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Department of: Economics Type of work: Master’s
Thesis
Author: Anna Klaile Date: 6.10.2013
Title of thesis: "#$ %&' () *'+ +),'- .&),)/'0 /) /). ,%-%1','-/ .)(2/2)-(3
Abstract:
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Keywords: statistical discrimination, promotions, female leadership, career
aspirations, family and work balance
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1
INTRODUCTION
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#),'I 01**19H6/1'( /) 9),,H/' 6)-2 01(/%-9'( '/9L G* /#' 9H&&'-/ ',.6)$'& 1( %+%&' )*
/#1( 1-*6'J1N161/$ %-0 /#%/ +),'- %&' 6'(( 61;'6$ /) &'(12-I /#'- %- ',.6)$'& 9%- 'J.6)1/
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+#19# %**'9/( *1&, +1661-2-'(( /) ,%/9# )H/(10' )**'&( ,%0' /) *',%6' ',.6)$''(L
Promotion model2.2.
OP'&;X( Q=>>RS .&),)/1)- ,)0'6 1( N%('0 )- /#' /#')&$ )* (/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)- %-0
9%- N' 9)-(10'&'0 % ($-/#'(1( )* 26%(( 9'161-2 %-0 (/19;$ *6))& ,)0'6( (1-9' 1/ 1( .)((1N6'
*)& N)/# '**'9/( /) 9)'J1(/ Q<,1/# '/ %6LI =>?=SL M#' ,)0'6 *)9H('( )- #)+ .)((1N6' 2&)H.
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1-/'-(1/$I 9%- 6'%0 /) .&),)/1)- 1-'TH%61/$ N'/+''- 2&)H.(L M#' 1-'TH%61/$ N'9),'(
,)&' .&)-)H-9'0 1* ,)&' /#%- )-' )* /#' %N)K' 01**'&'-9'( 'J1(/( (1,H6/%-')H(6$L
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Model
G- OP'&;X( Q=>>RS 0$-%,19 .&),)/1)- ,)0'6 %- ',.6)$'& 2&%0H%66$ 6'%&-( ,)&' %N)H/
'%9# +)&;'&X( %N161/1'( 0H&1-2 #1( )& #'& 9%&''&L M#'&' %&' /+) /$.'( )* ',.6)$''(d /$.'f
# ',.6)$''( +#) %&' #12#f(;166'0 %-0 /$.'f6 ',.6)$''( +#) %&' 6)+f(;166'0L G- /#1(
9)-/'J/ j(;166k &'*'&( /) H-)N('&K%N6' .'&()-%6 9#%&%9/'&1(/19( (H9# %( %,N1/1)-I '**)&/
%-0 .&)0H9/1K1/$ Q<,1/# '/ %6LI =>?=SL 8,.6)$''( 9),' *&), /+) )N('&K%N6' 2&)H.(I 2I
1- /#1( 9%(' ,'- %-0 +),'-I 2 m ,I + =L G- /#' ,)0'6 1-01K10H%6( 9%- N' &'9&H1/'0 )&
.&),)/'0 1-/) /#&'' P)N 6'K'6(d 6)+f6'K'6 P)N( I 9%&''&f/&%9; P)N( I %-0
= OP'&;( ,)0'6 1( -)/ &'(/&19/'0 /) 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'(I NH/ 9%- %6() N' H('0 /) %-%6$W' )/#'& /$.'( )* 2&)H.(
'L2L &%9'I ,1-)&1/1'(L
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01&'9/)& 6'K'6 P)N( L 4 +)&;'& -''0( /) .'&*)&, % -H,N'& )* /%(;( %/ '%9# 6'K'6
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9),.6'/'( % /%(;I &'K'-H'( 'TH%6 /) %&' 2'-'&%/'0 *)& /#' *1&,L C- /#' )/#'&
#%-0I % *%16H&' )* % /%(; 2'-'&%/'( % 6)(( )*
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*)& P m?I =L G- )/#'& +)&0(I 6)(('( 0H' /) *%16H&' %&' 2&'%/'& /#'
#12#'& /#' P)N 6'K'6 %-0I (1,16%&6$I &'K'-H'( %(()91%/'0 +1/# (H99'(( %&' 2&'%/'& /#'
#12#'& /#' P)N 6'K'6L
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(H99'((*H6 %/ /%(; +1/# /#' .&)N%N161/$ )* ?L 4 /$.'f6 +)&;'&I (H99''0( +1/# /#'
.&)N%N161/$ )* I #)+'K'& *%16( +1/# /#' .&)N%N161/$ +#'&' L M#1(
,'%-( /#%/ % /$.'f6 +)&;'& +166 %6+%$( (H99''0 1- % P)N > +#'&' %( /#'&' 1( % .)(1/1K'
.&)N%N161/$ )* *%16H&' 1- P)N ? %-0 =L G- )/#'& +)&0(I %66 ',.6)$''( 9%- %/ ,1-1,H, 2'/%-0 (H99''0 %/ P)N >L "#'- ',.6)$''( &'%9# 6'K'6 ? )& =I ',.6)$'&( 9%- &'K'%6 +)&;'&
/$.' N$ )N('&K1-2 (H99'(( &%/'( )* 9),.6'/'0 /%(;(L M#' #12#'& /#' P)N 6'K'6I /#' #12#'&
/#' 61;'61#))0 )* /$.'f6 ',.6)$''( *%161-2 /#' /%(;( /#'$ #%K' N''- %((12-'0L
4 9'-/&%6 %((H,./1)- )* OP'&;X( Q=>>RS ,)0'6 1( /#%/ ',.6)$'&( 9%--)/ 01&'9/6$ )N('&K'
',.6)$''(X (;166 /$.' 0H' /) 1-9),.6'/' 1-*)&,%/1)-L E1&,( 9%- )-6$ )N('&K' ',.6)$''(X
.&'K1)H( (H99'(( %-0 *%16H&' #1(/)&$ %-0 /#' (12-%6( /#'$ ('-0 %N)H/ /#'1& %N161/1'(L
M#'(' (12-%6(I +#19# 9%- N' '1/#'& .)(1/1K' )& -'2%/1K'I %&' ',1//'0 N'*)&' '-/'&1-2 /#'
+)&; *)&9' %-0 1- /#' 6)+ 6'K'6 P)N(L M#' 61;'61#))0 /#%/ ',.6)$''(I +#) N'6)-2 /)2&)H. 2I #%K' %- )..)&/H-1/$ /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166( 0H&1-2 % .'&1)0I 1( 'TH%6 /) L ^1K'- /#%/ %66 ',.6)$''( %&' %((H,'0 /) (H99''0 1- /#' P)N 6'K'6 > /%(;(I /#'&' 1(
-) )/#'& +%$ *)& ',.6)$'&( /) 6'%&- %N)H/ 1-01K10H%6(X %N161/1'( %/ /#1( (/%2' /#%- N$
)N('&K1-2 (;166 (12-%6(L M#H(I (12-%6( %&' 1-*)&,%/1K' %/ /#1( P)N 6'K'6L <1-9' /$.'f#
',.6)$''( %6+%$( ',1/ .)(1/1K' (12-%6( %N)H/ /#'1& %N161/1'(I 21K'- /#' )..)&/H-1/$I /#'
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.)(1/1K' (12-%6 1( 'TH%6 /) L M#' 6%&2'& 1(I /#' ,)&' %99H&%/' /#' (12-%6L
"#'- % +)&;'& #%( &'%9#'0 P)N ? )& = 1/ 1( %((H,'0 /#%/ ',.6)$''( -) 6)-2'& #%K'
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)- /%(; (H99'(( %-0 *%16H&' #1(/)&$L
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2.2.2.
Group differences
G- OP'&;X( ,)0'6I /+) 2&)H.( 9%- 01**'& 1- /#&'' 01**'&'-/ +%$(L E1&(/I %K'&%2' (;166 6'K'6
,%$ 01**'& N'/+''- 2&)H.(L <,1/# '/ %6L Q=>?=S .)1-/ )H/ /#%/ ',.6)$'&( ,%$ N'61'K'
/#%/ /#'&' 1( % 6%&2'& .&).)&/1)- )* ,'- )* /$.'f# /#%- +),'- )* /#1( /$.'I
L
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'K%6H%/' %99),.61(#,'-/( )* ,'- %-0 +),'- 01**'&'-/6$I %-0 /#%/ /#'&' 'J1(/( (),'
(/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)- 1- /#' 'K%6H%/1)- )* +),'-X( (H99'((*H6 /%(; 9),.6'/1)-L
4-)/#'& .6%H(1N6' &'%()- 9)H60 N' /#%/ +),'- 6))(' #H,%- 9%.1/%6 +#'- N'1-2 %+%$
*&), /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/ 1- 9)--'9/1)- /) 9#160N1&/#L 46/'&-%/1K'6$I /#' '**)&/ 6'K'6 /#%/
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<'9)-0I /#'&' ,%$ N' 01**'&'-9'( 1- #)+ +'66 ,'- %-0 +),'- (12-%6 /#'1& (;166(I ,)&'
(.'91*19%66$ #)+ .&'91('6$ /#'(' (12-%6( %&' ',1//'0L OP'&; Q=>>RS %((H,'( /#%/ /#'('
(12-%6( Q.)(1/1K' )& -'2%/1K'S %&' ,)&' '%(16$ H-0'&(/))0 N$ (H.'&K1()&( 9),1-2 *&),
/#' (%,' 2&)H.I 1L'L +),'- %&' N'//'& %/ H-0'&(/%-01-2 %-0 0'9)01-2 (12-%6( *&),
)/#'& +),'- %-0 ,'- %&' N'//'& %/ H-0'&(/%-01-2 %-0 0'9)01-2 (12-%6( *&), )/#'&
,'-L G* 1/ 1( %((H,'0 /#%/ ,)(/ 6'%0'&( +#) ,%;' .&),)/1)- 0'91(1)-( %&' ,'- %-0
/#%/ ,'- 0'9)0' (12-%6( *&), ,%6' (HN)&01-%/'( N'//'& /#%- (12-%6( *&), *',%6'
(HN)&01-%/'(I /#'- Q<,1/# '/ %6LI =>?=SL M#'&' ,%$ %6() N' 01**'&'-9'( 1- +#%/
%9/1K1/1'( ,'- %-0 +),'- .%&/191.%/' 1- 0H&1-2 /#'1& %0)6'(9'-9' Q'L2L *))/N%66 K(L
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/#%/ *)&,%6 %-0 1-*)&,%6 ,'-/)&1-2 .&)2&%,( )*/'- /%;' .6%9' N'/+''- /#' (%,' ('J
Q<,1/# %-0 %6L =>?=SL :%K1-2 ,)&' +),'- 1- ,%-%2','-/ /'%,( )& )- /#' N)%&0 )*
01&'9/)&(I ,%$ #'6. 1- 0'9)01-2 (12-%6( %-0 'K%6H%/1-2 /#' /%(; (H99'(( )* *',%6'
',.6)$''(L
M#1&0I ,'- %-0 +),'- ,%$ 01**'& 1- /#'1& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/$L OP'&;
Q=>>RS ('/( *)&+%&0 ,H6/1.6' &'%()-( +#$ ,'- #%K' ,)&' *&'TH'-/ )..)&/H-1/1'( /)
(12-%6 /#%- +),'-I L M#1( 9%- N' N'9%H(' +),'- )- %K'&%2' #%K' ,)&'
9%&''& %N&H./1)-( /#%- ,'- 0H' /) 'L2L ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K'L 4-)/#'& &'%()- ,%$ N' /#%/
#12# .)/'-/1%6 *',%6'( ()91%61W' 6'(( +1/# /#'1& (H.'&1)&( /#%- /#' ,%6' 9)H-/'&.%&/(I
'1/#'& N'9%H(' /#'$ %&' -)/ .%&/ )* /#' (%,' -'/+)&;( )& N'9%H(' /#'$ %&' -)/ 1-K1/'0 /)
1-*)&,%6 ()91%6 'K'-/( 'L2L 2)6* )H/1-2(L G- %001/1)- +),'-I %99)&01-2 /) OP'&; Q=>>RSI
%&' 6'(( 61;'6$ /) %9/1K'6$ .%&/191.%/' %-0 (.'%; %/ ,''/1-2( %-0 9)-*'&'-9'(L <,1/# '/ %6L
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Q=>?=SI %..&)%9# /#' (12-%61-2 01**'&'-9'( *&), % 01**'&'-/ %-26'I (H22'(/1-2 /#%/
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2.2.3. Equilibrium
O%('0 )- /#' %N)K' ,)0'61-2I OP'&; Q=>>RS ('/( H. % .'&*'9/ O%$'(1%- 'TH161N&1H,I
+#19# 9)-(1(/( )*d
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8%9# *1&,X( N'61'*( %N)H/ +)&;'& /$.' %&' 9%69H6%/'0 N$ %..6$1-2 O%$'( &H6'I
+#'-'K'& .)((1N6'L
Wage and Job Assignment
M) 0'&1K' % A%(# 'TH161N&1H,I OP'&; Q=>>RS *1&(/ 9)-(10'&( +%2' (9#'0H6'( %-0 P)N
%((12-,'-/ &H6'(L 466 *1&,( #%K' 'TH%6 %99'(( /) 1-*)&,%/1)- %-0 /#'&'*)&' /#' (%,'
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(),' (1,.6' &H6'(L G* % *1&, N'61'K'( % +)&;'& /) N' )* /$.'f# +1/# /#' .&)N%N161/$ I
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)./1,%6 /) .&),)/' )& &'9&H1/ *)& P)N( = 1*I %-0 )-6$ 1*I /#' *1&, N'61'K'( /#%/ 'J9''0(
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OP'&; Q=>>RS (#)+( /#%/ I +#19# 1-019%/'( /#%/ *1&,( -'K'& *1-0 1/ )./1,%6
/) .&),)/' ',.6)$''( /) P)N ? )& =I +#'- /#'$ 9%- )-6$ )N('&K' /#' 2&)H. /) +#19# /#'
+)&;'& N'6)-2(L G* ',.6)$''(I &'2%&06'(( )* P)N 6'K'6I ('-0 % -'2%/1K' (12-%6 /#'$ +166 N'
0'-)/'0 /$.'f6 ',.6)$''( *)& /#' &'(/ )* /#'1& 9%&''&(L E)& % 2&)H. 2 +)&;'& +#) #%( -)/
+)&;'0 %/ %66 )& )-6$ +)&;'0 %/ % P)N >I NH/ #%( #%0 (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/1'( %-0 ',1//'0
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/)
+#19# 9%- N' &'f+&1//'- %(
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/#%/ +166 N' (H9# /#%/ I 1- )/#'& +)&0( 1-01K10H%6( +166 -)/ N'
#1&'0g.&),)/'0 1-/) % P)N = N'*)&' (/%&/1-2 %/ % P)N ?L
4 +)&;'& +#) *%16( /#' *1&(/ /%(; %/ P)N ?I 1( 9)-(10'&'0 % /$.'f6 +)&;'&I %-0 +166 2) N%9;
/) P)N 6'K'6 >I '1/#'& /#&)H2# 0',)/1)- )& 01(,1((%6L C- /#' )/#'& #%-0I 1* % +)&;'&
(H99'((*H66$ 9),.6'/'( /#' *1&(/ /%(;I /#' +)&;'& 1( N'61'K'0 /) N' )* /$.'f# +1/#
.&)N%N161/$ A)/' /#%/ /#' .&)N%N161/$ 0)'( -)/ 0'.'-0 )- +#19# 2&)H. % +)&;'&
N'6)-2( /)L M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ +#'- % +)&;'& #%( N''- .&),)/'0 /) P)N 6'K'6 ?I /#' )-6$
/#1-2 /#%/ ,%//'&( *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ 1( /) (H99'((*H66$ 9),.6'/' /%(;(L 4*/'& %
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)* /$.'f# +1/# .&)N%N161/$ I +#'&'
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G- )&0'& /) N' .&),)/'0 *&), 6'K'6 ? /) 6'K'6 = % +)&;'& -''0( /) 9),.6'/' % ,1-1,H,
-H,N'& )* (H99'((*H6 /%(;(I I () /#%/
G- % (1,16%& +%$I 'TH161N&1H, N'61'*( 9%- N' 9)-(/&H9/'0 *)& ',.6)$''( %/ P)N = %( *)&
',.6)$''( %/ P)N ? (#)+- %N)K'L 42%1-I %66 ',.6)$''( %&' &'2%&0'0 /) #%K' /#' (%,'
.&)N%N161/$ )* N'1-2 /$.'f# ',.6)$''(I -) ,%//'& )* 2&)H. %-0 (;166 (12-%61-2 #1(/)&$L
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*1&, N'61'*( %N)H/ ',.6)$''( %/ P)N ?I /#H( 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ /#'&' 1( -) (/%/1(/19%6
01(9&1,1-%/1)- 1- .&),)/1)-( /) P)N =L
G* % +)&;'& 1( .&),)/'0 /) P)N = %-0 *%16( % /%(;I /#'- #'g(#' +166 N' 0',)/'0 /) 6'K'6 >L
G* /#' +)&;'& (H99''0(I /#'- %*/'& 9),.6'/'0 /%(;( %/ /#1( 6'K'6 /#' *1&, +166 N'61'K'
/#%/ /#%/ /#' +)&;'& 1( )* /$.'f# +1/# % .&)N%N161/$ I +#'&'
Equilibrium Wage
M#' %N)K' 'TH161N&1H, 0'&1K'0 N$ OP'&; Q=>>RS (H9# /#%/ ',.6)$''( *&), 2&)H. 2
N'21- +1/# % P)N > 2'//1-2 .%10
Q\S
+1/# % .&)N%N161/$ )* % (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/$ 1- '%9# .'&1)0L C-9' % +)&;'& #%(
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#%K1-2 9),.6'/'0 P)N ? /%(;( (H99'((*H66$I /#' +)&;'& +166 N' .%10
QaS
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#1&'0g .&),)/'0 /) P)N =L <1,16%&6$ %( 1- P)N ?I )-9' 1- P)N = %*/'& #%K1-2 9),.6'/'0 (=
P)N = /%(;( (H99'((*H66$I /#' +)&;'& +166 N' .%10
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Q`S
2.2.4. Model implications
OP'&; Q=>>RS .&'('-/( /#' ,%1- 1,.619%/1)-( *&), /#' 0'&1K'0 'TH161N&1H,L OP'&;
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1- P)N 6'K'6 >I %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) N' /$.'f# ',.6)$''(L M#1( 9)H60 '1/#'& N' N'9%H(' /#'&'
%&' ,)&' ,'- )* /$.'f# 1- 6)+f6'K'6 P)N(I )& 1/ ,%$ N' N'9%H(' ',.6)$'&( *1-0 1/ '%(1'&
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%-0 g )& /#'- L M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ +),'- ,H(/ ('-0 ,)&'
.)(1/1K' (12-%6( /#%- ,'- 1- )&0'& /) N' ',.6)$'0 )& .&),)/'0 /) 9%&''&f/&%9; P)N(L G* +),'- #%K' 6)+'& (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$I ,'%-1-2 /#'$ #%K' *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6
/#'- /#' '**'9/ 1( (/&'-2/#'-'0I &'(H6/1-2 1- +),'- )- %K'&%2' N'1-2 )60'&
/#%- ,'- +#'- /#'$ %&' .&),)/'0 /) 9%&''& /&%9; P)N(L
OP'&; Q=>>RS .)1-/( )H/ /#%/ /#'&' +166 N' -) +%2' 01(9&1,1-%/1)- 1- 'TH161N&1H,I 'K'-
1* /+) 2&)H.( 01**'& 1- /#'1& %K'&%2' (;166I (12-%61-2 .&'91(1)- %-0g)& (12-%61-2
)..)&/H-1/$ Q'L2L I %-0g)& SL M#1( 9%- N' (''- *&), 'TH%/1)-(
\f` 9)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ /#'(' 0) -)/ 0'.'-0 )- /#' %N)K' .%&%,'/'&( )& % ',.6)$''(
2&)H. %**161%/1)-L G- /#' ,)0'6I /#' +%2' *)& % 21K'- P)N 6'K'6 1( % *H-9/1)- ()6'6$ N%('0)- (H99'((*H66$ 9),.6'/'0 /%(;(L
2.2.5.
