
prepared
to document work
sponsored by
the
United
States
Government.
Neither
the United
States nor
its
agents
the
United States Department
of
Energy,
the United
States
National Aeronautics
and
Space
Administration,
nor any
federal
employees,
nor
any of
their contractors, subcontractors
or their employees-
make any warranty,
express or
implied, or
assume any
legal liability
or responsibility
for the accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness
of any information,
apparatus,
product or
process disclosed, or
represent that
its
use
would
not
infringe
privately
owned rights.
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TECHNICAL
REPORT
STANDARD
TITLE
PA
1.
REPORT
NO.
2. GOVERNMENT ACCESSION
NO.
3. RECIPIENT' CATALOG
NO.
DOE/NASA CR-150532
1
4. TITLE
AND
SUBTITLE
S. REPORT DATE
November
1976
Application
of
Solar
Energy
to
Air
Conditioning
Systems
N
m
ZO
6.
PERFORMING
ORGANIZATION
CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING
ORGANIZATION
REPORT
Jonlathon
M. Nash
and
Andrew
J.
Harstad
IBM Report
76W-0122
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
NAME
AND ADDRESS
10. WORK
UNIT NO.
IBM
Corporation
11.
CONTRACT
OR GRANT
NO.
Federal
Systems
Division
NASS-32036
Huntsville,
Alabama
35805
13. TYPE
OF
REPOR'5
& PERIOD
COVER
12.
SPONSORING
AGENCY NAME AND
ADDRESS
Contractor
Report
National
Aeronautics
and
Space
Administration
Washington,
D.
C.
20546
., SPONSORING
AGENCY
CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
This
work was
accomplished
under
the technical
management of Mr. Earle
G. Harris,
Marshall
Space
Flight Center, Alabama
35812.
16, ABSTRACT
The results
of a survey
of
solar
energy
system applications
of
air
conditioning are
summarized. Techniques
discussed
areboth solar
powered (absorption cycle and
the heat
engine/Rankine cycle) and
solar related
(heat
pump).
Brief descriptions
of
the
physical
implications
of various air conditioning
techniques, discussions
of status,
proposed techno
logical improvements,
methods of utilization and
simulation
models are
presented, along
with
an extensive
bibliography
of
related
literature.
17.
KEY
WORDS
18.
DISTRIBUTION
STATEMENT
Unclassified-Unlimited
WILLTAM
A.
BROOKSBANK, JR.
/
Manager,
Solar Heating
and
Cooling
rroject
I9. SECURITY
CLASSIF. (of this repcrt 20. SECURITY
CLASSIF.
of this ae
.-
fI,
nclassified
Unclassified
,sFc
- Form
3292
(MRy 1969
For sale
by
National
Technical
Information
Service,
Springfield,
Virginia
22
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TABLES/ILLUSTRATIONS
Table
Title
Page
I Potential
Advantages
of
Solar
Air 3
Conditioning,Applications
II Potential
Disadvantages ofSolar
4
AirConditioningApplications
III Technological Improvements
Trend
5
IV
Comparison ofSolaire
(Arkla
Industries)
10
Three
Ton
Air
Conditioning
Units
V
HeatPump
Heat
Sources
andSinks 18
VI Common
HeatPumpTypes
1-9
Figure
Title
Page
2.1 Absorption CoolingCycle
8
2.2 PerformanceMap of
Solaire (ArklaIndustries)
11
Three
Ton
AirConditioningUnits
3.1 HeatEngine/RankineCycleCooling
15
4.1
Dual
SourceSolar
AssistedHeat
Pump
.20
iv
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INTRODUCTION
AND
SUMMARY
This
report
summarizes
the
results
of
asurvey
of
solar
energy
system
applications
of air
conditioning.
This
effort
was conducted
in
support
of
IBM's system
analysis activities
which are
apartofthe
Systems Integration
of
MarketableSubsystems program
at
Marshall
Space
Flight
Center
in
Huntsvill
AL.
This
review
has
beenprimarily
directed
toward
those
air
conditioning
techniques
deemed
most
likely
to
find residential
application
in
the
near
(5-year)
term
and
which
are
compatible
withthe
solar
energy
systems
expected
to
result
fromthis
program.
Theair
conditioning
techniques
discussed
are
both
solar
powered
(absorption
cycle
and
the
heat
engine/Rankine-cycle)
and
solar
related
(heat
pump).
However,
it
should
be
recognizedthat
other
methods exist
and
theiromission
is
not
intended
to
indicate
other
than the
selection
criteria
described
above.
Amongthose
omitted
aresuch
techniques
as:
absorptive
humidificatio
dehumidification
cycles,
rock
bed
regeneration
and
nocturnal
radiation.
The
basic
phenomena
utilized
in
absorption
air
conditioning
.ssimilar
to
that
of
the
heat
engine/Rankine
cycle
andthe
heat
pump
in that
they
each
derive
their
refrigeration
effect
fromthe
condensation
and
evaporation
of
arefrigerant
liquid.
