Post on 26-Dec-2015
APESAPES Unit 2Unit 2Abiotic and Biotic Parts of EcosystemsAbiotic and Biotic Parts of Ecosystems
La Cañada High SchoolLiving in the Environment by Miller, 11th Edition
Chapter 3Chapter 3
Matter and Energy Resources
Matter and Energy Resources: Matter and Energy Resources: Types and ConceptsTypes and Concepts
3-1: Matter: Forms, Structure, and Quality 3-2: Energy: Forms and Quality 3-3: Physical and Chemical Changes and the
Law of Conservation of Matter 3-4: Nuclear Changes 3-5: The Two Ironclad Laws of Energy 3-6: Connections: Matter and Energy Laws and
Environmental Problems
MatterMatterForms, Structure, and QualityForms, Structure, and Quality
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Matter is found in two chemical forms: elements and compounds.
Various elements, compounds, or both can be found together in mixtures.
Solid, Liquid, and GasSolid, Liquid, and Gas
Atoms, Ions, and MoleculesAtoms, Ions, and Molecules
Atoms: The smallest unit of matter that is unique to a particular element.
Ions: Electrically charged atoms or combinations of atoms.
Molecules: Combinations of two or more atoms of the same or different elements held together by chemical bonds.
What are Atoms?What are Atoms?
The main building blocks of an atom are positively charged PROTONS, uncharged NEUTRONS, and negatively charged ELECTRONS
Each atom has an extremely small center, or nucleus, containing protons and neutrons.
http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/images/atom.jpg
Atomic Number and Mass Atomic Number and Mass Number.Number.
Atomic number The number of protons in the
nucleus of each of its atoms. Mass number
The total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
Elements are organized through the periodic table by classifications of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids
Inorganic CompoundsInorganic Compounds All compounds not Organic
Ionic Compounds Sodium chloride (NaCl) Sodium bicarbonate (NaOH)
Covalent compounds Hydrogen(H2) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Ammonia (NH3)
Formation of Ionic CompoundsFormation of Ionic Compounds
Transfer of electrons between the atoms of these elements result in drastic changes to the elements involved
Sodium and chlorine serves as a example Sodium is a rather "soft" metal solid,
with a silver-gray color Chlorine is greenish colored gas Sodium chloride, commonly called
table salt -- a white, crystalline, and brittle solid
Inorganic CompoundsInorganic Compounds
The earth’s crust is composed of mostly inorganic minerals and rock
The crust is the source of all most nonrenewable resource we use: fossil fuels, metallic minerals, etc.
Various combinations of only eight elements make up the bulk of most minerals.
Nonmetallic Elements.Nonmetallic Elements.
Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), Hydrogen (H), and Phosphorous (P)
Nonmetallic elements make up about 99% of the atoms of all living things
Covalent BondsCovalent Bonds
The individual atoms are atoms of chlorine with only their valence electrons shown.
Note that each chlorine atom has only seven valence electrons, but really wants eight.
When each chlorine atom shares its unpaired electron, both atoms are tricked into thinking each has a full valence of eight electrons.
Notice that the individual atoms have full freedom from each other, but once the bond is formed, energy is released, and the new chlorine molecule (Cl2) behaves as a single particle.
A covalent bond is typically formed by two non-metals
Non-metals have similar electronegativities
Neither atom is "strong" enough to steal electrons from the other
Therefore, the atoms must share the electrons.
Organic CompoundsOrganic Compounds Compounds containing carbon atoms
combined with each other with atoms of one or more other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc. Hydrocarbons
Compounds of carbon and hydrogen Chlorofluorocarbons
Carbon, chlorine, and fluorine atoms Simple carbohydrates
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen combinations
Organic CompoundsOrganic Compounds
Hydrocarbons Chlorofluorocarbons
Biological Organic CompoundsBiological Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates (Glucose) Protein (Cytochrome P450)
Biological Organic CompoundsBiological Organic Compounds
Lipid (Triglyceride) Nucleic Acid (DNA)
Earth’s CrustEarth’s Crust
Matter QualityMatter Quality
Matter quality is a measure of how useful a matter resource is, based in its availability and concentration.
High quality matter is organized, concentrated, and usually found near the earth’s crust.
Low quality is disorganized, dilute, and has little potential for use as a matter resource.