Extended model with focus on top management
<,1/# '/ %6L Q=>?=S N%(' /#'1& .&),)/1)- ,)0'6 )- OP'&;X( Q=>>RS ,)0'6 NH/ %0%./ 1/ /)
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/&%9; *)& /). 'J'9H/1K'( #%( /#&'' (/%2'(d % .)/'-/1%6 /). 'J'9H/1K' 9%- N' .&),)/'0 /)
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%&2H' /#%/ OP'&;X( ,)0'6 1( -)/ *H66$ %..619%N6' +#'- *)9H(1-2 )- .&),)/1)-( /) /)..)(1/1)-(L M#1( 1( N'9%H(' 0'91(1)- ,%;'&( %-0 /#' 0'91(1)- .&)9'(( )* +#) /) #1&' 1-/)
/). .)(1/1)-( )*/'- 01**'& *&), /#' #1&1-2 .&)9'(( 6)+'& 0)+- 1- /#' #1'&%&9#$L G- %-
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Q=>?=S %6() .)1-/ )H/ /#%/ /#' 0'91(1)- .&)9'(( ,%$ *H-9/1)- ,)&' 61;' /)H&-%,'-/
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N'/+''- % -H,N'& )* -),1-''( +#'&' )-6$ )-' j+1--'&kI /#' 9%-010%/' +#) #%(
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+166 N' .&),)/'0 /) B8CL 499)&01-2 /) <,1/# '/ %6L Q=>?=S /#' %N)K' ,%$ 6'%0 /) %
2'-0'& 2%. 1- .&),)/1)- 9#%-9'( 1-/) B8C .)(1/1)-(I +#19# *%K)&( ,'-L M#' %H/#)&(
.&'('-/ /#&'' N&)%0 &'%()-( *)& /#1( .)((1N6' 2'-0'& 2%.d
Q1S G- 9%(' /#' 0'91(1)- ,%;'&( QN)%&0 )* 01&'9/)&(S %&' &1(;f%K'&('I /#'$ ,%$ N' 6'((
61;'6$ /) 9#))(' 9%-010%/'( *&), % ,1-)&1/$ 2&)H. /) *166 % B8C .)(1/1)-L 7'91(1)-
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,)&' )*/'- #%-06'0 N$ %- 1-/'&-%6 %2'-/ +#) 9%- ,)&' '%(16$ )N('&K' %9/H%6
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Q'L2L #H,%- &'()H&9' ,%-%2','-/S %&' 6'(( K%6H'0 /#%- /$.19%6 ,%6' /%(;( Q'L2L *1-%-9'
/%(;(S
Q111S E',%6' o[X( ,%$ *1-0 B8C .)(1/1)-( /) N' H-%//&%9/1K'L "),'- 9)H60 #%K' *'+'&.&'*'&'-9'( *)& /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$ /#%/ 9),'( +1/# % B8C .)(1/1)-I )& /#'$ 9)H60 #%K'
6'(( 9)-*10'-9' 1- /#'1& )+- %N161/1'( )& N' 6'(( 9),.'/1/1)- 0&1K'- /#%- /#'1& ,%6'
9)66'%2H'(L
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3
PARAMETERS
4( (/%/'0 1- /#' 1-/&)0H9/1)- 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) )N('&K' .&),)/1)- 01(.%&1/1'( N'/+''-
,'- %-0 +),'- 1- E1-6%-0L G- /#1( 9#%./'&I 01**'&'-/ .%&%,'/'&( /#%/ 9)-/&1NH/' /)
'J.6%1-1-2 /#'(' .&),)/1)- 01(.%&1/1'( %&' .&'('-/'0L [%&%,'/'&( %&' 2&)H.'0
%99)&01-2 /) /#' /#&'' 9%/'2)&1'( 1- OP'&;X( .&),)/1)- ,)0'6 Q('' E12H&' ? N'6)+SL
E)9H( +166 N' )- +#$ /#'&' 9)H60 N' % 6)+'& .&).)&/1)- )* #12# (;166'0 +),'- /#%-
,'-I I +#$ (12-%61-2 .&'91(1)- 9)H60 N' 6)+'& *)& +),'- /#%- ,'-I I
%-0 6%(/I +#$ (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$ 9)H60 N' 6)+'& *)& +),'- /#%- ,'-I L
Figure 1
Parameters organized according to the three categories in Bjerk’s promotionmodel
Average skills3.1.
E%9/)&( /#%/ ,%$ %**'9/ %K'&%2' (;166 6'K'6 )* ,'- %-0 +),'- +166 N' 'J.6%1-'0 %-0
01(9H(('0 1- /#' -'J/ 9#%./'&L M#' %K'&%2' (;166 6'K'6 1( 0'-)/'0 L
3.1.1.
Education and work orientation
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3.1.2.
Gender stereotypes
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3.1.3.
Societal structure
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3.1.4.
Summary of skills
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,%-%2'&( 0) -)/ ('', /) N'61'K' /#%/ /#' *',%6' +%$ )* 6'%01-2 1( 1-*'&1)& /) /#' ,%6'
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Signaling precision3.2.
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3.2.1. Communication
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3.2.2.
Upbringing and activities
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3.2.3.
Mentoring and role models
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3.2.4.
Summary of signaling precision
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Signaling intensity3.3.
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3.3.1. Networking
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)N/%1-'0 *&), /#' (%,' 2&)H. )* .').6' %9/1-2 %( %- 1-*)&,%6 -'/+)&;L Q<%6)-'& ?bRaS
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:)+'K'&I +),'- )*/'- #%K' 61,1/'0 %99'(( )& %&' 0'-1'0 %99'(( *&), /#'(' -'/+)&;(
QD1-'#%-I =>>?SL A'/+)&;( 9)-(1(/ )* 1-01K10H%6( +#) %&' 1- .)+'&*H6 .)(1/1)-( 1-
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)&2%-1W%/1)-(I -%,'6$ ,'- %-0 /#H( )*/'- 9%66'0 j)60fN)$k -'/+)&;(L 4( /#'(' -'/+)&;(
#%K' )*/'- 0'K'6).'0 ,%6' 9H(/),( %-0 /&%01/1)-(I 1/ ,%$ N' 01**19H6/ *)& +),'- /) 2'/
1-/) /#'(' -'/+)&;(L D1-'#%- Q=>>?S 1-/'&K1'+'0 a> +),'- 1- ('-1)& ,%-%2','-/I
+#) 'J.&'(('0 /#%/ ()f9%66'0 ,%6' N)-01-2 'J1(/(L M#' H-)**191%6 N)-01-2 /%;'( .6%9'
%*/'& +)&; #)H&( %/ (.)&/1-2 'K'-/(I 96HN( %-0 N%&(I +#19# +),'- *'6/ 'J96H0'0 *&),L
M#' ('-1)& ,%-%2'&( %6() (/%/'0 /#%/ /#'$ 0) -)/ #%K' %( ,H9# /1,' /) -'/+)&; %*/'&
+)&; #)H&( %( ,'-I N'9%H(' )* *%,16$ &'(.)-(1N161/1'(L CK'&%66I ,%-%2'&(X .'&9'1K'0
/#%/ H('*H6 9)-/%9/( %&' ,%0' %-0 NH(1-'(( +%( 01(9H(('0 +#'- ,%6' ,%-%2'&(
-'/+)&; 1-*)&,%66$I +#19# 1- /H&- +%( *%K)&%N6' *)& /#'1& 9%&''&(L <1-9' +),'-I ,)(/
)*/'-I %&' 'J96H0'0 *&), /#'(' 1-*)&,%6 (1/H%/1)-( /#'$ 0) -)/ #%K' /#' (%,'
)..)&/H-1/1'( /) NH160 1-*)&,%6 9)--'9/1)-( %-0 N' -)/19'0 1L'L (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/1'( /)
.').6' +#) ,%$ 1,.%9/ /#'1& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/I #'-9' L
3.3.2.
Societal structure
M#' ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' .'&1)0 1( 6)-2 %-0 9#1609%&' 9)K'&%2' 1( &'6%/1K'6$ #12# 1- /#'
A)&019 9)H-/&1'( +#'- 9),.%&1-2 /) )/#'& C8B7 9)H-/&1'( Q^H./% '/ %6I =>>RSL M#1(
#%( ,%0' 1/ .)((1N6' *)& A)&019 +),'- /) N' )H/ )* /#' 6%N)& *)&9' *)& 6)-2'& .'&1)0( 1-
9)--'9/1)- /) 9#160N1&/#L M#' E1--1(# 6'%K' .'&1)0 1( %..&)J1,%/'6$ ?= ,)-/#(V /#' *1&(/
\ ,)-/#( Q?>a +)&;1-2 0%$(S *)& /#' ,)/#'&I /#'- %&)H-0 ` ,)-/#( Q?aR +)&;1-2 0%$(S
)* .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 PH(/ )K'& = ,)-/#( Qa\ 0%$(S )* .%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' Q58D4I =>?@SL M#'
.%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' #%( 2&%0H%66$ 1-9&'%('0 *&), +#'- 1/ +%( *1&(/ 1-/&)0H9'0 1- ?bZ@L
46/#)H2# /#' .%&'-/%6 6'%K' ,%$ 1- .&1-91.%6 N' /%;'- N$ '1/#'& .%&'-/ )& N' 01K10'0I 1/
1( H(H%66$ /#' ,)/#'& +#) /%;'( 1/L 4 TH%&/'& )* *%/#'&( 0) -)/ /%;' %-$ 6'%K' %/ %66 %-0 1/
1( )K'&%66 &%&' /#%/ ,'- /%;' .%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' Q:p,p6p1-'- %-0 M%;%6%I =>>ZSL G- =>?>I
*%/#'&(X (#%&' )* /#' /)/%6 6'%K' .'&1)0 +%( %&)H-0 ZhL M#' &'%()-( +#$ +),'- /'-0 /)
/%;' /#' /)/%6 %66)+%N6' 6'%K' .'&1)0I #%( .%&/6$ /) 0) +1/# /#' 10'%6( .').6' #%K'
&'2%&01-2 2))0 ,)/#'& c%-0 *%/#'&#))0 Q('' ,)&' )- 10'%6( 1- ('9/1)- @L@L@ )- -)&,(S
%-0 N'9%H(' ,'- )- %K'&%2' '%&- #12#'& +%2'( /#%- +),'-L "#'- /#' &'.6%9','-/
&%/' )* /#' 6'%K' %66)+%-9' 1( 6'(( /#%- )-' #H-0&'0 .'&9'-/I % 2&'%/'& 1-9),' 6)((
)99H&( +#'- % .%&'-/ +#) '%&-( ,)&' (/%$( %/ #),'L G- %001/1)-I /#' &'.6%9','-/ &%/'
)* %66)+%-9' 0'9&'%('( %*/'& 1-9),' 1-9&'%('( %N)K' % 9'&/%1- 6'K'6L M#H( /#'&' %&'
'9)-),19 1-9'-/1K'( *)& /#' .%&'-/ +#) '%&-( ,)&'I H(H%66$ /#' *%/#'&I -)/ /) /%;'
.%&'-/%6 6'%K' Q:p,p6p1-'- %-0 M%;%6%I =>>ZSL
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"#'- /#' (/%-0%&0 6'%K' .'&1)0 '-0( /#' 9#160 1( %&)H-0 b ,)-/#( )60L 4*/'& /#1(
9#1609%&' %/ #),' Q*%,16$ 6'%K'S 1( (HN(101W'0 H-/16 /#' 9#160 /H&-( @I +#19# 1- E1-6%-0
1( % .).H6%& +%$ /) )&2%-1W' 9%&' )* (,%66 9#160&'-L A'%&6$ `>h )* ?f$'%&f)60( %-0 @af
\>h )* 9#160&'- %2'0 = %&' 9%&'0 *)& %/ #),' QF1'//1-'-I =>?=SL F1'//1-'- Q=>?=S
&'K1'+'0 ('K'&%6 (/H01'( )- .&'*'&'-9'( *)& #),' 9%&' %-0 *)H-0 /#%/ #),' 9%&' 1( /#'
,)(/ .).H6%& )./1)- *)& ?f= $'%& )60(L M#' .).H6%&1/$ )* #),' 9%&' 9%- %6() N' (''-
+#'- 6));1-2 %/ /#' .&).)&/1)- )* @f$'%&f)60( 1- .HN6196$ )**'&'0 0%$ 9%&'I +#19# 1(
(12-1*19%-/6$ 6)+'& 1- E1-6%-0 /#%- 1- )/#'& A)&019 9)H-/&1'(L G- =>>b H-0'& % /#1&0 )*
?f= $'%& )60( 1- E1-6%-0 +'&' 1- 0%$ 9%&' +#16' /#' &'(.'9/1K' %,)H-/ 1- )/#'& A)&019
9)H-/&1'( +%( %6,)(/ #%6* Q1N10LSL D)-2 6'%K'( %-0 /1,' /%;'- )** /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/ %&'
,%1-6$ 9)-9'-/&%/'0 )- +),'-I +#19# 1( +#$ *%,16$ 6'%K' +'%;'-( +),'-X( .)(1/1)-
)- /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/L EH&/#'&I ,%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' #%( N''- *)H-0 /) #%K' % -'2%/1K' '**'9/
)- +),'-X( .&),)/1)- .)((1N161/1'( Q('' 'L2L <,1/# '/ %6LI =>?= %-0 O'&/&%-0 '/ %6LI
=>?>SL <1-9' +),'- /%;' %0K%-/%2' )* /#' 2'-'&)H( 6'%K' ($(/', %-0 %&' %+%$ *&),
/#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/ *)& 6)-2'& .'&1)0( /#'$ %6() #%K' *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1&
(;166(I &'(H6/1-2 1- L M#1( 1,.61'( /#%/ /#' .%&'-/%6 6'%K' (9#','( 9&'%/' % ()f
9%66'0 N)),'&%-2 '**'9/ *)& +),'- )- /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/I 6'%01-2 /) +),'- N'1-2
.&),)/'0 /) /). .)(1/1)-( 6'(( /#%- ,'-L Q^H./% '/ %6I =>>RS
46/#)H2# E1--( %&' )**'&'0 2'-'&)H( .%&'-/%6 6'%K' (9#','( %-0 .HN6196$ (H..)&/'0
9#1609%&' 1/ 9%- (/166 N' 01**19H6/ /) 9),N1-' 'K'&$0%$ 61K1-2 +1/# (,%66 9#160&'- %-0 %
0',%-01-2 9%&''&L 4,)-2 )/#'& /#1-2(I %( ,%-$ )* /#' .HN6196$ )**'&'0 0%$ 9%&'( 96)('
&%/#'& '%&6$I /#' .%&'-/ 1- 9#%&2' )* .19;1-2 H. /#' 9#160 ,H(/ 6'%K' +)&; '%&61'& /#%-
/#' )-' +1/#)H/ /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$L M#1( 9%- N' .&)N6',%/19 1- % #)H('#)60 +#'&' N)/#
.%&'-/( #%K' % 9%&''& /#%/ &'TH1&'( ,)&' /#%- @Z #)H&( )* +)&; % +'';I +#19# 1( )*/'-
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*)66)+1-2 ('9/1)- )- /1,' %66)9%/1)- Q@L@L=S +),'- %&' ,)(/ )*/'- &'(.)-(1N6' *)&
.19;1-2 9#160&'- *&), 0%$ 9%&' %-0 (9#))6I #%K' /#' ,%1- &'(.)-(1N161/$ )* /%;1-2 9%&'
)* (19; 9#160&'- %-0 *H&/#'& /%;' )- % ,%P)&1/$ )* #)H(' 9%&' 0H/1'(L M#1( (H22'(/( /#%/
+),'- +)H60 #%K' *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& %N161/1'( 1L'L L 4 ()6H/1)-
/) /#1(I +#19# +)H60 1-9&'%(' +),'-X( /1,' %66)9%/1)- )- ,%&;'/ +)&;I 1( /) )H/()H&9'
(),' )* /#' 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('#)60 0H/1'( 'L2L #1&1-2 -%--1'( %-0 #)H(';''.'&( %-0
'%/1-2 )H/ ,)&'L U'6$1-2 )- )H/(10' #'6. 1- E1-6%-0 1(I #)+'K'&I 'J.'-(1K' 1-
9),.%&1()- /) )/#'& C8B7 9)H-/&1'(I 'J96H01-2 /#' A)&019(I 0H' /) /#' #12# /%J NH&0'-
%-0 #12# ,1-1,H, +%2'(L M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ ,%-$ *%,161'( 9%--)/ %**)&0 /) )H/()H&9'
/#'(' /%(;(L C- )-' #%-0 /#' E1--1(# +'6*%&' (/%/' #%( .)(1/1K' '**'9/( )- +),'-X(
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',.6)$,'-/V )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 1/ ('',( /) 9&'%/' &'(/&19/1)-( )- +),'-X(
)..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166( () /#%/ /#'$ %&' -)/ .&),)/'0 /) /#' (%,' 'J/'-/ %(
,'-L
3.3.3. Time allocation
M#' 01(/&1NH/1)- )* ,%&;'/ %-0 -)-f,%&;'/ +)&; N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'- 1( )*
1-/'&'(/ (1-9' /#' -H,N'& )* #)H&( (.'-/ 1- ,%&;'/ +)&; #%( %- 1,.%9/ )- N)/# (%6%&$
%-0 .&),)/1)- )..)&/H-1/1'(L G- E1-6%-0I /#' /)/%6 %,)H-/ )* +)&;1-2 #)H&( 1(
(),'+#%/ 2&'%/'& *)& +),'- /#%- *)& ,'- +#) #%K' 9#160&'-V ?>L\R Q#L,1-S *)&
+),'-I &'(.'9/1K'6$ ?>L=? Q#L,1-S *)& ,'- Q]61;p--q =>??SL "#'- 01K101-2 /#' -H,N'&
N'/+''- ,%&;'/ %-0 -)-f,%&;'/ +)&;I 1/ 9%- N' (''- *&), /#' /%N6' N'6)+ /#%/ ,'-
(.'-0 %6,)(/ %- #)H& ,)&' )- ,%&;'/ +)&; /#%- +),'-L "),'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 0)
,)&' /#%- %- #)H& ,)&' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&; /#%- ,'-L A)-f,%&;'/ +)&; 1-96H0'( N)/#
)&01-%&$ #)H('+)&; %-0 9#1609%&'L B)H.6'( +#) 0) -)/ #%K' 9#160&'- +)&; 96)(' /)
'TH%6 #)H&( Q,'- bL@?I +),'- bL=?S #)+'K'& ,'- 0) %6,)(/ %- #)H& Qa=,1-S ,)&'
,%&;'/ +)&; /#%- +),'-I +#16' +),'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 0) ,)&' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&;
/#%- ,'-L
Table 1
Working men and women’s time allocation divided into paid work, domestic work and free-time (h.min/24 h)
@"#/%& 9,#/ A,2$"#/%& 9,#/ B,&"3 9,#/ C#%%&)$%
@%2" DEFG FEGH HGEFH IEFJ
K,$%2" LEFJ IEFJ HGEJD FEHM
%M#' *12H&'( &'.&'('-/ E1--( +#) %&' 9)#%N1/1-2 %-0 +#)(' $)H-2'(/ 9#160 1( >f` $'%&(f)60
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0)-' %/ %-$ /1,' Q'L2L #),' &'.%1&( %-0 $%&0 +)&;SL 499)&01-2 /) %- 8TH%61/$
O%&),'/'& .HN61(#'0 N$ /#' F1-1(/&$ )* <)91%6 4**%1&( %-0 :'%6/# Q511%-,%%I =>?=S /#'
,)/#'&(X (#%&' )* 9#1609%&' &'(.)-(1N161/$ 1( %N)H/ \>hI *)& ,'- /#' &'(.'9/1K' (#%&' 1(
?>hL M#' (%,' 9%- N' )N('&K'0 1- /%;1-2 %-0 .19;1-2 H. 9#160&'- H. *&), 9#1609%&'
%-0 (9#))6I +#'&' *%/#'&(X (#%&' 1( %&)H-0 ?Z hL F)/#'&( %6() #%K' % 6%&2'&
&'(.)-(1N161/$ 1- /%;1-2 9%&' )* (19; 9#160&'-d 1- a>h )* /#' 9%('( /#' ,)/#'& /%;'( /#'
.&1-91.%6 &'(.)-(1N161/$ %-0 \>h )* /#' 9%('( /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$ 1( (#%&'0L <1-9' +),'-
0) /#' ,%P)&1/$ )* /1,' ('-(1/1K' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&;I /#'$ %&' 6'(( *6'J1N6' 1- /#'1& ,%&;'/
+)&; %-0 /#'&'*)&' #%K' *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166(I 1L'L
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3.3.4.