The
essential
difference
isthat
the
necessary
pressure
differential
within
the
absorption
cycle
is
provided
by
a
physico-chemical
process
where
the
others
depend
on
mechanically
operated
compressors.
This
isan
advantage
as
pumping
the
refrigerant
inthe
form
of
arefrigerant-absorbent
solution
requires
far
less
mechanical
energy
than
compressing
it as
a
vapor.
Each
of these
cycles
depends
on
an energy
source..
The
absorption
cycle
and
heat
engine/Rankine
cycle
use heat
as
their
energy
source;
the
heat
pump
uses
electricity.
Subsequent
sections
presentbrief descriptionsof
the
physical
implications
ofvarious
air
conditioning
techniques.
Also presented
are
discussions
of
status,
proposed
technology
improvements,
methods
of
utilization,
and
simulation
models.
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The general
conclusion
of
the
studies
reviewed
is that
the application
of
solarenergy
to air conditioning
systems
is an interesting
and
potentially
economically
viable
concept.
However, both
the solar
powered
-and
the -solar-related
techniques-
are--lnherently
more -complex-
than--standard
solar heating systems. Resultingadvantages anddisadvantages
are
summarized
inTables
I and
It.Trends
in
systemtechnological
improve
ments are
summarized
inTable
III.
2
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0
TABLE
I
POTENTIAL
ADVANTAGES OF
SOLARAIRCONDITIONING
APPLICATIONS
*
Year-round
utilization
improves
"heatingonly" load,factor
* Less severe
storage
requirements
thanheatingdue
to
load
more
nearly
in
phase
withavailable
energy
* Consumerusage/demand amount
andpercentage
of energy consumption
is
growing
rapidly
Reductionof
seasonal
summerutility peaking
e
Low
cost
increases
overconventional heat
powered
systems
* Generallyfavorable
cost/performance
ratio
forcommercial applications
a Existing
detailed
simulation
capabilities
3
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0
TABLE
II
POTENTIAL
DISADVANTAGES
OFSOLARAIR
CONDITIONINGAPPLICATIONS
* Inbuilding"
heatlossesare
detrimental bothto systemperformance
and.amount
of load
* Highperformancecollectors,
high
temperaturestorage,and
specialized
hightechnology
equipmentare all high
cost
items
* Further
extensionof
technology
ishamperedby thermodynamiclimitations
o
Operationofcollectorsat elevated
temperature
levels reduces
efficiency
*
Absorption
auxiliaryenergymodeis
less
efficient
andmorecostly
than
competitivesystems
*
Solarairconditioning
is
new,-differentand-generallyunavailable
* Support
servicesaremoretechnical
and
morefrequent
*
Outdoorcoolingtoweris generallyrequired
a
Unfavorablecost/performance
ratiofor
residential
solar
powered
applications
Rankine
cycle
and
heatpumpuseflurocarbons foroperation
* Load
management
iscritical forefficientoperation
a
Detailed
simulation
cost
4
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TABLE
III
TECHNOLOGICAL
IMPROVEMENTS
TREND
* Increase
performance
by
elevating
solar
heatsupply
temperature
*
Developmentof
techniqueswith
auxiliaryenergymode
economically
comparablewith
competitivesystems
*
Coldstorage
with excessive
capacity
and/or
off
peakoperation
* Development
of higher
efficiency
heatpumpsby
using
variable speed
and compression ratio,
larger
heat
exchangers,
and
moreefficient
motors
and
compressors
* Nearterm
improvements
expected
in
reliability first,
thenefficiency
* Identification
of
dual sourceheat
pumps as technically
viable
5
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2.0
ABSORPTIONCOOLING
Themost
common
approach
to
air-conditioning
applicationsof
solarenergy
usesthe absorption
air
conditionerinconjunction
withsolar
collection
andstorage
subsystems.
This
wouldbe
expected,as the
bestdeveloped
conventional
heat-actuatedcooling
technique
today
Isthe
absorption
cycle.
The
absorptioncycle (simplified
byomission
of
various
heat
exchangers)
is
schematically
represented in
Figure
2.1
as a
series of
pressure
and
heat
exchange
processes. Heat
energyis
input
to
the
cycle at the
generator.
This
heatingseparates
the high-pressure,
diluterefrigerant-absorbent
,solution
intorefrigerant
vaporand
concentrated (i.e.,
refrigerantfree)
solution. The hot, highpressure
concentratedsolution is
usedto pre
heattheentering
dilutesolutionand
thenreturned
to the
absorberthrough
a
pressurereduction
valve.
The
hot,high
pressurerefrigerantvapor enters
thecondenser
where
it
iscondensedto
a
liquid
by
rejection
ofheat
to
cooling
water. The
cooled
liquid
then
enters
theevaporatorat
lowpressure
by
passingthroughan
expansion valve.
The
absorptioncycle
cooling effect
isachieved
bythe
endothermic
evaporation
process
whichreturnsthe
refrig
erant
liquid
to
avapor.