Quality Counts Quality Counts
HIGH QUALITY LOW QUALITY
Energy Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work and transfer heat.
Kinetic EnergyKinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy that matter has because of its mass and its speed or velocity.
It is energy in action or motion. Wind, flowing streams, falling rocks,
electricity, moving car - all have kinetic energy.
Potential EnergyPotential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy that is potential available for use.
Potential energy can be changed to kinetic energy.
ElectElectroromagnemagnetic Stic Spectpectrurumm The range of electromagnetic waves, which differ in
wavelength (distance between successive peaks or troughs) and energy content.
Energy QualityEnergy Quality Very High
Electricity, Nuclear fission, and Concentrated sunlight.
High Hydrogen gas, Natural gas, and Coal.
Moderate Normal sunlight, and wood.
Low Low-temperature heat and dispersed
geothermal energy.
Law of Conservation of Law of Conservation of Matter and EnergyMatter and Energy
In any nuclear change, the total amount of matter and energy involved remains the same.
E = mc2
The energy created by the release of the strong nuclear forces for 1 kilogram of matter will produce enough energy to elevated the temperature of all the water used in the Los Angeles basin in one day by 10,000oC
Natural Radioactive DecayNatural Radioactive Decay
Natural radioactive decay is a nuclear change in which unstable isotopes spontaneously emit fast moving particles, high energy radiation, or both at a fixed rate.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is a nuclear change in Nuclear fission is a nuclear change in which nuclei of certain isotopes with which nuclei of certain isotopes with large mass numbers are split apart into large mass numbers are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by neutrons, lighter nuclei when struck by neutrons, each fission releases two or three more each fission releases two or three more neutrons and energy.neutrons and energy.
What is Nuclear Fusion?What is Nuclear Fusion?
Nuclear Fusion is a nuclear change in which two isotopes of light elements, such as hydrogen, are forced together at extremely high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy in the process.
The First Law of The First Law of ThermodynamicsThermodynamics
In all physical can chemical changes, energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to another.
The Second Law of The Second Law of Thermodynamics.Thermodynamics.
Physical, chemical, and electrical energy can be completely changed into heat.
But the reverse (heat into physical energy, for example) cannot be fully accomplished without outside help or without an inevitable loss of energy in the form of irretrievable heat.
This does not mean that the energy is destroyed; it means that it becomes unavailable for producing work.
High Waste or High-High Waste or High-Throughput SocietiesThroughput Societies
Most of today’s advanced industrialized countries are high waste or high throughput societies
They attempt to sustain ever-increasing economic growth by increasing the throughput of matter and energy resources in their economic systems.
Matter Recycling SocietiesMatter Recycling Societies
A stopgap solution to this problem is to convert an
unsustainable high-throughput society to a matter-recycling
society.
Low Waste SocietiesLow Waste Societies
The three scientific laws governing matter and energy changes indicate that the best long-term solution to our environmental and resource problems is to shift from a society based on maximizing matter and energy flow to a sustainable low waste society.
Chapter 4Chapter 4
Ecology, Ecosystems, and Food Webs
Chapter 4Chapter 4Ecology, Ecosystems, and Food WebsEcology, Ecosystems, and Food Webs
4-1 Ecology and Life 4-2 Earth’s Life-Support Systems 4-3 Ecosystem Concept 4-4 Food Webs and Energy Flow in
Ecosystems 4-5 How do Ecologists learn about
Ecosystems? 4-6 Ecosystem Services and Sustainability
4-1 Ecology and Life4-1 Ecology and Life
Ecology- study of relationships between organisms and their environment
Ecology examines how organisms interact with their nonliving (abiotic) environment such as sunlight, temperature, moisture, and vital nutrients
Biotic interaction among organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the ecosphere
Distinction between SpeciesDistinction between Species
Wild species- one that exists as a population of individuals in a natural habitat, ideally similar to the one in which its ancestors evolved
Domesticated species- animals such as cows, sheep, food crops, animals in zoos
VocabularyVocabulary
Population- a group of interacting individuals of the same species that occupy a specific area at the same time
Genetic diversity- populations that are dynamic groups that change in size, age distribution, density, and genetic composition as a result of changes in environmental conditions
Habitat – the place where a population or individual organism naturally lives
Community – a complex interacting network of plants, animals, and microorganisms
Ecosystem – community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy
Ecosphere or Biosphere – all of earth's ecosystems
What is Life?What is Life?