Norms
<)91%6 -)&,( 1- % ()91'/$ ,%$ H-;-)+1-26$ #%K' %- 1,.%9/ )- .').6'X( N'#%K1)& %-0
.&),)/1)- .)((1N161/1'( Q</%K%&0 %-0 A1'6('-I =>?=SL M#' 8H&).'%- B),,1((1)- #%(
9)-0H9/'0 /+) &'.)&/(I )-' )- 1-'TH%61/$ Q8H&)N%&),'/'& =>?>S %-0 /#' )/#'& )-
+),'- 1- 0'91(1)-f,%;1-2 .)(1/1)-( Q8H&)N%&),'/'& =>?=SI +#19# N)/# 9)K'& ,',N'&
(/%/'(X ).1-1)-( %N)H/ K%&1)H( /).19 &'6%/'0 1((H'(L U'(H6/( *&), /#' *1&(/ &'.)&/ Q8H&)
N%&),'/'&I =>?>S (H22'(/ /#%/ E1-6%-0 ,%$ -)/ N' %( 'TH%6 %( 2'-'&%66$ /#)H2#/ %( abh
)* &'(.)-0'-/( (/%/' /#%/ 2'-0'& 1-'TH%61/$ 1( +10'(.&'%0L D1;'+1(' \b h )*
&'(.)-0'-/( %&' )* /#' ).1-1)- /#%/ (/'&')/$.1-2 )99H&( 1- /#' +)&;.6%9'L M#1( 1-019%/'(
/#%/ /#'&' 'J1(/( % 9'&/%1- 0'2&'' )* 1-'TH%61/$ N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'-I %-0 /#%/ /#1(
1-'TH%61/$ 1( &'*6'9/'0 1- (/'&')/$.19%6 %9/1)-( 1- /#' +)&;.6%9'L 4-)/#'& 1-/'&'(/1-2
*'%/H&' 1( /#%/ E1-6%-0 (#)+( /#' /#1&0 #12#'(/ .'&9'-/%2' Qa>hS )* &'(.)-0'-/(
)..)(1-2 /) j,'- ,%1-6$ 6));1-2 %*/'& 9#160&'- %-0 /#' #),'kL 4001/1)-%66$I \Z h )*E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ j4 ,)/#'& ,H(/ .H/ 6));1-2 %*/'& #'& $)H-2 9#160 %#'%0
)* #'& 9%&''&kL U'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ E1--( /) (),' 'J/'-/ (#)+ /&%01/1)-%6 2'-0'&
(/'&')/$.19%6 K1'+( /#%/ +),'- (#)H60 (/%$ %/ #),' %-0 /%;' /#' &)6' )* 9%&'21K'&(I
+#16' ,'- %&' %((12-'0 /#' &)6' )* N&'%0+1--'&(L
M#'(' -)&,( 9%- 1-*6H'-9' /#' 9#)19'( ,%0' N$ ,'- %-0 +),'- &'2%&01-2 /#'1& *%,16$
%-0 /#'1& 9%&''&L 4( /#' 8H&)N%&),'/'& Q=>?>S (#)+(I /#'&' 1( % +10'(.&'%0 %//1/H0'
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+),'- /) .&1)&1/1W' *%,16$ ,)&' %-0 6'%0 /) +),'- #%K1-2 *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /)(12-%6 /#%- ,'-I () /#%/ L
3.3.5.
Preferences
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*%,16$I #)+'K'&I .&'*'&'-9' /#')&$ (/%/'( /#%/ +),'-X( .&'*'&'-9'( &'2%&01-2 *%,16$
+)&; N%6%-9' %&' #'/'&)2'-')H(V (),' +),'- .&1)&1/1W' *%,16$I )/#'&( +)&; %-0 (),'
%&' 1- N'/+''-L F'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 %&' ,)&' #),)2'-)H( 1- /#'1& .&'*'&'-9'(V
,)(/ ,'- K%6H' +)&; %-0 9),.'/1/1K' &'(H6/( )H/(10' /#' #),' #12#'& /#%- *%,16$
&'6%/'0 +)&;L M#'(' 01**'&'-9'( %&' 9)-*1&,'0 1- % (/H0$ N$ </%K%&0 %-0 A1'6('- Q=>?=SI
+#19# 9)-9'-/&%/'0 )- 7%-1(# H-1K'&(1/$ (/H0'-/(X .&'*'&'-9'( &'2%&01-2 9%&''& %-0
*%,16$L M#' &'(H6/( (#)+ /#%/ *',%6' (/H0'-/( /'-0 /) 01(.6%$ ,)&' .&'*'&'-9'( /)+%&0(
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*%,16$ /#%- ,%6' (/H0'-/(L M#' (/H0$ %6() *)H-0 /#%/ +),'-X( .&'*'&'-9'( /'-0 /) (#1*/
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2'-'&%6 .&1)&1/1W' -)-f,%&;'/ +)&; #12#'&I %-0 /%;' 6)-2'& .'&1)0( )** /#' +)&; *)&9'
1- 9)--'9/1)- /) 9#160N1&/#I +),'- %&' -)/ %N6' /) (12-%6 /#'1& (;166( %( ,H9# %( ,'-L
M#1( +)H60 ,'%- /#%/ +),'- +)H60 -)/ N' .&),)/'0 %( )*/'- %( /#'1& ,%6'
9)H-/'&.%&/(I (H22'(/1-2 /#%/
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%( /#' 0'(1&' /) 9),.'/'L A1'0'&6' %-0 o'(/'&6H-0 Q=>>ZS (#)+ /#%/ ,'- %&' ,)&' /#%-
/+19' %( 61;'6$ /) '-2%2' 1- % /)H&-%,'-/ /$.' 9),.'/1/1)- /#%- +),'- +#'- 21K'- /#'
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N' '1/#'& N'9%H(' +),'- 01(61;' 9),.'/1/1)- ,)&' /#%- ,'- )& N'9%H(' +),'- %&'
6'(( ('6*f9)-*10'-/ 1- /#'1& %N161/1'( /#%- ,'-L <,1/# '/ %6 Q=>?=S %((H,' /#%/ /#'
.&),)/1)- /) /). 6'K'6 1( 0'910'0 N$ % /)H&-%,'-/ +1/# )-6$ )-' +1--'&L G* +),'- j(#$
%+%$k *&), 9),.'/1/1)-I 1L'L (#)+ 01**'&'-/ N'#%K1)& +1/# &'2%&0( /) %..6$1-2 %-0
9),.'/1-2 *)& /#' /). .)(1/1)-(I /#'- /#' )N('&K'0 2'-0'& 2%. 1- .&),)/1)-( ,%$ N'
1-9&'%('0L
<1,16%&6$I O%N9)9; %-0 D%(9#'K'& Q=>>@S (H22'(/ +),'-X( 1-*'&1)& -'2)/1%/1)- (;166(
NH/ %6() +166 /) -'2)/1%/' ,%$ (/%-0 1- /#' +%$ )* .&),)/1)-(d j+),'- 0) -)/ )*/'- 2'/
+#%/ /#'$ +%-/ %-0 0'('&K' N'9%H(' /#'$ 0)-X/ %(; *)& 1/kL EH&/#'&,)&'I +),'- %&' 6'((
61;'6$ /#%- ,'- /) .&),)/' /#'1& )+- 1-/'&'(/ %-0 -'2)/1%/' (%6%&$ 1-9&'%('( %-0
.&),)/1)-( QO%N9)9; %-0 D%(9#'K'&I =>>@SL F%-$ ',.6)$''( %&' &'(.)-(1N6' *)&
-'2)/1%/1-2 /#'1& +%2'( %-0 /#'1& &'(.)-(1N161/1'( /#',('6K'(I /#H( -'2)/1%/1-2 1( % +%$
/) (12-%6 /#%/ % +)&;'& N'61'K'( 1- #1( )& #'& )+- (;166(L "),'- %&' /#'&'*)&' 1- %
01(%0K%-/%2'0 .)(1/1)- 1* /#'$ %&' +)&(' %/ -'2)/1%/1-2 )& %6/'&-%/1K'6$ %&' 6'((
1-/'&'(/'0 1- /). .)(1/1)-(I ,'%-1-2 /#%/ /#'$ (12-%6 6'(( /#%- /#'1& ,%6' 9)66'%2H'(I 1L'L
3.3.6. Summary of signaling intensity
G- E1-6%-0I +),'- (.'-0 ,)&' /1,' +1/# /#'1& 9#160&'- /#%- ,'- %-0 /%;' )** 6)-2
.'&1)0( *&), /#' 6%N)& ,%&;'/ 1- 9)--'9/1)- /) 9#160N1&/#L M#1( 1( /#)H2#/ /) N' .%&/6$
0H' /) /#' +%$ /#' E1--1(# ()91'/$ 1( (/&H9/H&'0 %-0 /#' -)&,( E1--( 61K' N$L G- %-
'TH%6 .%&/I /#' *%K)&%N6' 6'%K' 9)-01/1)-( %-0 % 6'(('& 0'(1&' /) 9),.'/' 1- /#' 6%N)&
,%&;'/ 9%- 6'%0 /) +),'- .&'*'&&1-2 /) .&1)&1/1W' *%,16$ %-0 (/%$ #),' +1/# 9#160&'-
6)-2'&I +#19# 6'%0( /) +),'- )- %K'&%2' #%K1-2 *'+'& )..)&/H-1/1'( /) (12-%6 /#'1&
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(;166(L 499)&01-2 /) </%K%&0 %-0 A1'6('- Q=>?=S ()91%6 (/&H9/H&'I -)&,( %-0 .&'*'&'-9'(
%&' 96)('6$ 61-;'0I +#19# #%( %-0 % 01&'9/ 1,.%9/ )- /#' 6)+ .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- 1- /).
,%-%2','-/L M#'(' 2&)H. 01**'&'-9'( +166 N' /#' *)9H( )* /#' ',.1&19%6 .%&/I +1/# %-
'J9'./1)- *)& /#' ('9/1)- )* -'/+)&;1-2I +#19# 0H' /) &'()H&9' 61,1/%/1)-( 1( -)/ +1/#1-
/#' (9).' )* /#' (/H0$L :)+'K'&I 1/ 1( 1,.)&/%-/ /) %9;-)+6'02' /#%/ -'/+)&;1-2 %-0
01**'&'-9'( 1- %99'(( /) -'/+)&;(I ,%$ 'TH%6 /) 01**'&'-9'( 1- .&),)/1)- )..)&/H-1/1'(
*)& ,'- %-0 +),'-L
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4
HYPOTHESES
O%('0 )- /#' %N)K' 9#%./'& )- j.%&%,'/'&(k /#' %((H,./1)-( %&' /#%/ ()91'/%6
(/&H9/H&'I -)&,(I .&'*'&'-9'( %-0 /1,' %66)9%/1)- ,%$ 'J.6%1- /#' 01**'&'-9'( 1-
(12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$ N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'-L M#H(I 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( )N('&K'0 1-
/#'(' .%&%,'/'&( #'6. /) 'J.6%1- /#%/ +),'- %&' N'1-2 .&),)/'0 /) % 6'(('& 'J/'-/ /#%-
,'-L M#&'' N&)%0 #$.)/#'('( %&' 9)-(/&H9/'0 N'6)+ *)9H(1-2 )- 01**'&'-/ %(.'9/( /#%/
,%$ 'J.6%1- 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1- (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$d M#' *1&(/ )-' 9)-9'-/&%/'( )-
,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-( %-0 .&'*'&'-9'(I /#' ('9)-0 )-' )- 2'-0'& N%6%-91-2 )*
*%,16$ %-0 +)&; %-0 /#' /#1&0 )-' )- /) +#%/ 'J/'-/ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %-0 E1--( #%K'
(/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 +#'/#'& /#'&' %&' %2'
0'.'-0'-/ 01**'&'-9'( %,)-2 ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X N'61'*(L
Hypothesis 1 – Career ambition and preferences4.1.
"#$ %&' (') *+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 )+ '+0 )-11&2 -' 03&-2 42&1&2&'5&6 1+2
5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'08 "+*&7&29 ,&' 602-7& 3-/3&29 (2& ,+2& 5+'1-)&'0 -' 03&-2 5(2&&2
42+64&506 (') 6:-..6 (') 3(7& ;&00&2 42&2&<=-6-0&6 1+2 5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'0 03('
*+,&'8
#8 %&' (') *+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 )+ '+0 )-11&2 -' 03&-2 )&6-2& 1+2 5(2&&2
()7('5&,&'0
>8 %&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 602-7& 1+2 ( 3-/3&2 +2/('-?(0-+'(. 4+6-0-+' 03('
*+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0
@8 %&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 3(7& ,+2& 5+'1-)&'5& -' 03&-2 5(2&&2 42+64&506
(') 03(0 03(0 03&A 3(7& 03& 2&<=-2&) 6:-..6 1+2 5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'0 5+,4(2&)
0+ *+,&'
B8 %&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 4.(' 03&-2 5(2&&2 ,+2& (') 0(:& ( ,+2& (50-7&
(442+(53 0+ 5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'0
C8
%&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 (2& ,+2& .-:&.A 0+ /&0 42+,+0-+' +11&26 (') (55&40
03&, 03(' *+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0
M#' 1-(.1&%/1)- *)& #$.)/#'(1( ?L? %-0 ?L= (/', *&), :H0()- (/H0$ Q=>>RSI *)9H(1-2 )-
,1006' ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-( 1- /#' Y<L M#' (/H0$ &'.)&/'0 /#%/ % (1,16%&
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.'&9'-/%2' )* ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %(.1&'0 /) ('-1)& 6'K'6 .)(1/1)-( QZbh
%-0 R=hSL A) (1,16%& /$.' )* 9),.%&1()- ('',( /) #%K' N''- 0)-' *)& E1--1(# ,1006'
,%-%2'&(L :)+'K'&I o%-#%6% Q=>??S *1-0(I 1- % (/H0$ )- E1--1(# *',%6' ,1006'
,%-%2'&X( 9%&''& )&1'-/%/1)-(I /#%/ %&)H-0 % /#1&0 %(.1&'0 *)& /). ,%-%2','-/
.)(1/1)-( +#19# 1( % 9)-(10'&%N6$ 6)+'& .&).)&/1)- /#%- )N('&K'0 N$ :H0()-L M#'
:H0()- (/H0$ %6() *)H-0 /#%/ ,'- )- %K'&%2' %1, /) %9#1'K' % #12#'& 9)&.)&%/'
.)(1/1)- /#%- +),'-I +#19# 1( /#' 1-(.1&%/1)- *)& /#' #$.)/#'(1( ?L=L "#'- %(;'0 +#%/
.)(1/1)-( ,1006' ,%-%2'&( +%-/ /) %9#1'K'I @?h )* ,'- -%,' .&'(10'-/ )& Bf(H1/'
.)(1/1)-( Q'L2L B8CI BCCI BECS +#16' /#' &'(.'9/1K' %,)H-/ )* +),'- -%,1-2 /#'('
.)(1/1)-( 1( ==hL M#' ,)(/ 9),,)- &'(.)-(' *)& ,'- 1( K19' .&'(10'-/ +#16' +),'-
%1, 6)+'&I *)& +),'- /#' ,)(/ 9),,)- %-(+'& 1( j01&'9/)&kL
:$.)/#'(1( ?L@ %-0 ?L\ ,%1-6$ 0&%+ 1-(.1&%/1)- *&), % (/H0$ N$ 8H&).'X( G-(/1/H/' )*
D'%0'&(#1. l F%-%2','-/ QE6$-- '/ %6LI =>??SI +#19# &'K'%6'0 /#%/ +),'- 1-
6'%0'&(#1. &)6'( %&' 6'(( 9)-*10'-/ %-0 ,)&' 9%H/1)H( /#%- ,'-L M#' *1-01-2(I N%('0 )-
1-/'&K1'+( %-0 @`> &'.)&/(I (/%/'0 /#%/ Z>h )* ,%6'( #%0 % #12# )& K'&$ #12# ('6*f
9)-*10'-9'I 9),.%&'0 /) a>h )* /#' (H&K'$'0 +),'-L EH&/#'&I #%6* )* /#' (H&K'$'0
+),'- #%0 *''61-2( )* ('6*f0)HN/ &'2%&01-2 /#'1& .'&*)&,%-9' %-0 9%&''&I +#'&'%( @?h
)* ,'- &'.)&/'0 /#' (%,'L M#1( 6%9; )* 9)-*10'-9' &'(H6/'0 1- *',%6' ,%-%2'&(
%..6$1-2 6'(( *)& .&),)/1)-( /#%- ,'-d ?\h )* +),'- +)H60 %..6$ *)& % .)(1/1)-
0'(.1/' -)/ *H66$ ,''/1-2 /#' P)N 0'(9&1./1)-I 9),.%&'0 /) =>h )* ,'-L
G/ ('',( /#%/ -) E1--1(# (/H0$ #%( N''- 0)-' 9)-9'&-1-2 #$.)/#'(1(I ?L\LI $'/ %
9),,)- N'61'* 1( /#%/ +),'- %&' )**'&'0 g %..6$ *)& .&),)/1)-( 6'(( /#%- ,'- %-0 %&'
,)&' 61;'6$ /) 0'961-' .&),)/1)-(L G- %- %&/196' N$ M%6)H('6p,p Q=>?@SI /#' ,)(/
1-*6H'-/1%6 E1--1(# NH(1-'((+),'- +'&' %(;'0 %N)H/ /#'1& ).1-1)-( %-0 .'&9'./1)-(
%N)H/ +),'-X( 9%&''& 0'K'6).,'-/L 4 /#1&0 )* /#' (H&K'$'0 (/%/'0 /#%/ /#%/ /#' 6)+
.&).)&/1)- )* +),'- )N('&K'0 1- 6'%0'&(#1. &)6'( 1( N'9%H(' +),'- /#',('6K'(
0'961-' .&),)/1)- )**'&(L :$.)/#'(1( ?La %1,( /) /'(/ /#1( N'61'*L
Hypothesis 2 – Family and work4.2.
"(7-'/ 53-.)2&' )+&6 '+0 4&2,('&'0.A (.0&2 *+,&'D6 5(2&&2 /+(.6 ,+2& 03(' -0 )+&6
1+2 ,&'E 3+*&7&2 -0 6.+*6 )+*' *+,&'D6 5(2&&2 ()7('5&,&'0 ,+2&8 F53-&7-'/
1(,-.A (') *+2: ;(.('5& 2&<=-2&6 ,+2& 5+,42+,-6&6 (') 0-,& (..+5(0-+' 12+,
*+,&' 03(' 1+2 ,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'08 G3&6& (50-+'6 (2& 5+'6-)&2&) 0+
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2&42&6&'0 *+,&'D6 42&1&2&'5&69 03=6 *+,&' (2& 4&25&-7&) 0+ 3(7& ,+2& 42&1&2&'5&6
1+2 2(-6-'/ ( 1(,-.A
#8
"(7-'/ 53-.)2&' )+&6 '+0 4&2,('&'0.A (.0&2 03& 5(2&&2 /+(.6 +1 1&,(.& ,-)).&
,('(/&26 ,+2& 03(' ,(.& ,-)).& ,('(/&26
>8 H+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 (2& ,+2& .-:&.A 0+ ,(:& 5(2&&2 /+(.
5+,42+,-6&6 03(' ,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 0+ ;(.('5& 1(,-.A (') *+2:
@8 "(7-'/ 53-.)2&' 0&,4+2(2-.A 6.+*6 )+*' 1&,(.& ,-)).& ,('(/&26D 5(2&&2
()7('5&,&'0 ,+2& 03(' ,(.& ,-)).& ,('(/&26 5(2&&29 (') 1+2 *+,&' 03-6
6.+*)+*' -6 ,+2& +10&' -'7+.='0(2A
B8
H+,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0 (..+5(0& ,+2& 0-,& 0+ 53-.)5(2& (') 3+=6&*+2:
03(' ,&' -' ,-)).& ,('(/&,&'0
E1-6%-0 1( 9)-(10'&'0 % *)&'&H--'& 1- *%,16$ *&1'-06$ .)6191'( %-0 /#' 9)-*619/( N'/+''-
,)/#'&#))0 %-0 +)&; 61*' #%K' 0'9&'%('0 +1/# /#' 1-/&)0H9/1)- )* 2'-'&)H( 6'%K' %-0
9#1609%&' (9#','( Q^H./% '/ %6LI=>>RSL O)/# /#' *',%6' ',.6)$,'-/ &%/' %-0 -%/1K1/$ 1(
#12# N$ 8H&).'%- (/%-0%&0(I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ +),'- 1- E1-6%-0 #%K' 2))0 .&'&'TH1(1/'(
*)& 9%&''& ,%;1-2L M#H(I #%K1-2 9#160&'- (#)H60 -)/ .'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'& +),'-X( 9%&''&
2)%6(L M#1( 1( /#' *)9H( )* /#' *1&(/ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?L?L
46/#)H2# /#' 2'-'&%6 N'61'* 1( /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- 0)'( -)/ .'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'& '1/#'&2'-0'&X( 9%&''& 2)%6(I N%('0 )- /#' 61/'&%/H&' &'K1'+I 9#160&'- ('', /) 1,.%9/ /#'
9%&''&( )* ,'- %-0 +),'- H-'K'-6$L <HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?L=I ?L@ %-0 ?L\ 6)); *)9H( )- #)+
#%K1-2 9#160&'- 1,.%9/ +),'-X( 9%&''&( 01**'&'-/6$I '1/#'& K)6H-/%&16$ )& 1-K)6H-/%&16$I
/#%- /#' 9%&''&( )* ,'-L "),'- /%;' /#' ,%P)&1/$ )* .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 % 6%&2'&
&'(.)-(1N161/$ *)& 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('#)60 0H/1'(I .%&/19H6%&6$ /1,' 1-*6'J1N6' +)&; (H9#
%( /%;1-2 9#160&'- /) (9#))6 QF1'//1-'-I =>>R %-0 =>?=SL M#H(I /#' %((H,./1)- 1( /#%/
+),'- ,)&' )*/'- *%9' % 9%&''&f(6)+0)+- +#'- 9#160&'- %&' (,%66 %-0 (HN('TH'-/6$
9),.&),1(' )- /#'1& 9%&''& /%&2'/( 1- )&0'& /) &'%9# +)&; %-0 *%,16$ N%6%-9'L G- /#'
/#1&0 (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 1/ 1( )* 1-/'&'(/ /) 'J%,1-' +#'/#'& /#' 9%&''& (6)+f0)+- #%( N''-
1-K)6H-/%&$ *)& +),'-I +#19# +)H60 (H22'(/ /#%/ (/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)- +)H60 N'
.&'('-/L M#' *)&/# (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 6));( 1-/) #)+ ,%-%2'&( 01K10' 0),'(/19 +)&; +1/#
/#'1& .%&/-'&(L
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@b
Hypothesis 3 – Norms and beliefs4.3.