The
low
pressure
refrigerantvapor
leaves
the
evaporatorandenters
theabsorber
whereitis
reabsorbed
intotheconcen
tratedsolution
returning
from
thegenerator. The
heatof
absorptionis
rejected
to
cooling
water
and
the
nowdilute
refrigerant-absorbent
solution
ispumped
back to the
generator. Variation
ofthis
procedure
include:
(1)
using
ambient
air
rather
thanwaterforcooling,
(2)
adding
a
liquid
refrigerantrecirculation
pumpto the
evaporator,
and
(3)using
lowpressure
levels
inthe cycle
andeliminating
thesolution
pumpby
substitution of
a
heat-actuated
vapor liftptocedure.
Design
constraintsof practical
solarenergy
applicationsof
absorption
cycles
areprimarily
caused by
thermal
limitations.
Theseare
thethermo
dynamic
properties of
the
refrigerant-absorbent
solution
andthe
effective
nessofheat
transferequipmentinthe
absorptionair
conditioner. The
upper
thermal
limits
of
non-pressurized
l.iquid
storageandreduced
efficiencywith
elevatedtemperature
ofsolar
collectors serve
to compound
these
limitations.
Theresult
ofthese
factors
is
the
trend
toward useof
improvedheat
exchangers and
arequirementfor
recirculation
ofthe
cooling
waterthrough
an outdoor
coolingtowerfor
heatrejection.
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Economicapplication
of
absorption
cycle
cooling
is limited
by
cost
of
equipment
and cost
of
operation
in the
auxiliary
(non-solar
powered)
mode.
Manufacturers
in both
the
United
States
and
Japan
are actively
striving
to reduceequipment cost. Theauxiliary
mode
operationhowever,
is
expected to
bethelong
termlimitation
to
use
ofthe
absorption cycle
In
residential cooling
applications.
Simulation
of
performance
ofan
absorption cycie
cooler
canbe achieved
by
empirical
representation
of
the unit'soperating characteristics
based
on manufacturertest
data. Such
arepresentation
is compatible
with
the
modularformatrequired
for
subsystemsimulation
by TRNSYS.
TRNSYS,the
industry standard
computer
simulation
programforsolar
energysystems,
iswritten
to
accept
user
developedmodules
of
this
nature.
The required
data
for an
absorptionmachine
isa
performance
map
ofdelivered
capacityas a
functionof
(1)hotwater,- condensing
waterand
chilledwater
flowand
temperatureconditions
and(2)
the
rejected
heat rate. As
both the
LiBr-H
2
0and
the NH
3
-H
2
0
cyclesare
functionally
as shown byFigure
2.1,
they each
meet
thesemodeling
requirements.
Absorption air
conditioners
and associated
cooling
towers are
more
expensive
to
purchase
than vaporcompression
airconditioners
of
the
same capacity.
In
residential applications
this
first cost
differential
has proven
to be detrimental
to consumer
acceptance.
Exceptions
to this
lack
of acceptance
ejist
onlywhere low-cost
natural
gas was
available
as an
alternative
to high-costelectricity.
Forthese
conditions,
or
wherelow-cost
waste heatcan
be used,
operatingcosts of
the absorption
unitis lower
costthan
for vapor compression.
Where
electricity
is
relativelyinexpensive
and
fuel is
reasonably
expensive,
theelectric
vapor
compression
machineis superior.
Thissection
presents
abriefdiscussion
of
two
closed-loop,
coolingcycles
which
are heat-actuated
and
based
on
absorption
of
refrigerantIn
liquid
absorbentsolutions.
Thefirst
is lithium
bromide-water(LiBr-H
2
0) where
wateris
the refrigerantand
the
other
is ammonla-water
(NH-H0)where
ammonia
is
the refrigerant.
Inboth cases
solar
energyis
used to supply
theheat
energytothe generator
of
the
absorption
unit.
7
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k
.C.
F
I
win
X
0~"EVA
,'
.
.
Po
"'M
P,
-
,
"
........
SoPg3
.,
st
ol
ye
Figure
2.1.
Absorption
Cooling
Cycle
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2.1
LITHIUM
BROMIDE
,WATER
CYCLE
Most
solar
energy
cooling
applications
todate
have'-used
the LiBr-H
2
0
absorption
cycle
with
water
cooled
absorber
and
condenser.
This cycle
is
also
the
most
common
conventional
cooling
application
of
an absorption
cycle
technique.
This
popularity
is
primarily
due
to
two thermodynamic
characteristics
of
the
LiBr-H
2
0 cycle
compared
with
the
NH
3
-H
2
0cycle.
These
are:
(1)
lower generator
temperature
and
(2)lower
cycle
working-fluid
pressure
levels.
The
first characteristic
allows operation
with
generator
temperatures
of 170
- 210
0
Fversus
205 -
250
0
F
for
water
cooled
and
260
3400F
forair
cooled
NH
3
-H
2
0cycles.
The
second
characteristic
allows
operation
with
reduced
pumping
power.
Arkla
Industries
has selected
this
cycle
tomarket
for
solar
energy
applications
of
their
absorption
machines.
They
presently
have
two
water
fired
absorption
air
conditioning
units
foruse
in solar
energy
instal
lations.