All life shares a set of basic characteristics that enable growth, survival, and reproduction Living organisms are made of cells
that have highly organized internal structure and functions
Living organisms have characteristic types of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules in each cell
Living organisms capture and transform matter and energy from their environment to supply their needs for survival, growth, and reproduction
Living organisms maintain favorable internal conditions, despite changes in their external environment through homeostasis, if not overstressed
Living organisms perpetuate themselves through reproduction
Living organisms adapt to changes in environmental conditions through the process of evolution
4-2 Earth’s Life-4-2 Earth’s Life-Support SystemsSupport Systems The Earth contains several layers or concentric spheres
Core- innermost zone, mostly iron, solid inner part, surrounded by a liquid core of molten material
Mantle- surrounded by a thick, solid zone, largest zone, rich with iron, silicon, oxygen, and magnesium, very hot
Crust- outermost and thinnest zone, eight elements make up 98.5% of the weight of the earth’s crust
Lithosphere- earth’s crust and upper mantle
Atmosphere- thin envelope of air around the planet
Troposphere- extends about 17 kilometers above sea level, contains nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and is where weather occurs
Stratosphere- 17-48 kilometers above sea level, lower portions contains enough ozone (O3) to filter out most of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation
Hydrosphere- consists of the earth’s liquid water, ice, and water vapor in the atmosphere
What Sustains What Sustains Life on Earth?Life on Earth?
Life on the earth depends on three interconnected factors One-way flow of high-quality One-way flow of high-quality
energyenergy from the sun Cycling of matter or nutrientsCycling of matter or nutrients (all
atoms, ions, or molecules needed for survival by living organisms), through all parts of the ecosphere
GravityGravity, which allows the planet to hold onto its atmosphere and causes the downward movement of chemicals in the matter cycles
Solar EnergySolar Energy
Sun Fireball of hydrogen (72%) and helium (28%) Nuclear fusion Sun existed for 6 Billion years. Sun will stay for
another 6.5 billion years.
72% of solar energy warms the lands 0.023% of solar energy is captured by green plants
and bacteria Powers the cycling of matter and weather system Distributes heat and fresh water
www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ climch/clichgr1.htm
Type of NutrientsType of Nutrients
Nutrient – Any atom ion, or molecule an organism needs to live grow or reproduce Ex: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen… etc
Macronutrient – nutrient that organisms need in large amount Ex: phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, iron … etc
Micronutrient – nutrient that organism need in small amount Ex: zinc, sodium, copper… etc
BiomesLarge regions characterized by distinct climate, and specific life-forms
Climatelong-term weather; main factor determining what type of life will be in a certain area.
Ecosphere SeparationEcosphere Separation
The Ecosphere and it’s ecosystem can be separated into two parts Abiotic- nonliving, components
Ex: air, water, solar energy Physical and chemical factors that influence living
organisms Biotic- living, components
Ex: plants and animals
Range of ToleranceRange of Tolerance
The existence, abundance, and distribution of a species in an ecosystem are determined by the levels of one or more physical or chemical factors Differences in genetic makeup, health, and
age. Ex: trout has to live in colder water than bass
Limiting Factor PrincipleLimiting Factor Principle
Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit growth of population, even if all the other factors are at optimum (favorable) range of tolerance. Ex: If a farmer plants corn in phosphorus-poor
soil, even if water, nitrogen are in a optimum levels, corn will stop growing, after it uses up available phosphorus.