%-)).& ,('(/&26 3(7& 02()-0-+'(. ;&.-&16 2&/(2)-'/ *+,&'D6 2+.&6 (') 1&,(.&
.&()&263-48 F )-11&2&'5& -' ;&.-&16 2&/(2)-'/ *+,&'D6 2+.&6 5(' ;& +;6&27&) ;&0*&&'
03& A+='/&2 (') +.)&2 /&'&2(0-+' +1 ,-)).& ,('(/&268 G3& A+='/&2 /&'&2(0-+' -6 .&66
5+'6&27(0-7& -' 03&-2 ;&.-&16 2&/(2)-'/ *+,&'D6 5(2&&2 -'0&2&606 (') +44+20='-0-&68
#8
G3& +.)&2 /&'&2(0-+' +1 ,-)).& ,('(/&26 -6 ,+2& .-:&.A 0+ ;&.-&7& 03(0 *+,&'
(2& .&66 -'0&2&60&) -' 4+6-0-+'6 +1 2&64+'6-;-.-0A (') .&66 *-..-'/ 0+ 1-/30 1+2
03&-2 5(2&&2 03(' ,&' 03(' 03& A+='/&2 /&'&2(0-+'
>8
G3& +.)&2 /&'&2(0-+' +1 ,-)).& ,('(/&26 -6 ,+2& .-:&.A 0+ ;&.-&7& 03(0 *+,&'
3(7& .&66 12&&)+, ;&5(=6& +1 03&-2 1(,-.A 2&64+'6-;-.-0-&69 03& ;=6-'&66
5+,,='-0A -6 )+,-'(0&) ;A ,&' *3+ )+ '+0 3(7& 6=11-5-&'0 5+'1-)&'5& -'
*+,&' (') 03(0 *+,&' )+ '+0 (.*(A6 3(7& 03& '&5&66(2A <=(.-0-&6 (') 6:-..6
0+ 1-.. 4+6-0-+'6 +1 2&64+'6-;-.-0A 03(' 03& A+='/&2 /&'&2(0-+'
@8
G3& +.)&2 /&'&2(0-+' +1 ,-)).& ,('(/&26 ,+2& +10&' 03-': 03(0 -0 -6 '+2,(.
03(0 ,&' *+2: ,+2& +=06-)& 03& 3+,& (') 4(20-5-4(0& .&66 -' )+,&60-5 *+2:
03(' *+,&' 03(' 03& A+='/&2 /&'&2(0-+'
C- )-' #%-0 /#1( #$.)/#'(1( %1,( /) 'J%,1-' #)+ +10'(.&'%0 (/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( %&'L
C-' /#' )/#'& #%-0 1/ %1,( /) /'(/ +#'/#'& %- %//1/H0' 01**'&'-9' &'2%&01-2 +),'-X(
&)6'( %-0 *',%6' 6'%0'&(#1. 9%- N' )N('&K'0 %,)-2 ,%-%2'&( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @aQm$)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&(S %-0 %N)K' a> Qm)60'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* ,1006'
,%-%2'&(SL M#' 6%//'& 1( -)/ 1-*)&,%/1K' 1- &'2%&0( /) +#$ /#'&' %&' 9H&&'-/6$ *'+
+),'- 1- /). .)(1/1)-(V #)+'K'& 1/ ,%$ 21K' 1-/'&'(/1-2 1-(12#/( %N)H/ /#' *H/H&'
0'K'6).,'-/ )* %//1/H0'( %-0 N'61'*( )* *',%6' 6'%0'&(#1. %-0 &)6'(L
FH9# )* /#' 1-(.1&%/1)- *)& /#' /#1&0 #$.)/#'(1( )&121-%/'( *&), /+) 8H&).'%- (/H01'(
/#%/ %//',./ /) H-9)K'& 8H&).'%-(X %//1/H0'( %N)H/ 'TH%61/$I 8H&)N%&),'/'& Q=>?>S
%-0 8H&)N%&),'/'& Q=>?=SL M#' (/H01'( (#)+ /#%/ 1- E1-6%-0 (),'+#%/ (/'&')/$.19%6
N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( &)6'(I 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'( 9%- N' 0'/'9/'0L C-% 8H&).'%- 6'K'6I /#' )60'& 2'-'&%/1)- QaarS N'61'K'( 'TH%61/$ 1( ,)&' +10'(.&'%0 /#%-
/#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- Q=af@bSL M#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- %6() N'61'K'( /) % 6%&2'& 'J/'-/
/#%/ 'TH%61/$ 1( 6'(( +10'(.&'%0 /)0%$ /#%- 1/ +%( ?> $'%&( %2)L "#'- %(;'0 %N)H/
+),'-X( 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/(I /#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)-( )* 8H&).'%-( %&' 6'(( 61;'6$ /)
N'61'K' /#%/ +),'- %&' -)/ %( 1-/'&'(/'0 %( ,'- 1- .)(1/1)-( )* &'(.)-(1N161/$L M#'
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%N)K' +)H60 1,.6$ /#%/ /#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* 8H&).'%-( 1( 6'(( 9)-('&K%/1K' 1-
/#'1& N'61'*( %N)H/ +),'-X( 9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'( /#%- /#' )60'&
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#$.)/#'(1( %1,( /) /'(/ +#'/#'& /#1( #)60( *)& /#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* ,1006'
,%-%2'&(L "#%/ -''0( /) N' ;'./ 1- ,1-0 1( /#%/ $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( N'61'*( 9%- 9#%-2'
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9%&''& 1-/'&'(/(I )..)&/H-1/1'( %-0 &)6'( %&' .'&9'1K'0L
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5
METHODOLOGY
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*)66)+'0 N$ % 0'(9&1./1)- )* /#' &'(.)-0'-/( %-0 #)+ /#' 0%/% 1( .&)9'(('0L
Choice of research method: Questionnaire5.1.
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#$.)/#'('(L M#1&0I /#' .H&.)(' )* /#' TH'(/1)--%1&' +%( -)/ 'J.6%1-'0 /)) ,H9# 1-
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/#%/ /#' TH'(/1)-( +'&' 96'%& %-0 /#' &'(.)-(' 9%/'2)&1'( +'&' % 6)219%6 9)-('TH'-9' )*
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/#' TH'(/1)-(I % .16)/ 2&)H. /'(/'0 /#' TH'(/1)--%1&'L M#' .16)/ 2&)H. 9)-(1(/'0 )* R
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%H/),%/19%66$ (;1. /#' k*%,16$ %-0 +)&; ('9/1)-kL
5.1.1. Questionnaire design
M#' TH'(/1)--%1&' 1( 01K10'0 1-/) N%9;2&)H-0 1-*)&,%/1)- %-0 \ /#','(I )* +#19# @ +166
N' /#' *)9H( )* /#1( (/H0$ @L M#' *1&(/ .%&/ 2%/#'&( N%9;2&)H-0 1-*)&,%/1)- )* /#'
&'(.)-0'-/V .'&()-%6 1-*)&,%/1)- Q'L2L 2'-0'&I '0H9%/1)-%6 N%9;2&)H-0SI +)&; &'6%/'0
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/#%/ 6'K'6S %-0 ,%&1/%6 (/%/H( %-0 /#' .%&/-'&X( )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6L G- /#' TH'(/1)- %N)H/
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+%( %- )./1)- j)/#'&I +#%/3k 1- 9%(' % &'(.)-0'-/ +#) 010 -)/ N'6)-2 /) /#' /%&2'/
2&)H. %-(+'&'0L G* /#' &'(.)-0'-/ &'.61'0 B8CI N)%&0 ,',N'& )& '-/&'.&'-'H& /#'
&'(.)-0'-/ +%( 0'6'/'0 *&), /#' (%,.6'L G* /#' &'(.)-(' )- /#' )/#'& #%-0 +%(
(.'91%61(/I /#' &'(.)-0'-/ +%( .6%9'0 1- '1/#'& )* /#' ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ 2&)H.( N%('0
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M#' ('9)-0 .%&/ )* /#' TH'(/1)--%1&'I 9)&&'(.)-01-2 /) /#' *1&(/ #$.)/#'(1(I %(;( %N)H/
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M#1( .%&/ 9)-(1(/'0 )* N)/# ).'- '-0'0 %-0 96)('0 TH'(/1)-(L M#' ).'-f'-0'0
TH'(/1)-( 1-96H0' %/ +#%/ %2' &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' #%0 /#'1& *1&(/ 9#160 %-0 #)+ ,H9#
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)* /#' /#'(1( )&0'&'& %-0 ,%$ N' H('0 1- *H&/#'& .&)P'9/(L
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6'%K' /#'$ %-0 /#'1& .%&/-'&( #%K' /%;'-L <1-9' /#' 6'%K' .'&1)0 9%- 01**'& TH1/'
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% #H-0&'0 N'/+''- /#'1& .%&/-'& %-0 /#',('6K'(L
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5.1.2. Target group
M#' /%&2'/ 2&)H. *)& /#' (H&K'$ 9)-(1(/( )* E1--1(# .&)*'((1)-%6( 1- ,1006'
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5.1.3.
Data collection
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CH/ )* @?@ *166'0 (H&K'$( =`a +'&' H(%N6' 21K1-2 % &'(.)-(' &%/' )- RI@hL 499)&01-2 /)
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6)+'& /#%- ?? hI 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ '(.'91%66$ <8E8 ,',N'&( &'(.)-0'0 %9/1K'6$L M) '-(H&'
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%,)-2 /#' &'(.)-0'-/(L
Table 2
Summary statistics of background variables gender, age, field of education, maritalstatus and partner’s organizational level
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,%-%2','-/ %-0 a@I@h N'6)-2'0 /) H..'& ,1006' ,%-%2','-/L F'- +'&' (612#/6$
N'//'& &'.&'('-/'0 1- H..'& ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ /#%- +),'- QaaI@h K(L a>IZhSL 4
,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/(I %&)H-0 R>hI +'&' ,%&&1'0 )& 9)#%N1/1-2 4( )N('&K'0 1-
.&'K1)H( (/H01'( Q5%&/)K%%&%I =>>@ %-0 o%-#%6%I =>>RSI +),'- 1- /#1( (/H0$ %&' ,)&'
)*/'- H-,%&&1'0 )& 01K)&9'0g+10)+'0 /#%- ,'-L 46,)(/ \>h )* &'(.)-0'-/( #%0 =
9#160&'-V #)+'K'& ,'- /'-0 /) #%K' ,)&' 9#160&'- /#%- +),'-L
"#'- 9),.%&1-2 /#' .%&/-'&X( )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&(I 96'%&
01**'&'-9'( 9%- N' (''-L 46,)(/ a>h >* ,%6' &'(.)-0'-/( %&' %/ % #12#'& )&2%-1W%/1)-%6
6'K'6 /#%- /#'1& .%&/-'&(I *)& +),'- /#' %,)H-/ +%( =ZI?L E)& +),'- /#' ,)(/
9),,)- %-(+'& +%( /#%/ /#'1& .%&/-'& 1( %/ /#' (%,' )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 %(
/#',('6K'(L E)& ,'- 1/ +%( ,)&' 9),,)- /#%/ /#'1& .%&/-'& 1( -)/ +)&;1-2 /#%- *)&
+),'- Q?`I\h K(L @I`hSL
Data processing5.2.
M#' *)66)+1-2 ,'/#)0( %&' H('0 1- )&0'& /) /'(/ /#' #$.)/#'(1(d O1-%&$ 6)21(/19
&'2&'((1)-( %-0 (12-1*19%-9' /'(/(
5.2.1.
Binary logistic regression
G- )&0'& /) /'(/ #$.)/#'(1( ? %-0 #$.)/#'(1( =I &'2%&01-2 +#%/ *%9/)&( 9%- 'J.6%1-
,1006' ,%-%2'&( 0'(1&' *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ %-0 +#'/#'& 9#160&'- #%K'
.'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'&'0 ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& .&'*'&'-9'(I N1-%&$ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)-( %&' H('0L
M#' 0'.'-0'-/ K%&1%N6'I ]I 9%- /%;' /+) .)((1N6' K%6H'(I +#19# &'*6'9/ /#' &'(.)-0'-/(X
0'91(1)-(L M#' /+) )H/9),'( +166 N' 6%N'6'0 %( > Q'+I (') ? Q$'(S 1- N)/# #$.)/#'(1( ?
%-0 =L
M#' &'2&'((1)- ,)0'6 +166 .&'019/ /#' 6)21/I +#19# 1(I /#' -%/H&%6 6)2 )* /#' )00( )*
#%K1-2 ,%0' )-' )& /#' )/#'& 0'91(1)- Q"H'-(9#I =>>bS
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"#'&' &'.&'('-/( .&'019/'0 .&)N%N161/$ )* %- 'K'-/ +#19# 1( 9)0'0 ? Q$'(S )99H&(I
%&' '(/1,%/'0 &'2&'((1)- 9)'**191'-/( %-0 %&' .&'019/)&
K%&1%N6'(L M#' '(/1,%/1)- )* /#' 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- 1( /#'- .'&*)&,'0 N$ ,%J1,H,
61;'61#))0 '(/1,%/1)-L
5.2.2.
Data processing: Significance tests
G- )&0'& /) /'(/ +#'/#'& /+) K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-0'.'-0'-/I % ['%&()- s /'(/ 1( ,%0' )-
9&)((f/%NH6%/1)-( )* /+) K%&1%N6'(L ['%&()- s /'(/( /#' -H66f#$.)/#'(1( /#%/ /#'&' 1(
1-0'.'-0'-9' N'/+''- /#' /+) )N('&K'0 K%&1%N6'(L M#' K%6H' )* /#' /'(/ (/%/1(/19( 1( %(
*)66)+(d
+#'&' Oi 2( /#' )5('&B'0 *&'GH'-A$I E i, j 2( /#' 'J.'A/'0 *&'GH'-A$I r (/%-0( *)& &)+( %-0
c *)& A)6H,-( 2- % /%56' DK&''-+))0 L M2NH62- 7??<FC 4#H( 2/ /'(/( +#'/#'& /#' &)+(
%-0 A)6H,-( 2- /#' /%56'( %&' 2-0'.'-0'-/I 2- )/#'& +)&0( +#'/#'& /+) )5('&B'0
B%&2%56'( %&' 02**'&'-/ )& -)/C O* /#' -H66 #$.)/#'(2( A%- 5' &'P'A/'0I 2/ A%- 5' %-
2-02A%/2)- /#%/ /#' /+) B%&2%56'( %&' 0'.'-0'-/C
4 .&).)&/1)- /'(/ 6));( %/ +#'/#'& /+) .&).)&/1)-( %&' (12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'&'-/ *&), '%9#
)/#'&L E)& /#1( .H&.)('I % /+)f(10'0 #$.)/#'(1( /'(/ *)& .&).)&/1)-( 1( H('0L M#' -H66f
#$.)/#'(1( 1( /#%/ /#' )N('&K'0 H-1/( 0) -)/ 01**'&I 1L'L
Q42&'(/1 %-0 E&%-;61--I =>>ZSL M#' .&).)&/1)- /'(/ H('( /#' *)66)+1-2 /'(/ (/%/1(/19d
%-0 %&' /#' /+) H-1/( /#%/ %&' /'(/'0 +#'/#'& /#'$ (12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'& *&), '%9#
)/#'&I %-0 %&' /#' 9)&&'(.)-01-2 -H,N'& )* &'(.)-0'-/(L G* -)/ (/%/'0 )/#'&+1('I
% *1K' .'&9'-/ (12-1*19%-9' 6'K'6 1( H('0 1- /#' /'(/(L M#1( 1( /#' /'(/ (/%/1(/19 /#%/ 1( H('0
+#'- 1/ 1( (/%/'0 /#%/ /+) .&).)&/1)-( (12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'& 1- 9#%./'& `L M#' WfK%6H'( %-0
.fK%6H'( %&' .&'('-/'0 1- % *))/-)/' +#'- % (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' 1( *)H-0L
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6
EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
H 1 – Career ambition and preferences6.1.
M#' *1&(/ #$.)/#'(1( #%( a (HN #$.)/#'('(I +#19# +166 N' 1-01K10H%66$ /'(/'0 %-0 &'(H6/(%&' .&'('-/'0 ('.%&%/'6$L M#1( 1( *)66)+'0 N$ %- )K'&%66 9)-96H(1)- )* %66 (HN #$.)/#'('(
Q0'-)/'0 <: 1- #'%01-2(S
6.1.1.
SH 1.1 – Willingness to consider promotions
M#' *1&(/ (HN #$.)/#'(1( +166 /'(/ +#'/#'& /#'&' 1( % 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1- /#' 0'(1&' *)&
9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ 1L'L % 01**'&'-9' 1- /#' +1661-2-'(( /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)-L E&),
/%N6' @ 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ RZI?h )* /#' &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' %-(+'&'0 /#%/ /#'$ %&'
+1661-2 /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)- %-0 )-6$ ?@I=\h %&' -)/ +1661-2 /) 9)-(10'& )-'L M#1((H22'(/( /#%/ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' %- 1-/'&'(/ 1- 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/L
Table 3
Percentual division of managers’ will to consider a promotion according togender.
E&), /#' /%N6' )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ /#'&' 1( % 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /#' .'&9'-/%2' )* ,'-
Qb>I\hS %-0 +),'- QR@IbhS +#) #%K' %-(+'&'0 .)(1/1K'6$L ['%&()-X( s /'(/ (#)+(
/#%/ /#' /+) )N('&K'0 K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-0'.'-0'-/I +#19# 1-019%/'( /#%/ /#'&' 1( %
(/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /#' +166 )* ,'- %-0 +),'- /) 9)-(10'& %
.&),)/1)-L G- )&0'& /) K'&1*$ /#1( %-0 6)); 1-/) +#%/ K%&1%N6'( ,%$ 1,.%9/ /#' 0'91(1)-
/) 9)-(10'& %-0 -)/ /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)- % N1-%&$ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)-I ('' 1- /%N6' aI
1( 9)-(/&H9/'0L M#' &'2&'((1)- 1-96H0'( % -H,N'& )* 'J.6%-%/)&$ K%&1%N6'( /#%/ 9%- N'
(''- 1- /%N6' \L
:%2(%# X%' A, B,&"3
@%2 PGOJ POM HGGOGG
K,$%2 DIOP HMOP HGGOGG
B,&"3 DLOHN HIOFN HGGOGG
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F MOHPL
!*"37% GOGHI
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Table 4 Summary statistics for the explanatory variables used in the binary logisticregression.