These
units
arethe 3-ton
501-WF
and
the25-ton
WF-400.
Residential
application
of the
3-ton unit
has been
limitedmainly
to
research
and
demonstration
projects.
A
new
model 3-ton
unit
WF-36
is
scheduled
for
volumeproduction
andgeneral
availability
in
early 1977.
Acomparison
ofthe
operating
characteristics
of
the
two 3-ton
models
is
shown
in
Table
IV
and Figure
2.2.
The
data
requiredforsimulation
of
theWF-36
unit
is
given
in
Table
V.
A
Model oftheearlier
3-ton
unit
iscontained
in
the
standard
TRNSYS library.
9
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TABLEIV'
COMPARISON OFSOLAIRE (ARKLA
INDUSTRIES)
THREE
TON
AIR
CONDITIONING
UNITS
NOTE:
501-WF
is
Liq/Air
and
WF-36
is
Liq/Liq
CRITERIA/MODEL
36 (WF-36)
501-WF
DESIGNDELIVERIED
CAPACITY, BTUH 36,000
36,000
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
DESIGN
HOTWATER INPUT, BTUH
50,000 55,000
DESIGN
HOTWATER
INLET,
OF
195 210
PERMISSIBLE
RANGE
OF
INLET,OF 170-205
180-210
DESIGN HOTWATER FLOW,GPM
11.0 11.0
PRESSURE DROP
@11 GPM, FTH
2
0 9.8
4.6
MAX. PERMISSIBLEFLOW,
GPM 22 22
STD
ELECTRICAL
VOLTAGE,
60 Hz,
1-0
115
115
WATTAGE DRAW
250
MAX)
450(TYP)
CONDENSINGWATER DATA
DESIGN
HEAT
REJECTION,
BTUH 86,000
91,000
DESIGN INLET TEMP.,
OF 85
85
PERMISSIBLE RANGEOF
INLET, OF 75-90
70-85
DESIGN FLOW,GPM
12.0
10.0
PRESSURE
DROP @DESIGN,
FT
H
2
0
9.6 4.0
MAX.
PERMISSIBLE
FLOW,GPM
25 17.5
ORIGINAL
PAGE
IS
OF
POOR
QUALITY
10
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V)
XMLsr
(wi.
w
4T
ThmP.
R.N91b
-.
oF -4
lO
175S
i~t
8S
19
24
zr
zaI
PeVEPA1R M 46h L T
w47PR
TeMP r)
Figure
2.2.
Performance
Map
of
Solair
(ARKLA
Industries)
Three
Ton
Air
Conditioning
Units
11
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2.2 AMMONIA
- WATERCYCLE
theammonia-water
cycleis
essentially
identical
ofthe
LiBr-H
2
0
cycle.
The
principal
exceptionisthe addition
ofarectifierbetween
the
generator
andthe
condenser.
This
rectifier
preventi
watervapor
from
entering the
condenser
since,
unlike
the
LiBr-H
2
0
cycle,
wateris
not
the
refrigerant.
Because
ofthe high
working
pressures,mechanical pumps
arealways
required
to
return
the dilutesolution
from the
absorberto
the
generator.
Only
limited solarenergy
systemapplications
ofNH
3
-H
2
0cycle cooling
havebeen
made. The
general
opinion
isthat
high
(over
200
0
F)
generator
temperature
requirements
ammonia-water
cycle
coolers
exclude
operation
with
flat plate
collectors.
Contrasting
with this
almost
universal
conclusion,
researchers
at the
University
of Florida
report
operation
with
hot
watersupplies
in the1350
to 1800F
range.
The
reason
for
this
disagreement
has
not
been fully
determined
by this review.
However,
indications
are
thathigher
concentrations
ofammonia
in the
refrigerant
absorbent
solution
may
be the answer.
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3.0 HEAT ENGINE/RANKINE
CYCLE
COOLING
The
mostpromising
solar
poweredairconditioning
alternative
to
the
absorptioncycle
is
the
heat engine/Rankine cycle combinedwith the
conventional vapor
compressioncooling cycle. The
Rankine cycle
is
usedto
convert solar
energyinto
mechanical
energy
and thusprovide
the
compressive
force
needed
in
the
system. Problems
associated
with
this
technique are
primarilythose
of the
heat
engine.
Cooling by
vapor
com
pression
iswell established.
TheRankine
cycle and
vapor compression
cycle are
schematically
represented
in
Figure
3.1
as acoupledseries
of pressureand
heatexchange
processes.
Heatenergy
is input
to
the
Rankine
cycle
attheboiler.
This
function
is
similar
to that
of
the
absorption cycle generator
exceptthat instead
of separating
a
refrigerant-absorbent solution
into
a
vapor
and
a
solution
it
converts
a pure
refrigerant
solution
entirely into
a
refrigerant
vapor.
The refrigerant
commonly
used
is Freon. The
hotrefrigerant
vapor
enters
the high-pressure
inlet
of
the
heat
engine's turbine
where
it
expands
and
produces rotary
motion.