Dissolved Oxygen ContentDissolved Oxygen Content
Amount of oxygen gas dissolved in a given volume of water at a particular temperature and pressure. Limiting factor of
aquatic ecosystem
SalinitySalinity
Amount of salt dissolved in given volume of water
Living Organisms in EcosystemLiving Organisms in Ecosystem
1. Producers or autotrophs- makes their 1. Producers or autotrophs- makes their own food from compounds obtained own food from compounds obtained from environment.from environment. Photosynthesis- ability of producer to Photosynthesis- ability of producer to
convert sunlight, abiotic nutrients to convert sunlight, abiotic nutrients to sugars and other complex organic sugars and other complex organic compounds.compounds. Chlorophyll- traps solar energy and converts Chlorophyll- traps solar energy and converts
into chemical energy.into chemical energy. Carbon dioxide+water+solar energy Carbon dioxide+water+solar energy
glucose + oxygenglucose + oxygen
Producers transform
1-5% of absorbed energy into chemical energy
(glucose), which is stored in complex carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acid in plant tissue
Chemosynthesis-Chemosynthesis- Bacteria can convert simple
compounds from their environment into more complex nutrient compound without sunlight Ex: becomes consumed by
tubeworms, clams, crabs Bacteria can survive in great
amount of heat
Consumers or HeterotrophsConsumers or Heterotrophs
Obtain energy and nutrient by feeding on other organisms or their remains
2. Herbivores (plant-eaters) or primary consumers- they feed directly on producers
Deer, goats, rabbits 3. Carnivores (meat eater) or
secondary consumers-feed only on primary consumer
Lion, Tiger 4. Tertiary (higher-level)
consumer- feed only on other carnivores
Wolf 5. Omnivores- consumers that
eat both plants and animals Ex: pigs, humans, bears
6. Scavengers- feed on dead organisms Vultures, flies, crows, shark
7. Detritivores- live off detritus Detritus parts of dead organisms and wastes of living
organisms. 8. Detritus feeders- extract nutrients from partly
decomposed organic matter plant debris, and animal dung.
9. Decomposers- Fungi and bacteria that breaks down and recycles organic materials from wastes of all organisms. Dead organisms waste to nutrients Food sources for worms and insects
Biodegradable- can be broken down by decomposers
RespirationRespiration
Aerobic respiration- uses oxygen to convert organic nutrients back into carbon dioxide and water Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water
+ energy Anaerobic respiration or fermentation-form
of cellular respiration, decomposers get energy they need through breakdown of glucose in oxygen
Decomposers complete the cycle of matter by breaking down organic waste, dead animal. Plant litter and garbage.
Whether dead or alive organisms are potential (standard) sources of food for other organisms.
Food Chain-Series of organisms in which each eats or decomposes the preceding one
Second Law of EnergySecond Law of Energy
Organisms need high quality chemical energy to move, grow and reproduce, and this energy is converted into low-quality heat that flows into environment Trophic levels or feeding levels
Producer is a first trophic level primary consumer is second trophic level secondary consumer is third
Decomposers process detritus from all trophic levels.
Food web-complex network of interconnected food chains.
Food web and chains are one-way flow of energy and cycling of nutrients through ecosystem.
Food WebsFood Webs
Grazing food webs: energy and nutrients move from plants to herbivores, then through an array of carnivores, and eventually to decomposers
Detrital food webs: organic waste material or detritus is the major food source, and energy flows mainly from producers (plants) to decomposers and detritivores.
BiomassBiomass Dry weight of all organic matter contained in
organisms. Biomass is measured in dry weight because water
is not a nutrient or a source of energy Ex: biomass of first trophic levels are dry mass of all
producers On successive trophic level, biomass is neither
eaten, digested, nor absorbed; it simple goes through the intestinal tract of consumer and is expelled as fecal waste.