@%"2 4&"2("#( (%*)"&),2 @)2)$7$ @"Z)$7$
K,$"2 5GRHU GOJFG GOJPJG G H
[<% 5;%"#'O #"2<%U JOGNG HOLDDG H D
6(78"&),2 5@"'&%#' GRHU GOPIG GOFJPG G H
@"2"<%$%2& 5>11%# GRHU GONIG GOJPPG G H
Y#<"2)V"&),2 3%*%3 &)$% 5;%"#'U JOPLG JOLHMG G FP
G 8S)3( 5GRHU GOFMF GOJJGH G H
H 8S)3( 5GRHU GOHMP GOILJD G H
F 8S)3( 5GRHU GOIPM GOJDPN G H
I 8S)3( 5GRHU GOHLI GOILDL G H
A, 1"#&2%# 5GRHU GOHIG GOIIJG G H
!"#&2%# 3,9%# 5GRHU GOIPG GOJDPG G H
!"#&2%# '"$% 5GRHU GOFHG GOJGDG G H
!"#&2%# S)<S%# 5GRHU GOHMG GOIMNG G H
!"#&2%# 2,& 9,#/)2< 5GRHU GOHHG GOIHIG G H
MMJ ,?'%#*"&),2'
M#' K%&1%N6' *+,(' 1( % 0H,,$ K%&1%N6'I +#19# /%;'( /#' K%6H' ? 1* /#' &'(.)-0'-/ 1( %
+),%- %-0 > 1* 1/ 1( % ,%-L M#' K%&1%N6' (/& 9%- /%;' K%6H'( *&), ? /) RI 9)&&'(.)-01-2
/> a $'%& %2' &%-2'( Q('' /%N6' =SL A'J/I /#' K%&1%N6' &)=5(0-+' /%;'( /#' K%6H' ? 1* /#'
&'(.)-0'-/ #%( % F%(/'&( )& % [#7 0'2&'' %-0 > 1- 9%(' /#' &'(.)-0'-/ #%( %
O%9#'6)&X( 0'2&''L D1;'+1('I ,('(/&,&'0 1( 0H,,$ K%&1%N6'I +#'&' ? 1-019%/'( H..'&
,%-%2','-/ %-0 > 1-019%/'( 6)+'& ,%-%2','-/L o%&1%N6' +2/('-?(0-+' .&7&. 0-,&
1-019%/'( $'%&( %/ 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6L E)& /#' -H,N'& )* 9#160&'- \ 0H,,1'(
%&' 9)-(/&H9/'0d J 53-.)9 # 53-.)9 > 53-.) %-0 @ 53-.)8 > 9#160 1( H('0 %( &'*'&'-9'
9%/'2)&$ %-0 %&' /#'&'*)&' -)/ H('0 1- /#' ,)0'6L G- )/#'& +)&0(I +#'- 0H,,$
K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-/'&.&'/'0 1/ 1( 0)-' 1- &'6%/1)- /) &'*'&'-9' 9%/'2)&1'(L <1,16%&6$I a
0H,,1'( %&' -''0'0 /) 0'(9&1N' % .%&/-'&(X +)&; (/%/H( 1- &'6%/1)- /) /#' &'(.)-0'-/(L
M#'(' 1-96H0'd '+ 4(20'&29 4(20'&2 .+*&29 4(20'&2 6(,&9 4(20'&2 3-/3&2 %-0 4(20'&2
'+0 *+2:-'/L [%&/-'& -) +)&; 1( 'J96H0'0 %-0 +166 N' H('0 %( &'*'&'-9' 9%/'2)&$L
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Table 5 Binary logistic regression predicting likelihood of desiring career advancement
- 4E6 K"3( (+ 4)<E 6Z15-U
K,$"2 GOMIM GOFDJ NOGGP H GOGFN GONFP
[<% GOIPL GOGDL FGOMJN H GOGGG GOMLF
6(78"&),2 HOJHJ GOJGL HFOGIN H GOGGH JOHH
>11%# $"2"<%$%2& GOFJD GOFLN GODHM H GOIMM HOFDF
Y#<"2)V"&),2 3%*%3
&)$% GOGLF GOGFM LODDI H GOGGN GOPI
H 8S)3( GOJNP GOJMJ GOPD H GOIFF GOMIF
F 8S)3( GOHLP GOJGL GOHPN H GOMNP GODIM
I\ 8S)3( GOD GOJJP IOHDF H GOGLJ GOJJP
A, 1"#&2%# GONGF GONN GODII H GOIMH GOMGN
!"#&2%# 3,9%# GOFFJ GOJLL GOFF H GOMIP HOFNH
!"#&2%# '"$% GOFM GON GOFL H GOMGI GOLLH
!"#&2%# S)<S%# GOHMD GONJ GOGPL H GOLNM HOHDI
M#' 01&'9/ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- .'&*)&,'0 /) %(('(( /#' 61;'61#))0 )* &'(.)-0'-/( 0'(1&1-2
9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ +1/# (.'91%6 1-/'&'(/ /) /#' 9)'**191'-/ 0'.19/1-2 K%&1%N6' *+,('L
CK'&%66I /#' ,)0'6 +%( (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/I s Q?=I Am``\Sm ?>>I`aI .t >I>?L 4(
(#)+- 1- /%N6' aI )-6$ *)H& )* /#' 1-0'.'-0'-/ K%&1%N6'( ,%0' % (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/
9)-/&1NH/1)- /) /#' ,)0'6 Q*+,(' .m>I>=aI (/& .m>I>>>I &)=5(0-+' .m>I>>? %-0
+2/('-?(0-+' .&7&. 0-,& .m>I>>aS8 "#%/ 1( (''- *&), /%N6' /#&'' 1( %6() 9)-*1&,'0 1-
/#' N1-%&$ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)-d K%&1%N6' +),%- 1( (12-1*19%-/ %-0 (#)+( % -'2%/1K' O
K%6H' Qf>I`@`SL M#' O K%6H' 1-019%/'( /#' 01&'9/1)- )* /#' &'6%/1)-(#1.V 1- /#1( 9%('
+),'- %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) %-(+'& -'2%/1K'6$ /) /#' TH'(/1)- +#'/#'& /#'$ %&' +1661-2 /)
9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)-L
o%&1%N6' %2' 9%- N' 1-/'&.&'/'0 %( /#' )60'& )-' 2'/(I /#' 6'(( 61;'6$ )-' 1( /) %-(+'& $'(L
80H9%/1)- %2%1- (#)+( % .)(1/1K' OI ,'%-1-2 /#%/ % &'(.)-0'-/ +1/# % F%(/'&X( )& %
[#7 0'2&'' 1( ,)&' 61;'6$ /) 9)-(10'& .&),)/1)-( .').6' +1/# )-6$ O%9#'6)&X( 0'2&''(L
<1-9' % ,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' % #12#'&f6'K'6 0'2&''I /#'&' 1( 61//6' K%&1%N161/$ 1-
/#1( 1-0'.'-0'-/ K%&1%N6'I +#19# 9)H60 %**'9/ /#' &'(H6/(L M#' 6)-2'& % &'(.)-0'-/ #%(
N''- %/ /#'1& 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 #%( % -'2%/1K' '**'9/ )- /#' .&),)/1)- 0'(1&'L
E1-%66$ )- % ?>h (12-1*19%-9' 6'K'6 Q.m>I>Z\S &'(.)-0'-/( +1/# /#&'' 9#160&'- )& ,)&'
%&' 6'(( 61;'6$ /) %-(+'& $'( 1- 9)-/&%(/ /) &'(.)-0'-/( +1/# -) 9#160&'-L
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G- 612#/ )* /#1( %-0 /#' &'(H6/( )* M%N6' @I &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#'&' 1( % 01**'&'-9' 1-
*',%6' %-0 ,%6' ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X 0'(1&' *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/L M#H(I (HNf
#$.)/#'(1( ?L? 1( -)/ 9)-*1&,'0L
6.1.2. SH 1.2 – Organizational level aspirations
O'6)+I % 9&)(( /%N6' N'/+''- K%&1%N6' 2'-0'& %-0 %(.1&'0 )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 1(
9)-(/&H9/'0L <'-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ &'*'&( /) B8C %-0 o19' [&'(10'-/ .)(1/1)-(I
+#16' 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ &'*'&( /) %66 )/#'& 'J'9H/1K' 2&)H. .)(1/1)-(L
Table 6
Percentual divisions of what organizational level managers aspire to achieve. Thetable is divided by gender
:%2(%#
Q,9%# $)((3%
$"2"<%$%2&
>11%# $)((3%
$"2"<%$%2&
6Z%87&)*%
$"2"<%$%2&
4%2),# %Z%87&)*%
$"2"<%$%2& B,&"3
@%2 FOP HJOD JDOL IIOM HGGOG
K,$%2 IOP FJOI NFON HPOI HGGOG
B,&"3 IOI HDOD NGOI FLOM HGGOG
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F FGOLHN
!*"37% GOGGG
4N)H/ #%6* )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&(I &'2%&06'(( )* 2'-0'& %(.1&' /) 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/
.)(1/1)-( Q\RIZh )* ,'-I a=IZh )* +),'-SL M#' 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( %&' ,)&'
.&)-)H-9'0 1- /#' )&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 N'6)+ %-0 %N)K' 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/L<12-1*19%-/6$ a ,)&' ,'- %(.1&' /) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L "),'- )-
/#' )/#'& #%-0 #%K' 6)+'& %(.1&%/1)-(V (12-1*19%-/6$ ̀ ,)&' +),'- %(.1&' /) &'%9# H..'&
,1006' ,%-%2','-/ /#%- ,'-L ['%&()-X( s )- /#' +#)6' /%N6' (#)+( % (/%/1(/19%66$
(12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' Q.m >I>>>S N'/+''- 2'-0'& %-0 %(.1&'0 )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6L
<1-9' /#' -H,N'& )* &'(.)-0'-/( +#) %(.1&' /) %9#1'K' ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-(
(12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'&( N'/+''- ,'- %-0 +),'-I 1/ 1( 1-/'&'(/1-2 /) 6)); 1-/) +#%/ &)6' %2'
.6%$( 1- 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-(L M%N6' ZI (#)+( /#' .'&9'-/%2' )* ,'- %-0 +),'- +#)
%(.1&' /) %9#1'K' ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-( N$ %2' 2&)H.(L
a um\I=@@R .m>I>>>>` um@I>=?a .m>I>>=a
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Table 7 Procentage of middle managers who aspire to achieve senior executivemanagement positions. The table is divided by age range and gender
:%2(%# >2(%# IG IGIJ INIP JGJJ JNJP NGNJ Y*%# NN
@%2 JN JG NHOM IH FDOD HFON HFON
K,$"2 IMOD INOI IFOP POI MOH HGON IOL
B,&"3 JGOP ILOL JFOI FGOF HLON HHON DOH
Y?'%#*"&),2' IP PJ HMI HHJ HGH DM ML
=S)F GOFMD GOFGI NOLHN LOHNF DODPN GOGD HONI
!*"37% GOMGN GOMNF GOGHL GOGGL GOGGI GOLLL GOFHM
U'(.)-0'-/( +#) %-(+'&'0 /#%/ /#'$ %1, /) %9#1'K' %-$ )/#'& .)(1/1)- /#%- ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ %&' -)/0'.19/'0 1- /#' /%N6'L
M#' /%N6' (#)+( /#%/ %6,)(/ \>h )* &'(.)-0'-/( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @\ %(.1&' /) %9#1'K'
('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-(L M#' -H,N'& 1( (612#/6$ 6)+'& *)& +),'-I NH/ -) (12-1*19%-/
2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 9%- N' )N('&K'0L M#' (%,' #)60( *)& )K'& a> $'%&f)60 ,1006'
,%-%2'&(L 4&)H-0 ?>h %(.1&' /) /#' #12#'(/ .)(1/1)-(L :'&' %2%1-I /#' .'&9'-/%2'( %&'
(612#/6$ 6)+'& *)& +),'- /#%- ,'-L M#' (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'( Q.t>I>aS %&' 1- /#'
/#&'' %2' 2&)H.( N'/+''- @a %-0 \bL M#' ['%&()-X( s /'(/ (#)+( /#%/ *)& /#' /#&'' %2'
2&)H.( /#'&' 1( (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- 2'-0'& %-0 %(.1&%/1)-( /> N'9),' ('-1)&
'J'9H/1K'L G- )/#'& +)&0(I (12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' ,'- 1- /#' %2' &%-2' @af\b %(.1&' /) &'%9#
('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-( /#%- +),'-L "),'-X( %(.1&%/1)-( ('', /) 0'9&'%('
0&%(/19%66$ N'/+''- /#'(' %2' 2&)H.(I +#'&'%( ,'- )* %2'( @af@b (#)+ % 96'%& 1-9&'%('
1- %(.1&1-2 /) ('-1)& ,%-%2','-/L B)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ /#' %K'&%2' %2' %/ *1&(/ 9#160N1&/# 1(
@> $'%&( Q('' /%N6' ?RS %-0 aZh )* ,%-%2'&( #%K' = )& ,)&' 9#160&'-I 1/ ,%$ N' /#%/
+#'- 9#160&'- %&' $)H-2 +),'- 6)+'& /#'1& 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-( %-0 /#H( -) 6)-2'&
%(.1&' /) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/L M#1( 1( #)+'K'&I .%&/1%66$ 9)-/&%019/'0 (1-9'
/#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/Z 01**'&'-9' 1- %(.1&1-2 /) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ N'/+''-
-) 01**'&'-9' 1- %(.1&%/1)-( /) &'%9# 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ 6'K'6 N'/+''- +),'- +1/#
%-0 +1/#)H/ 9#160&'- Q<'' %..'-01J =SL G- )/#'& +)&0(I /#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ #%K1-2
9#160&'- 0)'( -)/ %**'9/ +#'/#'& +),'- %(.1&' /) &'%9# 'J'9H/1K' )& ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K'
,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(L
O%('0 )- /#' &'(H6/( 1- /%N6' `I )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ /#' &'(H6/( %&' 1- 61-' +1/# )* :H0()-X(
(/H0$ Q=>?=S )- 4,'&19%- ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %0K%-9','-/ %(.1&%/1)-(L M#H(I (HNf
#$.)/#'(1( ?L= 1( 9)-*1&,'0L
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6.1.3.
SH 1.3 – Confidence in skills and career prospects
G- )&0'& /) /'(/ +#'/#'& ,'- ,1006' ,%-%2','-/ #%K' ,)&' 9)-*10'-9' 1- /#'1& 9%&''&
.&)(.'9/( %-0 (;166( /#%- +),'-I /#' *)9H( 1( *1&(/ 6%10 >- +#%/ 9%&''& .#%(' ,1006'
,%-%2'&( 'K%6H%/' /#',('6K'( /) N' %/ %-0 #)+ %2' %**'9/ /#' 'K%6H%/1)-L M#' &'(H6/(
9%- N' (''- 1- /%N6' R %-0 bL
Table 8
Percentual divisions regarding what phase manager’s currently perceive theircareer to be at. The table is divided by gender
:%2(%# Q,9%#)2< 4&"?3% W,#)V,2&"3" ])')2<
@%2 IOP IGOF JI FFOP
K,$%2 NOJ JHOH IDOF HN
B,&"3 JOMN INOMN JGOM HDOPN
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F HFOMMM
%F)K1-2 #)&1W)-/%66$ 1- )&0'& /) ,)K' *)&+%&0
Table 9 Percentage of middle managers who perceive their career to currently movinghorizontally or rising. The table is divided by age range and gender
>2(%# IN INJP Y*%# NG
@%2 PG MGOM MNOP
K,$"2 DIOH JNOI NIOF
B,&"3 DMONN NFOPN NPONN
4 ,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/( 9)-(10'& /#',('6K'( /) N' %/ % 60(;.& .#%(' Q@aI`ahS )&
,+7-'/ 3+2-?+'0(..A Q\>I`S 1- /#'1& 9%&''&L 4 (12-1*19%-/R 01**'&'-9' 1( )N('&K'0 1- /#'
-H,N'& )* ,'- Q==IbhS %-0 ,'- Q?ahS +#) %-(+'&'0 2-6-'/L M#'&' %&' %6() %
(12-1*19%-/6$ b #12#'& .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- +#) %-(+'&'0 .'&9'1K'0 /) N' %/ % (/%N6'
.#%(' Q\?I?hS 9),.%&'0 /) ,'- Q@RI=hSL CK'&%66I % (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' Q.m >I>>aS
N'/+''- K%&1%N6'( /&')&2 %-0 .'&9'1K'0 9%&''& .#%(' 1( 0'/'9/'0L M%N6' b *H&/#'&
'J%,1-'( /#' &'6%/1)-(#1. )* ,%-%2'&( +#) .'&9'1K' /#'1& 9%&''& /) 9H&&'-/6$ ,)K'
#)&1W)-/%66$ )& &1(1-2L 4&)H-0 RZ h )* ,%-%2'&( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @aI (/%/' /#%/ /#'1&
9%&''&( %&' ,)K1-2 *)&+%&0L M#1( .'&9'-/%2' 0'9&'%('( +1/# ,)&' /#%- % /#1&0 /)
a=Ibah *)& ,%-%2'&( N'/+''- @af\b $'%&f)60(I +#'&' %( 1/ %2%1- 1-9&'%('( *)&
,%-%2'&( )K'& a>L G/ 1( H-0'&(/%-0%N6' /#%/ 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ (6)+( 0)+- +1/# %2'
*)& ,%-$ ,%-%2'&( (1-9' /#'&' %&' )-6$ 61,1/'0 %,)H-/ )* .)(1/1)-( %K%16%N6' 1- /#'
#12#'(/ &%-;(L :)+'K'& #%K1-2 %-0 /%;1-2 9%&' )* (,%66 9#160&'- 9)H60 .%&/6$ 'J.6%1-
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/#' 9)-(10'&%N6' 0&). *)& N)/# ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,%-%2'&( N'/+''- @af\bL "#'-
9#160&'- 2'/ )60'&I ,%-%2'&( 9%- %2%1- %22&'((1K'6$ .H&(H' /#'1& 9%&''&(I +#19# 9)H60
.%&/6$ 'J.6%1- /#' 1-9&'%(' *)& )K'& a> $'%&f)60( (/%/1-2 /#%/ /#'1& 9%&''&( %&' ,)K1-2
*)&+%&0L
A'J/I *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#'/#'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( *''6 9)-*10'-/ /#%/ /#'$ +166 %9#1'K' /#'1&
9%&''& /%&2'/L M%N6' R 0'.19/( /#' &'6%/1)-(#1. N'/+''- /#' (/%/','-/ %-0 2'-0'&L
Table 10
Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with thestatement: I am confident that I will achieve my career target. The table is divided
by gender
:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3
@%2 FOH HGOJ NIOH IGOF JOF HGG
K,$%2 HOJ HFOP NHOH IHOH IOM HGG
B,&"3 HOLN HHOMN NFOH IGOMN IOP
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F HONJI
!*"37% GODHP
4 (HN(/%-/1%6 ,%P)&1/$I ,)&' /#%- R>hI )* &'(.)-0'-/( '1/#'& /'-0 /) %2&'' )& *H66$
%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L ^'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( N'/+''- &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K'( %&'
,%&21-%6 %-0 -) (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'( %&' )N('&K'0L 46/#)H2# -) 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'(
%&' *)H-0I 1/ 1( 1,.)&/%-/ /) -)/19' /#%/ /#'&' 1( % (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' 1- /#'
)&2%-1W%/1)-%6 6'K'6 /#%/ ,'- %-0 +),'- %1, /) %9#1'K' (1-9' +),'-I 1- 2'-'&%6I %1,(
/) %9#1'K' %/ % 6)+'& )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 /#%- ,'-L
G- /%N6' b % 9&)(( /%N6' 1( ('/ H. /) 0'.19/ /#' &'6%/1)-(#1. N'/+''- 2'-0'& %-0 /#'
%2&'','-/ )& 01(%2&'','-/ )* +#'/#'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( N'61'K' /#%/ /#'$ #%K' /#'
&'TH1&'0 (;166( %-0 %N161/1'( *)& *H&/#'& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/L
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Table 11 Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with the statement: Ihave the needed skills and abilities for further career advancement to senior levelpositions or higher. The table is divided by gender
:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3
@%2 FOH LOD JFOJ JJON IOH HGG
K,$%2 HOJ LON JJOM JJOI FOH HGG
B,&"3 HOLN LOMN JION JJOJ FOM
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F HOHMI
!*"37% GODDJ
A) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& K%&1'/$ 1- &'(.)-('( N'/+''- 2'-0'&( 9%- N' )N('&K'0 1- /#'
%N)K' /%N6'L F)&' /#%- Rah )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&( 9)-(10'& /#',('6K'( /> #%K' /#'
&'TH1&'0 (;166( %-0 %N161/1'( *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ /) /#' #12#'(/ 9)&.)&%/' .)(1/1)-(L
D'(( /#%- ?>h /)/%66$ 01(%2&'' )& /'-0 /) 01(%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/I 1,.6$1-2 /#%/
&'(.)-0'-/( )K'&%66 #%K' 9)-*10'-9' 1- /#'1& (;166(L
M) 9)-96H0'I /#' (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0V -) 01**'&'-9' 1- 9)-*10'-9'
&'2%&01-2 9%&''& .&)(.'9/( %-0 (;166 ('/ +%( *)H-0 N'/+''- &'(.)-0'-/(L 4 96'%&
,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/( N'61'K'0 /#%/ /#'$ #%K' +#%/ 1/ /%;'( /) %0K%-9' /) ('-1)& 6'K'6
.)(1/1)-( )& #12#'& %-0 +'&' 9)-*10'-/ /#%/ /#'$ +)H60 %9#1'K' /#'1& ('/ 9%&''& /%&2'/(L
G-/'&'(/1-26$I (12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' +),'- 9)-(10'&'0 /#',('6K'( /) 9H&&'-/6$ N' %/ %
(/%N6' .#%(' 1- /#'1& 9%&''& +#'&'%( (12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' ,'- +'&' %/ % &1(1-2 .#%('L
6.1.4.