Still
warm,the low-pressure
vaporthen
enters
the
condensor
where
it
is
condensed
to
a
liquid
by
rejection
ofheat
to
cooling
water. The
liquid
refrigerant
is then pumped
back
to
the
boiler.
This
portionofFigure
3.1
represents
the
Rankinecycle used
to provide
rotary
motion
fromsolar energy
and thus
functionas
a
heat engine.
The rotary
output
of
the
heat
engine
is used to
providemechanical
input
to
thecompressor.
The
compressor
is
used
to raise
the
very-low
pressure
ofthe vapor
refrigerant
fromits evaporator
outlet condition
to the
same
pressure
level
as
the
turbineexpander
outlet.
The
combined
vaporflows
into the
condenser
as
describedabove.
The
vapor compression
cycle
-shown
is
at
alowerpressure
thanthe
Rankine cycle.
After being
condensed
to
a
liquid,
that portion
of
the
refrigerantused
forcooling
is then
further
expanded through
an
expansion
valve andthen enters
the
evaporator
at still
a
lower
pressure. The
vaporcompression
cycle
coolingeffect
is
achieved
uy the
endothermic
evaporation
process
which returns
the
refrigerant
liquid
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to
avapor.
This
very
lowpressure
refrigerant
vaporleaves the
evapora
tor
andenters the low-pressure
inlet
of the
compressor
where it
is
compressed
toapressurecompatible
to
the
turbineexpander
outlet.
This
portionof
Figure
3.1 represents the
vaporcompression
cycle used
toconvert rotary
motion intoa
cooling
effect and
thus
provideair
conditioning.
Conventional
application
of
this
cycle
uses an electric
motor
to
provide
the rotary
motion.
Many
attempts are
currently
being
made
to improve the
performance
ofthe
basic
heat
engine/Rankine
cycle.
The
mostcommon
is
usingthe
warm
outlet refrigerant
vaporfrom
the
turbine
expander
to preheat
the
liquid
refrigerant
between the
pumpand the
boiler
inlet.
Simulation
of
performance
of
heat
engine/Rankine
cycle
cooler
can
be
achieved
by
emperical
representation
of
the
unit's
operating
characteristics
by
the
method
described
in Section
2.0.
The
performance
data
required
isof
the
same
formas
that
described
for
the absorption
cycle.
Although
not
presently
available
in
the
HVAC
market,
heat
engine/Rankine
cycle
coolers
are
expected
to
become
commercially
available
within
the
next
five
years.
Their
purchase
price
is
expected
to
be
comparable
with
today's
absorption
coolers.
As such,
they
would
have
ahigher
purchase
price
than conventional
equipment. However, unlike
the
absorption
units, they
are
adaptable
to
auxiliary
energy
input
in the
form
of
rotary
motion
instead
of
heat.
This
allows
use
ofan
electric
motor
which reduces
the
auxiliary
mode
operating
conditions
to the
same
as
conventional.
The
greatest
appeal
of
this
concept
isnot
having
the
auxiliary
mode economic
penalty
ofthe
absorption
cycleand
thus
being
a
potential
candidate
for
residential
application.
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A
7
V MI ~
____I
1
iE
q$4%VALvf
VA P
OPRPSS 0>A.
00
Figure
3:1. Heat Engine/Rankine
Cycle Cooling
8/10/2019 Application of Solar Energy to Air Conditioning Systems (1976)
21/82
4.0
HEAT
PUMPSYSTEMS
Heatpumps
areconsidered
in this
solar air conditioning
reviewalthough
they
neither derive
their operating
energy
from
solar provided
heat nor
actively
interface
wi-th
the
solar energy
system-.whi-le-.prov-iding
cool-ing.
-
However, they
are
related since heat
pumps
havebeenused
as an
auxiliary
heat
source
for solar heating
systems
which
can
also
provide
the
entire
cooling
requirement.
The
cooling
method
is
the
conventional
vapor com
pression
cycle described
in
thelast
section.
Heating
with
a
conventional
heat
pumpisaccomplished
by
reversing
the
roles of
the-condenser
and
evaporator.
This
rejects the
heatof
condensa
tion into
the
areabeing heated
and
takes in
ambient
heatby the
endothermic
evaporation
process. The
compressor
serves
to
raise therefrigerant
temperature
level
between
ambient and
the
desired
heating temperature.
Heating
with
a
solar-heat
pump
has
been considered
in
three configurations.
These
are:
(1)
in
parallel
with
the
solar
heating
system
which
uses
an
ambient
temperature
heat
sink
as
described
above for
the
conventional
case,
(2)in
series
withsolar storage
tank heat
source, and (3)with
capability
of
dual
sourcewhere
the choice
of
heat
sinkcan bemade
by comparison
of
temperature
level and
the highest
is
chosen.
As
with
conventional applica
tions of
heat
pumps, each of
these solarconfigurations
require
an
auxiliary
(usually
electric
resistance
heaters)
heatsource.
For
thecases
described
various ambient
media
areused
fortheheat
source.