Useable energy transferred as biomass varies from 5%-20%
Pyramid of Energy Flow More steps or trophic levels in food chain or
web, greater loss of usable energy as energy flows through trophic levels
More trophic levels the Chains or Webs have more energy is consumed after each one. That’s why food chains and webs rarely have more than 4 steps
Pyramid of biomass- storage of biomass at various trophic levels of ecosystem NOTE: After every trophic level less and less
energy is transferred Producer gets the most amount of energy,
that’s why there is a lot of producers, herbivores consume producers however they need to consume they get less energy then producers by consuming them
Carnivores get much less energy than herbivores, that’s why there are more herbivores than carnivores, and carnivores
Pyramid of NumbersPyramid of Numbers
Number of organisms at each trophic level
Gross primary productivity (GPP)- rate in which producers convert solar energy into chemical energy as biomass in a given amount of time
Net primary productivity (NPP)- Rate in which energy for use by consumers is stored in new biomass. Measured in kilocalories per square meter per
year or grams in biomass NPP is limit determining the planet’s carrying
capacity for all species. 59% of NPP occurs in land / 41% occurs in
ocean
Ecological EfficiencyEcological Efficiency
Percentage of energy transferred from one trophic level to another. 10% ecological efficiency
green plants transfer 10,000 units of energy from sun
only about 1000 energy will be available for herbivores
100 units for primary consumer 10 units for secondary consumer
Ways to unravel workings of Ways to unravel workings of ecosystemecosystem
Field research- going into nature and observing ecosystem
Laboratory research- observe and making measurements under laboratory condition
System analysis- view ecosystem and study their structure and functions (1960s)
Going into nature and observing/measuring the structure of ecosystems
Majority of what we know now comes from this type
Disadvantage is that it is expensive, time-consuming, and difficult to carry out experiments due to many variables
FIELD RESEARCHFIELD RESEARCH
LABORATORY RESEARCHLABORATORY RESEARCH
Set up, observation, and measurement of model ecosystems under laboratory conditions
Conditions can easily be controlled and are quick and cheap
Disadvantage is that it is never certain whether or not result in a laboratory will be the same as a result in a complex, natural ecosystem
SYSTEMS ANALYSISSYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Simulation of ecosystem rather than study real ecosystem
Helps understand large and very complicated systems
Why is the Ecosystem important? Why is the Ecosystem important?
Ecosystem services: natural services or earth capital that support life on the earth and are essential to the quality of human life and to the functioning of the world’s economies
Ecosystem services include: Controlling and moderating climate Providing and renewing air, water, soil Recycling vital nutrients through chemical cycling
Why is the Ecosystem important? Why is the Ecosystem important? Providing renewable and nonrenewable energy
sources and nonrenewable minerals Furnishing people with food, fiber, medicines,
timber, and paper Pollinating crops and other plant species Absorbing, diluting, and detoxifying many pollutants
and toxic chemicals Helping control populations of pests and disease
organisms Slowing erosion and preventing flooding Providing biodiversity of genes and species
Why Is Biodiversity So Important?Why Is Biodiversity So Important? Biodiversity is the variety of
different species, genetic variability among individuals within each species, and variety of ecosystems
Gives us food, wood, fibers, energy, raw materials, industrial chemicals, medicines, and provides for billions of dollars in the global economy
Why Is Biodiversity So Important?Why Is Biodiversity So Important? Provides recycling,
purification, and natural pest control
Represents the millions of years of adaptation, and is raw material for future adaptations
What are the two principles of What are the two principles of ecosystem sustainability?ecosystem sustainability?
Use renewable solar energy as energy source
Efficiently recycle nutrients organisms need for survival, growth, and reproduction
Chapter 5Chapter 5
Nutrient Cycles and Soils
Matter Cycling in EcosystemsMatter Cycling in Ecosystems
Nutrient cycles or Biogeochemical cycles, involve natural processes that recycle nutrients in various chemical forms in a cyclic manner from the nonliving environment to living organisms and back to non living environment again.
Major Types of Nutrient CyclesMajor Types of Nutrient Cycles
Hydrologic Water in the form of ice, liquid water, and water vapor
cycles Operates local, regional, and global levels
Atmospheric Large portion of a given element (i.e. Nitrogen gas) exists in
gaseous form in the atmosphere Operates local, regional, and global levels
Sedimentary The element does not have a gaseous phase or its gaseous
compounds don’t make up a significant portion of its supply
Operates local and regional basis
Nutrient Cycling & Ecosystem Nutrient Cycling & Ecosystem SustainabilitySustainability
Self Contained Energy flow and nutrient cycling seem to
imply that ecosystems are virtually self-sustaining, closed systems, at the ecosphere level
As long as they are not disturbed by human activates such as clearing Forest can have a minimal lost
Nutrients lost form one ecosystem must enter one or more other ecosystems
Nutrient Cycling & Ecosystem Nutrient Cycling & Ecosystem Sustainability Sustainability
Nutrient Cycling and Sustainability Given time natural ecosystems ten to come into a
balance, wherein nutrients are recycled with reasonable effici3ency
Humans are accelerating rates of the flow of mater, causing nutrient loss from soils
Scientist warn that this doubling of normal flow of nitrogen in the nitrogen cycle is a serious global problem that contributes to global warming, ozone depletion, air pollution, and loss of biodiversity
Isolated ecosystems are being influenced by human actives