SH 1.4 – Career ambition and planning
M#' -'J/ #$.)/#'(1( 9)-9'-/&%/'( )- +#'/#'& % 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 'J1(/( 1- 9%&''&
%,N1/1)- %-0 .6%--1-2L O'6)+I &'(.)-0'-/( %&' %(;'0 /) /%;' % (/%-0 /) +#'/#'& /#'$
#%K' % 96'%& 9%&''& /%&2'/L
Table 12
Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with thestatement: I have a clear career target. The table is divided by gender
:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3
@%2 JOJ HDOD JPOL FM H HGG
K,$%2 IOM FMOH JJOI FNOJ GOL HGG
B,&"3 J FFOJN JL FNOL GODN HGG
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F NONGI
!*"37% GOFIP
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E&), /%N6' ?> 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ % ,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/( '1/#'& /'-0 /) %2&''
Q\ZhS )& *H66$ %2&'' Q=aIZS +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L 4 (12-1*19%-/?> 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1(
)N('&K'0 1- &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K' /'-0 /) %2&''I #'&' ,'- (#)+ % #12#'& .'&9'-/%2' /#%-
+),'-L M#1( 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' %6() .&'K%16( +#'- %001-2 H. /#' /+) .)(1/1K' &'(.)-('
%6/'&-%/1K'( Q,'- ZaIZh K(I `bIZhS #)+'K'& )-6$ %/ % ?>h (12-1*19%-9' 6'K'6 ??L
A'K'&/#'6'((I +#'- 6));1-2 %/ /#' +#)6' /%N6'I /#'&' ('',( /) N' -) (12-1*19%-/
Q.m>I=@bS 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- 2'-0'& %-0 /#' (/%/','-/I +#19# (H22'(/ /#%/ ,%6' %-0
*',%6' ,%-%2'&( 0) -)/ 01**'& 1- #%K1-2 9%&''& 2)%6 /%&2'/(L
M#' -'J/ (/%/','-/ 1( (1,16%& /) /#' .&'K1)H(I #)+'K'& 1-(/'%0 )* 9%&''& /%&2'/( 1/ 6));(
1-/) 0'61N'&%/' 9%&''& .6%--1-2L U'(.)-('( %&' N&)%06$ 01(/&1NH/'0 %,)-2 /#' &'(.)-('
%6/'&-%/1K'(L B),.H/'0 *&), /#' N'6)+ /%N6'I %6,)(/ #%6* )* /#' &'(.)-0'-/( 01(%2&''
%-0 /#' )/#'& #%6* 01(%2&''( +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L A) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 9%-
N' >N('&K'0 %,)-2 /#' &'(.)-(' 9%/'2)&1'(L
Table 13
Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with thestatement: I have consciously planned my career. The table is divided by gender
:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3
@%2 HJOD INOJ INOL HIOI GOD HGG
K,$%2 HLOP FPOM IMOD HJOI HOJ HGG
B,&"3 HMOIN IFON IMOFN HIOD HOH
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F IOIML
!*"37% GOJPD
M#' *1-%6 (/%/','-/ /) /#1( (HN #$.)/#'(1( 6));( %/ %9/1K1/$ 1- &'6%/1)- /) 9%&''&
%0K%-9','-/L M%N6' ?\ .&'('-/( /#' &'(H6/( )- +#'/#'& &'(.)-0'-/( %&' 9)-/1-H)H(6$
)- /#' 6));)H/ *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ )..)&/H-1/1'(L G/ /H&-( )H/ /#%/ `?I\ah %2&''
Q/'-0 /) %2&'' r /)/%66$ %2&''S +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L "#'- 6));1-2 %/ &'(.)-0'-/( +#)
9#)(' /)/%66$ 01(%2&'' % (12-1*19%-/?= 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1( (.)//'0I ?>h >* +),'- /)/%66$
01(%2&'' /#%/ /#'$ %&' )- /#' 6));)H/ *)& %0K%-9','-/ )..)&/H-1/1'(I 9),.%&'0 /) aI=h
)* ,'-L CK'&%66I /#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/ Q.m>I=@bS 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /#' (/%/','-/ %-0
2'-0'&L
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Table 14 Percentual division of middle managers who agree or disagree with thestatement: I am continuously on the lookout for career advancementopportunities. The table is divided by gender
:%2(%# B,&"33; ()'"<#%% B%2( &, ()'"<#%% B%2( &, "<#%% C733; "<#%% T, 2,& /2,9 B,&"3
@%2 NOF IGOL INOL FLOM GOD HGG
K,$%2 HG IG IIOF FMOJ GOJ HGG
B,&"3 LOM IGOIN IJOJN FL GOM
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F MOGFH
!*"37% GOHPD
O%('0 )- /#' &'(H6/( 1- /%N6' ??I ?= %-0 ?@ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?L\ 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0L M#'
&'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1- 9%&''& .6%--1-2 %-0 #)+
%,N1/1)H(6$ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( (''; 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ )..)&/H-1/1'(L
6.1.5.
SH 1.5 – Promotion offers and acceptance
M#' *1-%6 (HNf#$.)/#'(1( (/%&/( )** N$ 6));1-2 %/ #)+ %-0 1* &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' %99'./'0
.&),)/1)-( 1- /#'1& 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-
Table 15
Percentual division of middle managers who have accepted promotions in theircurrent organization. The table is divided by gender
:%2(%# A,O ,++%#' X%'O ,28% X%'O $,#% &S"2 ,28%
@%2 IDON FDOM IFOD
K,$%2 JFON IHOJ FMOH
B,&"3 JGON IGOG FPOJN
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F IONGL
!*"37% GOHLI
M%N6' ?\ (#)+( /#%/ \>Iah )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' -)/ N''- )**'&'0 % .&),)/1)- %/
/#'1& 9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-L M#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1- /#' %,)H-/ )*
,1006' ,%-%2'&( /#%/ #%K' -)/ &'9'1K'0 .&),)/1)- )**'&(L 4 (612#/6$I NH/ -)/
(12-1*19%-/6$I #12#'& .'&9'-/%2' )* ,'- #%K' &'9'1K'0 .&),)/1)- )**'&( /#%- +),'-
Q`?I\h K(L aZIaSL M#1( ,'%-( /#%/ ,'- %&' -)/ ,)&' 61;'6$ /) 2'/ (12-1*19%-/6$ ?@ ,)&'
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.&),)/1)- )**'&( /#%- +),'-L :)+'K'&I % (12-1*19%-/?\ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1( *)H-0 +#'-
6));1-2 %/ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( +#) #%K' &'9'1K'0 ,)&' /#%- )-' .&),)/1)- %/ /#'1&
9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-L
A'J/I *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#'/#'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' 0'961-'0 .&),)/1)-( 1- /#'1&9H&&'-/ )&2%-1W%/1)-
Table 16
Percentual division of middle managers who have declined promotions in theircurrent organization. The table is divided by gender
:%2(%# A, ,++%#' A,O "88%1&%( "33 ,++%#' X%'O ,28% X%'O $,#% &S"2 ,28%
@"2 JGOH NG MOD IOH
K,$%2 JN JMOJ MOD HOD
B,&"3 JFONN JDOF MOD FOJN
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F FOJDH
!*"37% GOJLP
:'&' /#' /+) 6%(/ 9)6H,-(I +#19# 0'.19/ +#'/#'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' 0'961-'0
.&),)/1)- )**'&(I %&' )* 1-/'&'(/L G/ /H&-( )H/ /#%/ bL=ah #%K' 0'961-'0 .&),)/1)-
)**'&(V %- 'TH%6 -H,N'& Q`IRhS #%K' 0'961-'0 )-9' %-0 (612#/6$ ,)&' ,'- /#%- +),'-
#%K' 0'961-'0 ,)&' /#%- )-9'L G- )/#'& +)&0(I /#'&' 1( -)/ % (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'&
01**'&'-9' 1- /H&-1-2 0)+- .&),)/1)- )**'&( %-0 1- 2'//1-2 )**'&'0 .&),)/1)-( %( 9%-
N' (''- *&), /%N6' ?aL O%('0 )- /#'(' &'(H6/(I (HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?La 9%--)/ N' %99'./'0L
6.1.6.
Summary of Hypothesis 1
CH/ )* a (HNf#$.)/#'(1( )-6$ )-' 9)H60 N' 9)-*1&,'0I -%,'6$ /#%/ ,'- 1- 2'-'&%6
%(.1&' /) %9#1'K' % #12#'& )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 /#%- +),'-L M#H(I /#' *1&(/ #$.)/#'(1(
9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0 %( % +#)6'L G/ /H&-( )H/ /#%/ (12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' ,'- /#%- +),'-
%&' +1661-2 /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)-I +#19# (H22'(/( /#%/ ,'- #%K' ,)&' .&'*'&'-9'( *)&
9%&''& %0K%-9','-/L G- 9)-/&%(/ /) +#%/ 9)H60 N' 'J.'9/'0 *&), &'K1'+1-2 .&'K1)H(
(/H01'(I /#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ N)/# ,'- %-0 +),'- %&' 9)-*10'-/ /#%/ /#'$ +166 &'%9#
/#'1& 9%&''& /%&2'/I %9/1K'6$ .6%- /#'1& 9%&''&(I #%K' /#' &'TH1&'0 (;166( *)& 9%&''&
%0K%-9','-/ %-0 %99'./ %-0 0'961-' .&),)/1)-( 1- /#' (%,' 'J/'-/L M#' ,%1-
01**'&'-9'(I 1- %001/1)- /) ,'- #%K1-2 ,)&' .&'*'&'-9'( *)& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ 1( /#%/
(12-1*19%-/6$ ,)&' ,'- /#%- +),'- %(.1&' /) ('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' .)(1/1)-(L 46()I +),'-
/#',('6K'( .'&9'1K' /) N' %/ % (/%N6' 9%&''& .#%(' ,)&' )*/'- /#%- ,'-I +#'&'%( ,)&'
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,'- /#%- +),'- %&' 1- % &1(1-2 9%&''& .#%('L M#' 6)+'(/ -H,N'&( %-0 6%&2'(/ 2'-0'&
01**'&'-9'( 9%- N' )N('&K'0 *)& ,%-%2'&( +#) %&' N'/+''- @a %-0 \b )* %2'L M#'
01**'&'-9'( 1- 9%&''& %(.1&%/1)-( %-0 /#' .'&9'1K'0 9%&''& .#%(' 9)H60 .%&/1%66$ N' 0H'
/) /#' &)6' *%,16$ .6%$( 1- %/ /#'(' %2'( 9)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ ,%-%2'&( %/ /#1( %2' *&%,'
/'-0 /) #%K' (,%66 9#160&'- /) 9%&' *)&?aL M#' &)6' )* *%,16$ )- 9%&''& 2)%6( %-0 /#'
N%6%-91-2 %9/ )* /#' /+) +166 N' *H&/#'& 1-K'(/12%/'0 1- /#' -'J/ #$.)/#'(1(L
Hypothesis 2 – Work and family6.2.
G/ 9%- N' (''- *&), #$.)/#'(1( )-' /#%/ ,'- %-0 +),'- 01**'& 1- /#'1& +166 /) 9)-(10'&
.&),)/1)-( %-0 /#%/ ,'- (/&1K' *)& % #12#'& )&2%-1W%/1)- 6'K'6 Q('' /%N6' @ %-0 /%N6' `S
U'(H6/( %6() (#)+ /#%/ /#1( 1( -)/ 0H' /) 6%9; )* 9%&''& .6%--1-2 )& 9)-*10'-9' 1- (;166(L
M#' ('9)-0 #$.)/#'(1( /#'&'*)&' ('/( /) 1-K'(/12%/' +#'/#'& #%K1-2 9#160&'- %-0
N%6%-91-2 +)&; %-0 *%,16$ %**'9/ ,1006' ,%-%2'&(XI '(.'91%66$ +),'-X(I 9%&''&(
01**'&'-/6$L M#' #$.)/#'(1( +166 9)-9'-/&%/' )- #)+ ,'- %-0 +),'- #%K' )&2%-1W'0
/#'1& *%,16$ 9)-01/1)-( %-0 #)+ /#1( ,%$ %**'9/ .'&9'1K'0 9%&''& .&)(.'9/(L
6.2.1.
SH 2.1 – Children and career goals
G- )&0'& /) /'(/ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( =L? % 9&)(( /%N6' )* 2'-0'& %-0 +#'/#'& #%K1-2 9#160&'-
#%( .'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'&'0 ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& 2)%6(L M#1( 9%- N' (''- 1- /%N6' ?`L
Table 17
Percentual division whether having children has altered middle managers career
goals permanently
:%2(%# A, X%'
@%2 LFOH FLOP
K,$%2 MM IJ
B,&"3 MPOGN IGOPN
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F FOHGH
!*"37% GOHJL
:'&' )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( -)/ %6/'&'0 /#' 2)%6( )* /#' ,%P)&1/$I %&)H-0
Z>hI )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&(L M#' .'&9'-/%2' )* +),'- +#)(' 9%&''& 2)%6( #%0 N''-
%6/'&'0 +%( (612#/6$ #12#'& /#%- *)& ,'- Q@\Iba K(L =ZIbSL ['%&()-X( s )- /#' +#)6'
?a 46,)(/ `>h )* ,%-%2'&( #%K' /+) )& ,)&' 9#160&'- %-0 /#' %K'&%2' %2' %/ *1&(/ 9#160N1&/# *)& ,%-%2'&(
1( @>I@
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ab
/%N6' (#)+( /#%/ /#' )N('&K'0 K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-0'.'-0'-/ *&), '%9# )/#'& ,'%-1-2 /#%/
#%K1-2 9#160&'- 0)'( -)/ %6/'& /#' 9%&''& 2)%6( )* ,'- %-0 +),'- 01**'&'-/6$L G- )&0'&
/) K'&1*$ /#1( %-0 (/H0$ +#%/ *%9/)&( ,%$ 1,.%9/ +#$ #%K1-2 9#160&'- %6/'& 9%&''& 2)%6(I
% N1-%&$ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- 1( 9)-(/&H9/'0 Q('' /%N6' ?ZSL M#' 'J.6%-%/)&$ K%&1%N6'( %-0
(H,,%&$ (/%/1(/19( %N)H/ /#', 9%- N' (''- 1- /%N6' ?RL
Table 18
Summary statistics for the explanatory variables used in the binary logisticregression.
@%"2 4&"2("#( (%*)"&),2 @)2)$7$ @"Z)$7$
K,$"2 5GRHU GOJF GOJPJ G H
[<% 5;%"#'O #"2<%U JOGN HOLDD H D
H 8S)3( 5GRHU GOHMP GOILN G H
F 8S)3( 5GRHU GOIPM GOJDP G H
I 8S)3( 5GRHU GOHLI GOILP G H
[<% "& +)#'& 8S)3(?)#&S 5;%"#'U IGOIP JONFJ HL JM
C"$)3; 3%"*% 5$,2&S'U HJOGG FGODFF G FHM
C"$)3; 3%"*% 1"#&2%# 5$,2&S'U HPOFP FFOPJ G HFG
=S)3(8"#%RS,7'%S,3( S%31 5GRHU GOJF GOJPJ G H
=S)3(8"#% #%'1,2')?)3)&; 5GHGGU JDOFP FGOMND G HGG
W,7'%S,3( #%'1,2')?)3)&; 5GHGGU NGOMM HDOPP G HGG
M#' *1K' *1&(/ K%&1%N6'( +'&' %6() H('0 1- /#' 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- H('0 1- (HNf#$.)/#'(1(
?L?L M#' /%N6' (#)+( /#%/ /#' ,'%- %2' *)& *1&(/ 9#160N1&/# +%( @>I@b $'%&(L C- %K'&%2'I
,1006' ,%-%2'&( /%;' ?\ ,)-/#( )* *%,16$ 6'%K' Q1-96H01-2 ,%/'&-1/$ )& .%/'&-1/$
6'%K'I .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 9%&' 6'%K'S +#16' /#'1& .%&/-'&( )- %K'&%2' /%;' a ,)-/#(
,)&'L M#'&' 1( 6%&2' K%&1%N161/$ 1- /#' &'(.)-('(I ,%1-6$ N'9%H(' ,)/#'&( /%;' /#'
,%P)&1/$ )* /#' 6'%K' .'&1)0L EH&/#'&I \=h )* ,%-%2'&( H(' 'J/'&-%6 #'6. Q'L2L
#)H('#)60 %-0 9#1609%&'SL M#H(I ,1006' ,%-%2'&( )- %K'&%2' ('', /) (#%&' 9#1609%&'
%-0 #)H('#)60 &'(.)-(1N161/1'( TH1/' 'K'-6$ +1/# /#'1& .%&/-'&(L
4 01&'9/ 6)21(/19 &'2&'((1)- .'&*)&,'0 /) %(('(( /#' 61;'61#))0 )* &'(.)-0'-/( #%K1-2
%6/'&'0 /#'1& 9%&''& 2)%6( 0H' /) 9#160&'-L 4( 1- (HNf#$.)/#'(1( ?L=I /#' 9)'**191'-/ )*
,%1- 1-/'&'(/ 1( +),%-L G- )&0'& /) K'&1*$ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( =L?I /#' 9)'**191'-/ -''0( /)
N' 1-(12-1*19%-/L
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`>
Table 19 Binary logistic regression predicting likelihood whether having children hasaltered middle managers career goals
- 4E6 K"3( (+ 4)<E
K,$"2 GOGMN GOIMD GOGIH H GODMG
[<% GOGNP GOGLJ GOMIL H GOJFN
F 8S)3( HOINH GOINI HJOMLG H GOGGG
I 8S)3( HOFMM GOJJM DOGJL H GOGGN
[<% "& +)#'& 8S)3(?)#&S GOHIN GOGFP FHOMPP H GOGGG
C"$)3; 3%"*% GOGHH GOGGL FOIJN H GOHFM
C"$)3; 3%"*% 1"#&2%# GOGHH GOGGM IOFPH H GOGJJ
=S)3(8"#%RS,7'%S,3( S%31 GOFFM GOFFP GOPLJ H GOIFJ
=S)3(8"#% #%'1,2')?)3)&; GOGHP GOGGP JOMPJ H GOGIG
W,7'%S,3( #%'1,2')?)3)&; GOGGI GOGGP GOHLF H GOLFH
CK'&%66I /#' ,)0'6 1( (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/I s Q?=I Am``\Sm a@IR\=I .t >I>>>L 4( 9%-
N' (''- 1- /%N6' ?RI /#' 1-0'.'-0'-/ K%&1%N6'( /#%/ ,%0' % (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/
9)-/&1NH/1)- /) /#' ,)0'6 +'&' 0H,,$ = 9#160 Q.m>I>>>SI 0H,,$ @ 9#160 Q.m>I>>aS
%2' %/ *1&(/ 9#160N1&/# Q.m>I>>>SI 9#1609%&' &'(.)-(1N161/$ Q.m>I>@S %-0 9#1609%&' 6'%K'
.%&/-'& %/ % ?>h (12-1*19%-9' 6'K'6L 4( *)& /#' 1-/'&.&'/%/1)- )* /#' K%&1%N6'(I
&'(.)-0'-/( +1/# = )& @r 9#160&'- +'&' ,)&' 61;'6$ +'&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) %-(+'& /#%/
/#'1& 9%&''& 2)%6( #%0 N''- %6/'&'0 0H' /) 9#160&'- /#%- &'(.)-0'-/( +1/# )-6$ )-'
9#160L M#' )60'& ,%-%2'&( #%K' N''- +#'- #%K1-2 /#'1& *1&(/ 9#160I /#' ,)&' 61;'6$ /#'$
%&' /) (%$ $'(L M#' 6)-2'& *%,16$ 6'%K' % ,%-%2'&X( .%&/-'& #%( /%;'-I /#' ,)&' 61;'6$ %
,%-%2'& 1( /) %-(+'& /#%/ 9#160&'- #%K' -)/ %6/'&'0 /#' ,%-%2'&X( 9%&''& 2)%6(L E1-%66$I/#' ,)&' /1,' % ,%-%2'& %66)9%/'( /) 9#1609%&' 0H/1'(I /#' ,)&' 61;'6$ #'g(#' +166
%-(+'& .)(1/1K'6$L
M#' K%&1%N6' *)& +),'- 0)'( -)/ /H&- )H/ /) N' (12-1*19%-/ Q.m>IR`>SI +#19# 1( %6()
(H..)&/'0 N$ /#' 9&)(( /%N6' ?ZL M#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#'&' 1( -) 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9' 1-
+#'/#'& #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( %6/'&'0 ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& 2)%6(L M#'&'*)&'I (HNf#$.)/#'(1(
=L? 9%- N' 9)-*1&,'0L
6.2.2.
SH 2.2 – Career goal compromises
46/#)H2# /#' *1&(/ (HNf#$.)/#'(1( +%( 9)-*1&,'0 %-0 /#'&' 1( -) (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'&
01**'&'-9' 1- +#'/#'& 9#160&'- %6/'& ,%-%2'&(X 9%&''& 2)%6(I /#' *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#'/#'&
,%-%2'&( )& /#'1& .%&/-'&( #%K' ,%0' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('( 1- )&0'& /) N%6%-9'
*%,16$ %-0 +)&; 61*'L M#1( TH'(/1)- 1( (1,16%& /) /#' )-' (/H01'0 1- (HNf#$.)/#'(1( =L?I
#)+'K'&I /#' +)&01-2 1( 6'(( 0'*1-1/' Q.'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'& K(L 9),.&),1('S %-0 #'&' /#'
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̀?
1-/'&'(/ 1( 6));1-2 %/ #)+ ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' 9#)('- /) N%6%-9' *%,16$ %-0 +)&;L
<),' 9%H/1)- 1( -''0'0 +#'- 6));1-2 %/ /#' &'(H6/(I (1-9' (),' &'(.)-0'-/( ,%$ -)/
*1-0 %-$ )* /#' %6/'&-%/1K'( (H1/%N6' /) 0'(9&1N' /#'1& (1/H%/1)-?`L
Table 20
Percentual division of whether career target compromises have been made inorder to balance family and work life. The table is divided by gender.