The selection
foraparticular
application
is
determined
fromconsiderations
ofgeographic
location,climate,
cost
availability,
andtype of
structure.
A
comparison
of these
sources as
summarized
by
ASHRAE
is
shown
in
Table
V.As
indicated,
solar
heat
provides an
excellent
source
when
itis
available.
This
is
because
itis
t
a
relatively
high
temperaturewhich
increases
the
performance capability
of
the
heat
pump.
A
further
benefit
ofthe
solar-heat
pump
system
versus asolar
heating system
without
a
heat
pump
is
reduction of
the
required
collector
temperature.
This can
provide
an increase
of
collectorefficiency
and capacity.
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Types
of
solarheat
pump
systems
are classifiedas
direct
and
indirect.
Directsystemsuseasolar
collector/evaporator
combination.
This
is
usuallydesignedwith
no cover
plates
so it can also be
used
as
acondensor by rejecting
heatwhen
in the cooling
cycle. Table VI
shows
various common heat pump types. The
circuit
used
in
the
direct
solarheat-pump
system
mayresemblethatshownfor the
earth-to-air
heat
pump.
Indirect
systems
employanother
fluid
to collect
heat
by
circulation
through
the
solar
collector.
This
heated fluidis
then used
to
heat the
refrigerant
bypassage
through
a heat exchanger.
When
air isthe
heated
working
fluid
thefirstsystemshowninTable4.2 for
air-to-air
may be used. When
water
is used, either the
water-to-airorwater-to-water typemaybe employed.
A
dual
source
indirectsolar
assistedheat
pumpsystemis shownschematically
in
Figure
4.1.
Simulationof
performance of solarheat
pump systems can
be
achievedby
utilization
of
the
standard
TRNSYSlibraryheat pump
model.
Thismodel
can be
usedfor
any
of
the threecharacteristic
types
and
is
devisedto
acceptuser-specified
performancedatafrom
whichit derives off-design
operational characteristics. Thedata required areheat added, heat
rejected,
and total
work
input
over
a
specified
rangeof sourceor
sink
temperatures.
Suchdata
are
available
fromthemanufacturers
of
heat
pumps
which
mightbe
selected.
Studies of these configurationshave shown solarheatpump systems tobe
economicallyfeasiblethroughout
much of
the UnitedStates.
Thedual
source
evaporator configuration
has beenshown
superior
to
eithertheseries
orparallel system. Unfortunately,althoughrecognized as analytically
desirable,there has not
been,
as
far
as
can
be
determined, any residential
dual source heat pumps
manufactured
to
date.
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Table VI.
Common
Heat Pump
Types
HEAT SOURCE
AND
SINK
DISTR
FLUID
THERMAL
CYCLE
E-EATING
OUTDOOR
DI GR M
C=>COOLING
=
HEATING
ANO
COOLING
INDOOR
AIR
AIR
REFRIGERANT
CHANGEOVER
COMP
WATER
AIRCLE-
__
_ __
_
_
_ _
I__
EFRIGERANT
CHANGEOVER
)
-----
OPC
..
.
A
IR
WATER
EARTH
A
IR
REFRIGERANT"
CHANGEOVER
WATER
WATER
W
A
T
ERTE
CHANGEOVER
RIAI
R
R
C
H
IL
L
MI
NC)OO
?
--
SUPPLy
.
A
LL
SINL
E T
A
Q
CO
M
P
RES
IO
N
'
(From
ASHRAE
Systems
Handbook,
1975)
OMP
19
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j SERVICE
AR
r
ODTIN
yI
A
HOUSE
STORAE
.
H
ANK
OUT
HEAT
PU
MP
RETURN
S AIR
Figure
4.1.
Dual
Source
Solar
Assisted
Heat
Pump
(From
Duffie
and
Beckman,
1976a)
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5.
DISCUSSION
AND
CONCLUSIONS
Application of
solar
energy to air conditioningsystems is an
interesting
and potentially
economically
viableconcept.
The techniqueswhich
have
emerged fromthis survey have
demonstratedmany
conditions forwhich
air
conditioning
requirements andsolarenergy
system
capabilities
are
closelymatched. However,both
the
solar
powered and solar
relatedcooling
techniques
presentedare
inherentlymore
complexthanstandardsolarheating
systems.
This
complexity
places evenmore
emphasison
bothperformance
and economicconsiderations forproperevaluation. This sectionpresents
someofthese
considerations
and
theirimpact
on successful application.
5.1 POTENTIAL
ADVANTAGES
Systemswhich address both heating andcooling requirements
generally
have
year-round
utilization. This
improves
the load
factor
experienced by
the
heating
onlysystemas
the solar
equipment
is usedin the summer
cooling
season as
well
as
thewinter
heatingseason. The exactdegree to
which
the
combinedheating
and
coolingsystem
is utilizeddependsonthe specific
location
and
requirements,.
Heating systems
using
solarenergy find their
greatestloadsoccurs
during
thenight, This
puts
constraint
on
storagesubsystem-capability.
Cooling
load
normally
is greatestintheday. This presents less severe storage
requirements
sinceit
ismore
inphase with
the-availability
ofsolar
energy source.
Boththeamountofenergyrequired
to
provide residential
air
conditioning
and the percentageofenergyconsumed
nationally thatit representsare
growing rapidly.
This
condition serves to place
additional
emphasison
all
renewable energysourcetechniques which
can
provide airconditioning
andthus
emphasis
on solarapplications.
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In some regions
of
thecountry, utilities
experience
higher
demandsfor
energy
ona
seasonal basis.
Tothe
extentthat
this peakingis
attributed
toair
conditioning
and
the
coolingcan
be
provided
by
solar energy,
the
utility
load
canbe
leveled.
Thisbenefit
is
viable
only
when
theimpact
of
auxiliary
energy
requirements
areproperly
considered.
In
some
applications, normally
commercial, the conventional
method
of
air
conditioning
uses heat
powered cooling
equipment.
In
these
cases,
the
increased
system
cost
ofadding
solar
energy
as an
additional
heatsource
is usuallyverycompetitive.
Ingeneral,
commercial
applications
offer
alternatives
forair
.conditioning
system
design
which
make
solar
energy
attractive.
Examples
of these
can
be:
cooling
loads
for
longer
during
the
year,
availability
of
wasteheat,
load
size
that
justify
larger
expenditure
for
slightlymoreefficientequipment
and
themany
other
reasons
that
absorption
cycle
air
conditioning
iswidely
used
in
many
manyconventional
commercial
applications
today.
Finally,
the
ability
to
simulate
solar
ajr
conditioning
systems
toa
detail.
sufficient
to
optimize
design
and
operating
conditions
is
availa
bletoday
for'both
the
solar
powered
and
the
solar
related
methods.
This
ability
allows
in-depth
understanding
of the
system
implications'
of
com
bining
solar
energy
and conventional
technology
into
a workable
solution
for
reduced
fossel
fuel
dependence.
5.2
POTENTIAL
DISADVANTAGES
Common
design
practice
for
solar
energy
space
heating
systems
which
have
the
storage
subsystem
in the
building
being
heated
is
to ignore
heat
loss
fromstorage
and
transport
loops.
This
is
because
the
energy
loss
is
assumed
to offset
a
portion
ofthe heating
load
requirement.
In
hot
wateronly
systems such losses
must
be
considered
in
evaluation
of
the
solar
energy
system
design
as they
represent
inefficiencies
of
cpnversion
of
collected
energy into
its
intended
purpose.
Air
conditioning
with
solar
energy
has
an
evenmore
severe
problemwith
storage
and
transport
losses.
When
attempting
to
satisfy
aspace
cooling
load
these
losses
are
both
a
reduction
in
capability
and
an
increase
in
required
load.
This
double
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penalty
means
that
greater
care
in
design
and greater
cost
in storage
andtransport
subsystems
are needed
for solar
powered
air
conditioning
than
for
solar
heating.
Both
the
absorption
cycle
and
Rankine
cycle/heat
engine
performs
better
athigher
temperatures.
Their
operation
at
the
upper
thermal
limits
of
most
flat
plate
collector-water
storage
systems
is
notoptimum.
The
increase
in efficiency
of
the solar
powered
cooling
equipment
at
higher
temperature
and
the corresponding
decrease
inflat
plate
collector
efficiency
creates
a
system
condition
which
compromises
both.
This
conflict
can
be
reduced
by
use of
high
performance
collectors,
high temperature
storage
techniques,
and other
specialized
equipment.
The
limitation
is
that
all
of
these
improvements
cost
more
than
the
basic
system.
There
is
adefinite
economic
penalty to
provide
energy
athigher
temperatures.
The
closer
to
ambient
conditions,
the cheaper
the
energy.
Although
methods
exist
to
raise
theoperating
temperature
levels
in the
solar
powered
cooling
systems,
there
are
only
limited
benefits
to
be
gained.
Thermodynamic
limitations
on the
systems
and
their
basic
.technology
are
such
thatgreatly
increased
efficiencies
are
not
expected
for
the
cooling
tech
niques
discussed.
Thisis
true
regardless
offuture
development
efforts.
One basic
thermodynamic
limitation
to
higher
temperatureoperation
Is
col
lector
heat
loss.
Collectors
are able
to
convert
only
a
portion
ofthe
solar
energy
that
they
receive
into
useful
heat.
This
ability
(or
efficiency)
is
related
to
the
heatloss
from
the
collector
due
to
tempera
ture
difference
between
the
collector
and its
surroundings.
The
greater
the temperature
difference,
thegreater
the loss.
The higher
the
operating
temperature
level,
the
greater
the
difference,
and
the
less
efficient
is
the
collector.
Improvements
in
collector
design
(such as
evacuated
tube
collectors)
can
reduce
this effect
but
these
have
hada
higher
cost/per
formance
ratio than
good
flatplate
collectors.