B;1% H B;1% F B;1% I B;1% J
@"2 JMOI JOF FIOI FMOH
K,$"2 JDOD FNOM NOP HPOL
B,&"3 JLONN HJOP HJOM FFOP
Y?'%#*"&),2' MJJ
=S)F MMOJD
!*"37% GOGGG
M$.' ?d A) 9%&''& 9),.&),1('M$.' =d [%&/-'&X( 9%&''& #%( /%;'- *1&(/ .&1)&1/$ +#16' /#' &'(.)-0'-/ #%( #%0
/) ,%;' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('(M$.' @d U'(.)-0'-/( 9%&''& #%( /%;'- *1&(/ .&1)&1/$ +#16' /#' .%&/-'& #%( #%0/) ,%;' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('(M$.' \d O)/# &'(.)-0'-/ %-0 .%&/-'& #%K' #%0 /) ,%;' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('(
"#%/ 9%- N' (''- *&), /%N6' ?b 1( /#%/ %6,)(/ a>h )* &'(.)-0'-/( (/%/' /#%/ /#'$ #%K'
-)/ #%0 /) 9),.&),1(' )- /#'1& 9%&''& 2)%6(L C- /#' )/#'& #%-0I %6,)(/ =@h )*
&'(.)-0'-/( (/%/'0 /#%/ N)/# /#',('6K'( %-0 /#'1& .%&/-'&( #%K' #%0 /) 9),.&),1('
#%0 ,%0' 9),.&),1('(L M#%/ 6'%K'( )-6$ (612#/6$ 6'(( /#%- % /#1&0I =bIah (/%/1-2 /#%/
/#'$ #%K' 9),.&),1('0 )- 9%&''& 2)%6(L <12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'( 9)H60 N' *)H-0 1- +#)
#%0 ,%0' 9%&''& 9),.&),1('(L "),'- +'&' *1K' /1,'( ,)&' 61;'6$ /#%- ,'- /) %-(+'&
/#%/ /#'$ #%0 ,%0' 9),.&),1('( +#16' /#'1& .%&/-'&X( 9%&''& /)); *1&(/ .&1)&1/$I +#19#
1( % (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9'?ZL F'- )- /#' )/#'& #%-0I +'&' %6,)(/ /#&'' /1,'( ,)&' 61;'6$
/) (/%/' /#%/ /#'1& 9%&''& #%0 /%;'- *1&(/ .&1)&1/$ +#16' /#'1& .%&/-'&( #%0 ,%0'
9),.&),1('(I +#19# %6() (12-1*19%-/6$ 01**'&( N'/+''- 2'-0'&(L ?RL 4( 'J.'9/'0I (HNf
#$.)/#'(1( =L= 9%- N' 9)-*1&,'0I *',%6' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /)
9),.&),1(' )- /#'1& 9%&''& /%&2'/( /#%- ,'- 1- ,1006' ,%-%2'&(L :)+'K'&I %( (/%/'0
%N)K'I 1/ 1( 1,.)&/%-/ /) H-0'&61-' /#%/ %6,)(/ #%6* )* &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' -)/ #%0 /)
,%;' %-$ 9%&''& 2)%6 9),.&),1('(L
?` 466 &'(.)-0'-/( +1/# 9#160&'- +'&' &'TH1&'0 /) /%;' % (/%-0 /) /#' TH'(/1)-I %6/#)H2# /#'&' +'&'
&'(.)-0'-/( +#) +'&' (1-26' .%&'-/( %-0 /#H( -)-' )* /#' &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K'( +'&' %..619%N6'L?Z umZIab`b .m >I>>>?R um`I`?ZZ .m>I>>>
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`=
6.2.3.
SH 2.3 – Temporary career slowdowns
M#' /#1&0 (HNf#$.)/#'(1( *)9H('( )- +#%/ '**'9/ 9#160&'- #%K' #%0 )- ,1006' ,%-%2'&(
9%&''&( % 9)H.6' $'%&( %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 /#',L <.'91%6 %//'-/1)- 1( 21K'- /) +#'/#'& /#'&'
1( % #12#'& .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- +#) (/%/' /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( &'(H6/'0 1- %-
1-K)6H-/%&$ 9%&''& (6)+0)+-I (1-9' /#1( 9)H60 1-019%/' /#%/ (/%/1(/19%6 01(9&1,1-%/1)-
#%( .6%$'0 % .%&/ 1- /#' (6)+0)+-L
Table 21 Percentual division of how middle managers perceive their career to having beeneffected up to a couple years after having had children. The table is divided bygender.
^,372&"#; 8"#%%#
'3,9(,92
_2*,372&"#; 8"#%%#
'3,9(,92
A, 8"#%%#
'3,9(,92
@%2 FLOP HOJ LGOL
K,$"2 IPOP POP NGOF
B,&"3 IFOP JOP MFOF
Y?'%#*"&),2' MMJ
=S)F IGOMHP
!*"37% GOGGG
E&), /#' %N)K' /%N6'I )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ % ,%P)&1/$I Z>IZh )* ,'- %-0 a>I=h )* +),'-
0) -)/ N'61'K' /#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( &'(H6/'0 1- % 9%&''& (6)+0)+-L <12-1*19%-/6$
,)&' ,'- #%K' -)/ '-9)H-/'&'0 % 9%&''& (6)+0)+- 9),.%&'0 /) +),'-?bL D1;'+1('I
/#'&' %&' (12-1*19%-/ 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1- +#'/#'& /#' 9%&''& (6)+0)+- +%( K)6H-/%&$ =>
)& 1-K)6H-/%&$ =?L 4( 'J.'9/'0I +),'- %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) *%9' 9%&''& (6)+0)+-( +#'-
#%K1-2 9#160&'- 9),.%&'0 /) ,'-I 6%&2'6$ 0H' /) +),'- /%;1-2 /#' .&1,%&$
&'(.)-(1N161/$ )* 9#160&'- 1- /#'1& *1&(/ $'%& )& $'%&(L 46/#)H2# +),'- %&' Z /1,'( ,)&'
61;'6$ /#%- ,'- /) N' %**'9/'0 N$ %- 1-K)6H-/%&$ 9%&''& (6)+0)+-I )-6$ )-' )H/ )* /'-
*''6 61;' /#' 9%&''& (6)+0)+- #%( N''- 1-K)6H-/%&$L 46,)(/ \>h )* +),'- 9),.%&'0 /)
=Rh ,'- #%K' K)6H-/%&16$ (6)+'0 0)+- /#'1& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ % 9)H.6' )* $'%&(
%*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-L M#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#' 9%&''& (6)+0)+- ,'- %-0
+),'- *%9' +#'- #%K1-2 9#160&'- 1( /) % 6%&2' 'J/'-/ % K)6H-/%&$ 0'91(1)-L
[%/'&-1/$ 6'%K' %-0 /#' #)H&( +)&;'0 % +''; %&' &'*6'9/'0 1- 9%&''& (6)+0)+-(L 4(
9)K'&'0 1- /#' 9#%./'& @L@ )- (12-%61-2 1-/'-(1/$I .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 +'';6$ +)&;1-2
#)H&( #%K' %- '**'9/ )- /#' (12-%61-2 )..)&/H-1/1'(L M#H(I 1/ 1( )* 1-/'&'(/ /) 6)); 1-/)
?b umaI\>R> .m>I>>>=> um@I==\R .m>I>>?@=? um\Ia>`` .m>I>>>
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`@
#)+ ,H9# .%&'-/%6 6'%K' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %-0 /#'1& .%&/-'&( /%;'I NH/ %6()I #)+ ,%-$
#)H&( ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' +)&;'0 N'*)&' %-0 %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-L M#' N'6)+
/%N6' (#)+( #)+ ,%-$ ,)-/#( )* .%&'-/%6 6'%K' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( #%K' /%;'-L "#%/
-''0( /) N' )N('&K'0 1( /#%/ /#' *12H&'( 0) -)/ %99)H-/ *)& #)+ ,%-$ 9#160&'- ,1006'
,%-%2'&( #%K'L
Table 22
Percentual divisions of how many months of parental leave middle managers havetaken in total during their careers. The table is divided by gender
>2(%# H HF IN MHF HIFJ FNIM IL
@%2 IIOI JIOI HNON JOL FOI GOD GOJ
K,$"2 GON FON I HFOJ IMOH FPOF HMOI
Y?'%#*"&),2' JDN
=S)F IJDOHNH
!*"37% GOGGG
4( 'J.'9/'0I /%N6' =? (#)+( 6%&2' 2'-0'& K%&1'/$ 1- #)+ ,H9# .%&'-/%6 6'%K'
&'(.)-0'-/( #%K' /%;'-L <12-1*19%-/== 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 9%- N' *)H-0 1- %66 &'(.)-('
%6/'&-%/1K'(L M#' ,)(/ 9),,)- %-(+'& *)& ,'- 1( ?f= ,)-/#( Q\@I@hS %-0 @@I@h )*
,%6' &'(.)-0'-/( #%K' /%;'- -) 6'%K' %/ %66L E)& +),'- /#' ,)(/ 9),,)- &'(.)-(' 1(
?@f=\ ,)-/#( Q@`I?hS %-0 =af@` ,)-/#( Q=bI=hSL <1,16%&6$I 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 9%- N'
(''- 1- /#' N'6)+ /%N6'( == %-0 =@ +#19# 0'.19/ /#' +'';6$ #)H&( ,%-%2'&( #%K'
+)&;'0 N'*)&' %-0 % 9)H.6' )* $'%&( %*/'& #%K1-2 9#160&'-L
Table 23 Percentual division of how many hours middle managers have worked a week before having children. The table is divided by gender.
Q%'' &S"2 IL
S,7#'
-%&9%%2 IL
JJ S,7#'
-%&9%%2
JNMG S,7#'
@,#% &S"2 MG
S,7#'
@%2 HOL MHOL IIOH ION
K,$"2 I MJON IF GON
B,&"3 FOIN MIOH IFONN F
Y?'%#*"&),2' JPG
=S)F NOLHD
!*"37% GOHFM
== > ,)-/#(d Wm??I>>>Z .m>I>>> ?f= ,)-/#(d Wm?>I`\bZ .m>I>>> IN $,2&S' d Wm`I\abb .m>I>>> MHF
$,2&S' Wm=IRR>= .m>I>>>\ HIFJ $,2&S' WmbI`?Z` .m >I>>> =af@` ,)-/#( WmRIZ=a@ .m>I>>> @Zf
,)-/#( Wm`I>@\\ .m >I>>>
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`\
Table 24 Percentual division of how many hours middle managers have worked 0-5 yearsafter having had children. The table is divided by gender.
Q%'' &S"2 IL
S,7#'
-%&9%%2 IL
JJ S,7#'
-%&9%%2
JNMG S,7#'
@,#% &S"2 MG
S,7#'
@%2 L LION HDON H
K,$"2 HNOD LGOJ HIOI GON
B,&"3 HHOJ LHOPN HNOP GOLN
Y?'%#*"&),2' JPG
=S)F HHOFHH
!*"37% GOGHH
G/ 9%- N' (''- *&), /#' %N)K' /%N6' =@ /#%/ % ,%P)&1/$I %&)H-0 `@ h )* ,%-%2'&(I #%(
+)&;'0 N'/+''- @Z %-0 \\ #)H&( % +''; N'*)&' #%K1-2 9#160&'-L 4&)H-0 % /#1&0I @=hI
+)&;'0 N'/+''- \a /) `> #)H&( % +'';L C-6$ (,%66 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 9%- N' )N('&K'0
)* +#19# -)-' %&' (12-1*19%-/L "#'- ,)K1-2 *)9H( /) /%N6' =\ 96'%& 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'(
%..'%&L O)/# ,'- %-0 +),'- /'-0 /) +)&; 6'(( >fa $'%&( %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-L 4/
/#1( .)1-/I /#' -H,N'& )* ,%-%2'&( +#) +)&; \af`> #)H&( #%( 0&)..'0 +1/# %6,)(/
?ah *)& ,'- %-0 *)& +),'- +1/# ,)&' /#%- ?RIZhL M#' -H,N'& )* &'(.)-0'-/( +#)
+)&; 6'(( /#%- @Z #)H&( %-0 /#)(' +#) #%K' +)&; @Zf\\ #)H&( #%K' 96'%&6$ 1-9&'%('0L
"),'- %-(+'& j6'(( /#%- @Z #)H&(k (12-1*19%-/6$ =@ ,)&' )*/'- /#%- ,'-L CK'&%66I
['%&()-X( s /'(/ (#)+( /#%/ /#' /+) )N('&K'0 K%&1%N6'( %&' 1-0'.'-0'-/I +#19#
1-019%/'( /#%/ /#'&' 1( % (/%/1(/19%66$ (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /&')&2 %-0 #)H&(
+)&;'0 >fa $'%&( %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0 9#160&'-L M#' &'(H6/( *&), /%N6' =@ %-0 =\ (H22'(/
/#%/ #%K1-2 9#160&'- #%( #%0 0'9&'%('0 /#' %,)H-/ )* #)H&( +)&;'0 % +''; *)& N)/#2'-0'&(I #)+'K'& /#' 0'961-' #%( N''- 6%&2'& *)& *',%6' ,%-%2'&( /#%- ,%6' ,%-%2'&(L
M) 9)-96H0'I (HNf#$.)/#'(1( =L@ 9%- N' 9)-*1&,'0L "),'- %&' ,)&' 61;'6$ /#%- ,'- /)
'-9)H-/'& % 9%&''& (6)+0)+-I N)/# K)6H-/%&$ %-0 1-K)6H-/%&$I %*/'& #%K1-2 #%0
9#160&'-L M#1( 9%&''& (6)+f0)+- 1( ,)&' )*/'- % K)6H-/%&$ 9#)19' N$ +),'- %-0 9%- N'
(''- %( +),'- /%;1-2 /#' 96'%& ,%P)&1/$ )* .%&'-/%6 6'%K' %-0 +)&;1-2 (#)&/'& #)H&(
+#'- 9#160&'- %&' $)H-2L
6.2.4.
SH 2.4 – Time allocation on childcare and housework
M#' *1-%6 (HNf#$.)/#'(1( (/%&/( )** N$ 6));1-2 %/ #)+ ,H9# 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('+)&;
,1006' ,%-%2'&( 0) 1- 9),.%&1()- /) /#'1& .%&/-'&(L <1-9' 1/ 1( #%&0 /) '(/1,%/'
.&'91('6$ #)+ ,H9# /1,' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %66)9%/' /) /#'(' /%(;( % 0%$g+'';I
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,%-%2'&( +'&' %(;'0 /) '(/1,%/' #)+ ,H9# )* /#'(' /%(; /#'$ %-0 /#'1& .%&/-'& 0)
%001-2 H. /) % #H-0&'0L G- /#1( +%$I /#' *%9/ /#%/ &'(.)-0'-/( #%0 01**'&'-/ %2'0
9#160&'- -''01-2 01**'&'-/ %,)H-/ )* 9%&'/%;1-2 010 -)/ -''0 /) N' %99)H-/'0 *)&L
:)+'K'&I 9%H/1)- 1( -''0'0 +#'- 9),.%&1-2 /#' &'(H6/( )* ,%-%2'&( %-0 /#' -H,N'&(
*&), /#' E%,16$ E'0'&%/1)- )* E1-6%-0X( (/H0$ QF1'//1-'-I =>>RS (1-9' 1/ 9)-/&)66'0 *)&
/#' 9#160&'-X( %2'(L
Table 25
Precentages representing middle managers proportion of childcare andhousework.
=S)3(8"#% W,7'%9,#/ @%"2
@"3% $"2"<%#' ILON JF IPOLN
C%$"3% @"2"<%#' MJON MION MJ
M%N6' =@ (#)+( /#%/ ,%6' ,%-%2'&( 1- 2'-'&%6 /%;' )- \>h )* /#' 9#1609%&' %-0
#)H('+)&;I +#'&'%( /#' -H,N'& *)& +),'- 1( `\hL M#'&' 1( % (12-1*19%-/=\ 01**'&'-9'
1- #)+ ,H9# /1,' ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,%-%2'&( %66)9%/' /) 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('+)&;L
"),'- /%;' )- % 6%&2'& .%&/ )* /#'(' 0H/1'(L EH&/#'&I =Zh )* *',%6' ,%-%2'&( (/%/'
/#%/ /#'$ 0) R>f?>>h )* /#' 9#1609%&' 0H/1'( %-0 =?h (/%/' /#%/ /#'$ 0) R>f?>>h )* /#'
#)H('+)&;L D'(( /#%- =h )* ,'- 96%1, /) 0) R>f?>>h )* 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('+)&;
0H/1'(L M#' H-'K'- 6%N)& 01K1(1)- )* -)-f,%&;'/ +)&; 1( *H&/#'& ',.#%(1W'0 +#'-
6));1-2 %/ #)+ ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,%-%2'&( &%/' /#' 1,.)&/%-9' )* 0),'(/19 #'6. +1/#
&'2%&0( /) N%6%-91-2 *%,16$ %-0 +)&;L 46,)(/I \ah )* +),'- *1-0 0),'(/19 #'6. /) N'
'1/#'& 1,.)&/%-/ )& K'&$ 1,.)&/%-/ *)& N%6%-91-2 *%,16$ %-0 +)&; 9),.%&'0 /) ?bh )*
,'-L
A'J/ /#' *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#) -)&,%66$ /%;'( &'(.)-(1N161/$ *)& /%;1-2 9#160&'- /) 0%$
9%&'I (9#))6 '/9L M#' &'(H6/( )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %&' %6() 9),.%&'0 /) %- 'TH%61/$
N%&),'/'&I 'J'9H/'0 N$ /#' E1--1(# ,1-1(/&$ )* <)91%6 4**%1&( %-0 :'%6/#I (H&K'$1-2
E1--( +#) 61K' +1/# /#'1& (.)H(' %-0 #%K' 9#160&'- H-0'& /#' %2' )* ?RL M#1( (/H0$ #%0
%- %001/1)-%6 &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K' j0)'( -)/ %..6$ ,$ *%,16$kI +#19# #%( N''- 12-)&'0
1- /#' N'6)+ /%N6'L
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Table 26 Percentual division of who is normally responsible for taking children to daycare,school etc.
:%2(%# $% $; 1"#&2%# NGRNG &S)#( 1%#',2R,&S%#
@%2 FFOP IFOI JIOI FOJ
K,$%2
JGOP
HMOH
ILOP
NOF
B,&"3 IHOP FJOF JGOM IOD
M#' H..'& .%&/ )* /%N6' =` (#)+( /#%/ +),'- %&' %6,)(/ /+19' ,)&' 61;'6$ /) N'
&'(.)-(1N6' *)& /%;1-2 9#160&'- /) 0%$9%&' %-0 (9#))6 Q\>h K(L ==hSI +#19# %99)H-/(
*)& % (12-1*19%-/=a 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'L <1,16%&6$I /#' .%&/-'&( )* *',%6' ,%-%2'&( %&' 6'((
61;'6$ /) N' /#' )-'( +#) %&' -)&,%66$ &'(.)-(1N6' *)& /%;1-2 9#160&'- /) 0%$ 9%&' %-0
(9#))6L 4&)H-0 \>h )* ,%-%2'&(X (/%/' /#%/ /#'$ 01K10' /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$ 'TH%66$ %-0
9)H-/1-2 )- % /#1&0 .'&()- 1( &%&'L
M#' *)H&/# (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 9%- %6() N' 9)-*1&,'0L M#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ +),'- 1-
,1006' ,%-%2','-/ %&' 61;' E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6 %-0 #%K' /#' .&1,%&$ &'(.)-(1N161/$ *)&
9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('#)60 0H/1'(L F%6' ,%-%2'&( /%;' )- %&)H-0 % /#1&0 )* 9#1609%&'
0H/1'( %-0 (612#/6$ ,)&' )* /#' #)H('#)60 0H/1'(L
6.2.5.
Summary Hypothesis 2
466 *)H& (HNf#$.)/#'(1( 9%- N' 9)-*1&,'0I +#19# ,'%-( /#%/ /#' ('9)-0 #$.)/#'(1( 1(
%99'./'0L O'9),1-2 % .%&'-/ 0)'( -)/ .'&,%-'-/6$ %6/'& /#' 9%&''& 2)%6( )* +),'-
,)&' /#%- *)& ,'-I $'/ 1/ (6)+( 0)+- +),'-X( %0K%-9','-/ ,)&'L E',%6' ,%-%2'&
%&' ,)&' 61;'6$ ,%;' 9%&''& /%&2'/ 9),.&),1('( 1- )&0'& /) N%6%-9' *%,16$ %-0 +)&; N$
+)&;1-2 6'(( #)H&( %-0 /%;1-2 ,)&' &'(.)-(1N161/$ *)& 9#1609%&' %-0 #)H('#)60 /%(;(L
Hypothesis 3 – Norms and beliefs6.3.