ORIGINAL
PAGE
18
oF
Poor
Q3UIYI
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Mosteconomicallyoptimizedsolarpowered
air
conditioningsystems
do
nothavethe capacityto
meet
the entire
cooling
load. Thecomparative
.inefficiency
ofabsorption
cycle
coolers operating
in the
auxiliary
(non-solarpowered)
mode.
versus conventional
electrical
powered coolers
isa
serious drawback
for
economic
res-idential
uti-l-i-zation of absorption
cycle
techniques.
All
solar
powered air
conditionsystems
representanew
conceptfor
the
HVAC
industry. As such, rapid
acceptance
should
not
be
expected.
Further
resistance
to
acceptanceis
the
general
lack
of
commercially
available
"offthe-shelf"
hardware.
Thus,
even
ifa
ypical engineer,
architect,
orhomebuilder
desired
to include solar air
conditioning
ina
structure
the
required
equipmentwould
not be found
in their
normal
distribution
andsupply
outlets.
The
National
DemonstrationPlan
is
expected
to reduce
this
barrier,but
it still exists
today.
Increased
complexity
of thesolar
air
conditioning
system
versus
the con
ventional
system
and
thedecreased
reliability
associated
with newly
developed equipment
indicates
more
frequent
servicing
ofamore
technical
Cand
costly)
naturewould
be expected.
Anoutdoor
tower is required
when
wateris
used
for
cooling. The
LiBr-H
2
0
andlower
temperature
NH
3
-H
2
0
absorption cycles
must havewater
cooling
to
operate. Although
theRankine
cycle/heat
engine concepts
reviewed
do
-not
all require
acooling
tower
as such,
theones
which showed
greatest
promise
either
didor elsehad
asimilar
approach.
Example
of the
latter
was
a
systemusing
anevaporative
condenser. This
concept requires
ducting
ofambientair
over the
condenser
of the Rankine
cycle
and
providing
cooling
by
evaporation
of
watersprayed
on thecondenser
coils.
The
performance
is the
sameas for
thecooling
tower,
but
Cost-Trade
studiesindicate
a
possible
improvementover
the
cooling towerapproach.
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Residential
applications of
absorptionunits
havebeen shown
to
be
generally
economically
unfeasible
for
solar
energy
systems. The near termprospects
oftheRankine
cycle/heat pump do
notindicate
that
it
will beeconomically
competitive
either. The general
conclusion
is
thatthesesolar
powered
techniques
havean unfavorable
cost/performan66 ratio
whencompared
to
conventional electrical
poweredairconditioners undernearterm
economic
conditions.
Both theRankine
cycleand theheat
pump use flurocarbons (such
as Freon)
forworking
fluid. Increasingenvironmental
concerns
over
release
of
flurocarbons into
theatmosphere (through
leaks,
etc.)
couldprove
to
be
a
limitation
to
thesesystems as they
are now designed.
The
high
costofsolar
airconditioning
equipment
and
the sensitivity
of
its performance to
operating
conditions placecritical
importance onload
management. This
importance indicates
the
needforwell engineeredcon
trol
systems
controllingwell understood
equipment.
Althoughexistingdetailed
simulationtechniques exist
which
can
provide
analysisof each
ofthe cooling
methods
discussed,,thecomputational
cost
of
such
simulation
is significant.
5.3
TECHNOLOGICAL
IMPROVEMENTS TREND
The general
trend
forsolar
air
conditioning systems
is
toraise
the
overall
operating
temperature. This
is
accomplished by
elevatingsolar
heat
supplytemperature.by
eitherusing
largercollector
arrays and
reducing
the
collectorloop
flow rates
or
by
highertechnology
collectors.
Thehighpenalty
ofauxiliary mode
fuel
costfor
absorption
cycle
systems
is
the
maindriver
for the
heat
engine/Rankine cycle. This
is
becausethe
auxiliary
mode
for
the
latter
is
identical
to conventional
cooling
systems
which
can
be
3to4
times
as efficient as the
absorption
cycle.
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In all
cases
described, startup conditions areless
efficient
than
steady
state.
Greater
efficiency
is also found when
the availableenergy
is used
when
collected
rather
thanstored
and
used
later.
These conditions
aremet
by using
cold storage
to
accept
excess
capacity
and
off
peak
operation of the cooling-
units-.
The latter is
primarily
useful
for the
heatpumpsystem.
Proposed
improvements forsolar
heatpumps
have included development
of
higherefficiency by using variablespeed and compression ratio, larger
heatexchangers, andmoreefficient
motors
and
compressors.
Evenwith all the proposedtechnological changes, practicality
dictates
thatthe expected
big
improvements
insolar
air conditioning
will
first
be
seen
in
Increased systemreliability. Laterdevelopments
are
expected
to
showincreasedefficiency.
Thesingle
greatest nearterm
improvement
from
a
technological and
economic
viewpoint
is
the encouragementofheatpump
manufacturersto commercially
produce
adual
source
residential heatpump. The
technology
is there.
Whatis needed is
for
itto
be doneas soon
as
possible.
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32/82
APPENDIX
SOLAR
ENERGY
AIR
CONDITIONING
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ORIGIN L PME IS
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POOR QUI is
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