M#' /#1&0 #$.)/#'(1( 'J%,1-'( ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X N'61'*( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( &)6'(I
9%&''& 1-/'&'(/( %-0 )..)&/H-1/1'(L C- )-' #%-0 /#' #$.)/#'(1( %1,( /) 'J%,1-' #)+
+10'(.&'%0 (/'&')/$.19%6 N'61'*( %&'L C-' /#' )/#'& #%-0 1/ %1,( /) /'(/ +#'/#'& /#'&'
%&' %2' 0'.'-0'-/ 01**'&'-9'( %,)-2 ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X N'61'*(I N$ *)9H(1-2 )-
,%-%2'&( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @a %-0 %N)K' a>L M#' &'(H6/( %&' %6() 9),.%&'0 +1/#
8H&)N%&),'/'&X( Q=>?>I =>?=S &'(H6/( )* E1--( 1- /#' (%,' %2'( %-0 8H&).'%-( 1-
=a F'd Wm\I?\>R .m>I>>> ,$ .%&/-'&d Wm\I?a?= .m>I>>>
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2'-'&%6L M#' 6%//'& 1( -)/ 1-*)&,%/1K' 1- &'2%&0( /) +#$ /#'&' %&' 9H&&'-/6$ *'+ +),'-
1- /). .)(1/1)-(I #)+'K'& 1/ ,%$ 21K' 1-(12#/( %N)H/ /#' *H/H&' 0'K'6).,'-/ )* %//1/H0'(
%-0 N'61'*( )* *',%6' 6'%0'&(#1. %-0 &)6'(L
G- )&0'& /) (1,.61*$I E1--1(# ,1006' ,%-%2'&( H-0'& /#' %2' )* @a %&' 9%66'0 $)H-2'&,%-%2'&( %-0 ,%-%2'&( )K'& /#' %2' )* a> %&' 9%66'0 )60'& ,%-%2'&(L M#' (%,'
(1,.61*19%/1)-( %&' ,%0' *)& /#' E1--( (H&K'$'0 N$ 8H&)N%&),'/'&I +#) %&' 9%66'0
$)H-2'& %-0 )60'& E1--(L
6.3.1. SH 3.1 - Women’s career interests
M#' *1&(/ (HN #$.)/#'(1( 6));( %/ +#'/#'& /#'&' %&' %2' 0'.'-0'-/ 01**'&'-9'( %,)-2
,1006' ,%-%2'&( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 1-/'&'(/ %-0 +166 /) *12#/ *)& 6'%0'&(#1. .)(1/1)-(
9),.%&'0 /) ,'-L G- /#' *1&(/ /%N6' )-' 9%- ('' /#' ).1-1)-( &'2%&01-2 +),'-X(.'&9'1K'0 1-/'&'(/ *)& &'(.)-(1N6' .)(1/1)-(
Table 27 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Women are less interested than men in positions of responsibility. Thepercentages in the lower part of the table are from Special Eurobarometer 376, aEuropean study on gender inequality
C+'&::*
0()&-1..
C./0 '+
0()&-1..
C./0 '+
&-1..
C+'&::*
&-1..
D+ /+'
E /+8 D( )&-1.. F-1..
@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " HFOG IPOH JHOJ JON IOG NHOH JNOP
@"2"<%#'O NG` " FFOP IFOG JHOD HOI FOG NJOP JIOH
C)22'O
72(%#
IN ?
LFOL FMOL
C)22'O NG` ? NPOP IDOM
67#,1%"2' ? MP FD
"BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%
72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%# -BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHFE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%'O FM DNM 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2'
1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGGL 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O FGD 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( NPD 9%#% NG ;%"#'
"2( ,*%#
E&), /%N6' =` 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ % 6)+'& .'&9'-/%2' )* )60'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' +1/#
/#' (/%/','-/ 9),.%&'0 /) $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( Q\@I?h K(L \aIbhSL EH&/#'& +#'- 6));1-2
,)&' 96)('6$ %/ /#' 01K1(1)- N'/+''- 01**'&'-/ &'(.)-(' %6/'&-%/1K'(I )60'& ,%-%2'&( %&'
%6,)(/ /+19' %( 61;'6$ /) 9#))(' /#' %6/'&-%/1K' 0+0(..A )-6(/2&& /#%- $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&(L
M#' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#'&' %&' -) 01**'&'-9'( 1- $)H-2'& %-0 )60'& ,%-%2'&( N'61'*(
&'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 1-/'&'(/ 1- &'(.)-(1N6' .)(1/1)-(L EH&/#'&I /#'(' &'(H6/( N$
8H&)N%&),'/'&I (#)+ /#' )..)(1/'I )60'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ ,)&' )*/'-
/#%- $)H-2'& E1--( Q=`IZ K(L @RI`SL C-6$ =Rh )* 8H&).'%-( %2&'' /#%/ +),'- %&' 6'((
1-/'&'(/'0 1- &'(.)-(1N6' .)(1/1)-(L
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Table 28 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Women are less willing than men to fight to make a career forthemselves. The percentages in the lower part of the table are from SpecialEurobarometer 376, a European study on gender inequality
C+'&::*
0()&-1..
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C./0 '+
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C+'&::*
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D+ /+'
E/+8
D()&-1..
F-1..
@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " HNOG ILOM IPOH MOG FOI NFOM JNOH
@"2"<%#'O NG` " HPOG IFOL JIOH IOI FOG NHOL JMOJ
C)22'O 72(%# IN ? MNOP IIOG
C)22'O NG` ? NIOI JNOL
67#,1%"2' ? MD FP
"BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%
72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHFE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%'O FM DNM 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2'
1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGGL 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O FGD 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( NPD 9%#% NG ;%"#'
"2( ,*%#
M%N6' =Z 6));( 1-/) +#%/ &'(.)-0'-/( /#1-; %N)H/ +),'-X( +166 /) ,%;' % 9%&''& *)&
/#',('6K'(L <612#/6$ 6'(( /#%- a>h )* $)H-2'& %-0 )60'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %2&'' /#%/
+),'- %&' 6'(( +1661-2 /#%- ,'- /) *12#/ *)& % 9%&''&L M#' 01**'&'-9'( %&' ,)&'
.&)-)H-9'0 1- /#' 6)+'& .%&/ )* /#' /%N6'd $)H-2'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ 6'((
/#%- )60'& E1--( Q@@I>h K(L \aIZhSL C- % 2'-'&%6 6'K'6I 8H&).'%-( /'-0 /) N' ,)&'
9)-('&K%/1K' 1- /#'1& ).1-1)-( %N)H/ +),'-X( +166 /) *12#/ *)& /#'1& 9%&''&(I )-6$ =bh
%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L
G- N&)%0 /'&,(I N)/# )* /#' %N)K' /%N6'( (#)+ /#%/ /#'&' %&' %2' 0'.'-0'-/ 01**'&'-9'(
%,)-2 E1--( (H&K'$'0 N$ 8H&)N%&),'/'& &'2%&01-2 +),'-X( 1-/'&'(/ %-0 +166 /) ,%;'
9%&''&( #%( /%;'- .6%9'L G-/'&'(/1-26$I /#1( 9%--)/ N' )N('&K'0 %,)-2 ,1006'
,%-%2'&(L G- &'2%&0( /) +),'- %-0 /#'1& 1-/'&'(/ /) ,%;' 9%&''&( /#' $)H-2'&
2'-'&%/1)- %2&''( +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ % 61//6' 6'(( /#%- /#' )60'& 2'-'&%/1)-L C- /#'
)/#'& #%-0I 1- /#' 9%(' )* +),'-X( +166 /) *12#/ *)& /#'1& 9%&''&(I /#' .'&9'-/%2' )*
$)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( +#) %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ 1( )-6$ ,%&21-%66$ #12#'& /#%- *)&
)60'& ,%-%2'&(L M#'(' &'(H6/( (H22'(/ /#%/ /#' )N('&K'0 01**'&'-9'( 1- N'61'*( %,)-2
E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6 0) -)/ #)60 *)& E1--1(# ,1006' ,%-%2'&(L M#H(I /#' *1&(/ (HN
#$.)/#'(1( 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0L
6.3.2.
SH 3.2 – Women’s freedom, skills, and male confidence in women
G- )&0'& /) /'(/ (HN #$.)/#'(1( @L= *)9H( 1( *1&(/ .H/ )- /%N6' =RI +#19# 0'.19/( ,1006'
,%-%2'&( N'61'*( %N)H/ +),'- #%K1-2 6'(( *&''0), N'9%H(' )* /#'1& *%,16$
&'(.)-(1N161/1'(L
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Table 29 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Women have less freedom because of their family responsibilities. Thepercentages in the lower part of the table are from Special Eurobarometer 376, aEuropean study on gender inequality
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@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " MOG HPON NHOP HLOI NOI FNON MPOF
@"2"<%#'O NG` " IOP HLOG NDOD HDOI FOG FGOP LLOH
C)22'O 72(%# IN ? IFOJ MLOM
C)22'O NG` ? FFOH LLOI
67#,1%"2' ? IG MD
"BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%
72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHFE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%'O FM DNM 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2'
1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGGL 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O FGD 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( NPD 9%#% NG ;%"#'
"2( ,*%#
M#' %N)K' /%N6' (#)+( /#%/ %9&)(( %66 )N('&K'0 2&)H.(I /#' ,%P)&1/$ )* &'(.)-0'-/(
%2&'' /#%/ +),'- #%K' 6'(( *&''0), N'9%H(' )* *%,16$ &'(.)-(1N161/1'(L C60'& ,1006'
,%-%2'&( QZZI?hSI %2&'' (),'+#%/ ,)&' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ /#%- $)H-2'& )-'(
Q`ZI`hSL M#' (%,' 9%- N' )N('&K'0 1- 8H&)N%&),'/'&X( (/H0$V ZZI@h )* )60'& E1--(
%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/I +#'&'%( /#' &'(.'9/1K' .'&9'-/%2' *)& $)H-2'& E1--( 1(
`ZIahL CK'&%66 8H&).'%-( %&' 96)('& /) /#' %-(+'&( )* $)H-2'& E1--( %-0 $)H-2'&
,%-%2'&(I `Rh %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L 4 ('',1-26$ (,%66 9#%-2' 1- N'61'*( N)/#
%,)-2 ,%-%2'&( %-0 E1--( (H&K'$'0 N$ /#' 8H&)N%&),'/'&I 9%- %6() N' )N('&K'0L
Table 30
Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: The business community is dominated by men who do not havesufficient confidence in women. The percentages in the lower part of the table arefrom Special Eurobarometer 376, a European study on gender inequality
C+'&::*
0()&-1..
C./0 '+
0()&-1..
C./0 '+
&-1..
C+'&::*
&-1..
D+ /+'
E/+8 D()&-1.. F-1..
@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " HJOI IMOH FPOI HGON POD NGOJ IPOD
@"2"<%#'O NG` " LOD FMOH IDOM FJOF IOI IIOP MFOD
C)22'O 72(%# IN ? IGOL MDOF
C)22'O NG` ? FLOF LGOI
67#,1%"2' ? FG LM
"BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%
72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHFE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%'O FM DNM 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2'
1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGGL 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O FGD 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( NPD 9%#% NG ;%"#'
"2( ,*%#
E&), /#' %N)K' /%N6' 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) 01(/1-2H1(# % 96'%& 01**'&'-9' 1- ,%-%2'&(X
%2&'','-/ /) /#' (/%/','-/d /#' NH(1-'(( 9),,H-1/$ 1( 0),1-%/'0 N$ ,'- +#) 0) -)/
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#%K' (H**191'-/ 9)-*10'-9' 1- +),'-L C-6$ @bIRh )* $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' +1/# /#'
(/%/','-/ 1- 9),.%&1()- /) `=IRh )* )60'& ,%-%2'&(L C60'& ,%-%2'&( %&' ,)&' /#%-
/+19' %( 61;'6$ /) 0+0(..A (/2&& +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ %( $)H-2'& )-'(L "#'- 9),.%&1-2 %66
2&)H.( (1,H6/%-')H(6$I $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' ,)&' /#%- =>h 6'(( +1/# /#'
(/%/','-/ /#%- %-$ )/#'& 2&)H.L M#'&' 1( -) 96'%& 01**'&'-9' N'/+''- /#' 6'K'6 )*
%2&'','-/ /) /#' (/%/','-/ N'/+''- $)H-2'& Q`RI=hS %-0 )60'& E1--( QZ>I@hSL C-
%K'&%2' 8H&).'%-( %&' (),'+#%/ ,)&' 61;'6$ /) %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ /#%- E1--( 1-
2'-'&%6L 4,)-2 ,%-%2'&( 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' 01(/1-9/ 01**'&'-9'( 1- .'&9'./1)-(
&'2%&01-2 /#' (/%/','-/I (1-9' @bh )* $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' 1,.6$1-2 /#%/ /#'
0),1-%-9' )* ,'- +#) 0) -)/ #%K' 9)-*10'-9' *)& +),'- 1( *'6/ 6'(( N$ $)H-2'&
,%-%2'&(L M#' (%,' 01**'&'-9'( 9%--)/ N' -)/'0 %,)-2 E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6L
Table 31 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Women do not always have the necessary qualities and skills to fillpositions of responsibility. The percentages in the lower part of the table are fromSpecial Eurobarometer 376, a European study on gender inequality
C+'&::*
0()&-1..
C./0
'+
0()&-1..
C./0
'+
&-1..
C+'&::*
&-1..
D+
/+'
E/+8
D()&-1..
F-1..
@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN" NMOJ IIOH MOD GOG IOD DPON MOD
@"2"<%#'O NG` MGOH FLON POD GOG FOM DLOM POD
C)22'O 72(%# IN DDOH HHOP
C)22'O NG` DGOD HDOH
67#,1%"2' LM FH
"BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%
72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -
BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHFE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%'O FM DNM 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2' 1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGGL 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O FGD 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( NPD 9%#% NG ;%"#'
"2( ,*%#
M#' 6%(/ /%N6' )* (HN #$.)/#'(1( @L= 6));( 1-/) +#'/#'& &'(.)-0'-/( /#1-; /#%/ +),'-
0) -)/ %6+%$( #%K' /#' -'9'((%&$ TH%61/1'( %-0 (;166( /) *166 .)(1/1)-( )* &'(.)-(1N161/$L
M%N6' @? (#)+( 61//6' K%&1%N161/$ %9&)(( /#' )N('&K'0 2&)H.(I )-6$ % (,%66 ,1-)&1/$ 1- %66
2&)H.( %2&''( +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L M#' .'&9'-/%2' )* %2&'','-/ 1( (),'+#%/ #12#'& *)&
E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6d ??Ibh )* $)H-2'& K'&(H( ?RL?h )* )60'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#'
(/%/','-/L 42%1- )- % 8H&).'%- 6'K'6I &'(.)-0'-/( %&' ,)&' (;'./19%6 &'2%&01-2
+),'-X( (;166( 9)-(10'&1-2 /#%/ =?h %2&''0 +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ /#%/ +),'- 0) -)/-'9'((%&16$ #%K' /#' -''0'0 (;166( *)& %0K%-9','-/L G- /#1( 9%(' -) 96'%& 01**'&'-9'( 9%-
N' (''- N'/+''- $)H-2'& %-0 )60'& ,%-%2'&(L
G- /#' *1&(/ /+) (/%/','-/(I 01**'&'-9'( 9%- ,)&' )& 6'(( N' )N('&K'0L M#' -)/'0
01**'&'-9' 1- ,1006' ,%-%2'&(X N'61'*( %N)H/ +),'- #%K1-2 6'(( *&''0), N'9%H(' )*
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/#'1& *%,16$ &'(.)-(1N161/1'( 1( &%/#'& (,%66L 4 6%&2'& 01**'&'-9' 1( )N('&K'0 1- &'2%&0( /)
/#' (/%/','-/ /#%/ /#' NH(1-'(( 9),,H-1/$ 1( 0),1-%/'0 N$ ,'- +#) 0) -)/ #%K'
(H**191'-/ 9)-*10'-9' 1- +),'-L :'&'I )60'& ,%-%2'&( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ )K'&
=>h ,)&' )*/'- /#%- /#' $)H-2'& )-'(L G- /#' *1-%6 (/%/','-/ 9)-9'&-1-2 +),'-
6%9;1-2 TH%61/1'( %-0 (;166(I -) 01(/1-9/ 01**'&'-9' 9)H60 N' )N('&K'0 %-0 % ,%&21-%6
.'&9'-/%2' %2&''0 +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L O'9%H(' )* /#'(' (),'+#%/ K%2H' &'(H6/(I 'J9'./
*)& /#' ('9)-0 (/%/','-/I (HN #$.)/#'(1( @L= 9%- )-6$ .%&/1%66$ N' 9)-*1&,'0L
6.3.3. SH 3.3 – Men’s role at work and at home
M#' *1-%6 (HN #$.)/#'(1( 6));( %/ +#'/#'& &'(.)-0'-/( N'61'K' /#%/ 1/ 1( -)&,%6 /#%/
,'- +)&; ,)&' )H/(10' /#' #),' %-0 .%&/191.%/' 6'(( 1- 0),'(/19 +)&; /#%- +),'-L
M#' *1&(/ /%N6' *)9H('( )- +)&; )H/(10' )* #),'L
Table 32
Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thequestion: Do you think it is normal that men work more than women? Thepercentages in the lower part of the table are from Special Eurobarometer 376, aEuropean study on gender inequality
C+'&::*
0()&-1..
C./0 '+
0()&-1..
C./0 '+
&-1..
C+'&::*
&-1..
D+ /+'
E/+8 D()&-1.. F-1..
@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " FNOM FLOH IIOD MOG LON NFOL IPOD
@"2"<%#'O NG` " FION IDOM FMOH NOP NOP MFOH IFOG
C)22'O 72(%# IN ? JHOG NNOP
C)22'O NG` ? MGOM ILOJ
67#,1%"2' ?
NG JD "BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%
72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -
BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHGE C#,$ "33 JL 6>
$%$?%# '&"&%' FM JLG 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2' 1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGIF 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O HPN
9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( MGJ 9%#% NG ;%"#' "2( ,*%#
E&), /#' %N)K' /%N6'I )-' 9%- ('' /#%/ % #12#'& .'&9'-/ )* $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( Q@bIRhS
%2&'' /#%/ 1/ 1( -)&,%6 /#%/ ,'- +)&; ,)&' /#%- )60'& ,%-%2'&( Q@=I=hSL M#' (%,'
01**'&'-9' 9%- N' (''- %,)-2 E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6I #)+'K'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/
(612#/6$ ,)&' /#%- ,%-%2'&(L 8H&).'%-( %&' ,)&' 01K10'0 1- /#'1& N'61'*(I %6,)(/ %(
,%-$ &'(.)-0'-/( %2&'' %( 01(%2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L M#' -'J/ /%N6' +166 *)9H( )-
+#'/#'& 1/ 1( 9)-(10'&'0 -)&,%6 /#%/ ,'- .%&/191.%/' 6'(( 1- 0),'(/19 +)&;L
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Table 33 Percentual division of middle managers who agree and disagree with thestatement: Do you think it is normal that men participate less in domestic workthan women? The percentages in the lower part of the table are from SpecialEurobarometer 376, a European study on gender inequality
C+'&::*
0()&-1..
C./0
'+
0()&-1..
C./0
'+
&-1..
C+'&::*
&-1..
D+
/+'
E/+8
D()&-1..
F-1..
@"2"<%#'O 72(%# IN " IFOI IPOI FHOD FOI NOI LHOM FJOH
@"2"<%#'O NG` " IJOG IMOM FFOP IOI IOI LGOM FMOF
C)22'O 72(%# IN ? FFOH LNOP
C)22'O NG` ? HPOF LPOD
67#,1%"2' ? NG JD
"BS% +)<7#%' #%1#%'%2& B6a ,# 46C6 $%$?%#' 9S, 9,#/ )2 $)((3% $"2"<%$%2&E Y7& ,+ MMJ #%'1,2(%2&'O HII 9%#%
72(%# &S% "<% ,+ IN "2( HNI 9%#% NG "2( ,*%#E -BS% 1%#8%2&"<%' "#% +#,$ 67#,?"#,$%&%# FGHGE C#,$ "33 JL 6> $%$?%# '&"&%' FM JLG 67#,1%"2 8)&)V%2'
1"#&)8)1"&%( ,+ 9S,$ HGIF 9%#% C)22)'SE Y7& ,+ &S% #%'1,2(%2&'O HPN 9%#% 72(%# IN ;%"#' "2( MGJ 9%#% NG ;%"#'
"2( ,*%#
G- /%N6' @= 1/ 1( .)((1N6' /) ('' /#%/ %&)H-0 % TH%&/'& )* ,%-%2'&( %2&'' /#%/ 1/ 1( -)&,%6
/#%/ ,'- .%&/191.%/' 6'(( 1- 0),'(/19 +)&; /#%- +),'-L E1--( (H&K'$'0 N$
8H&)N%&),'/'& (#)+ /#' )..)(1/' &'(H6/(V ,)&' /#%- Zah )* $)H-2'& E1--( %-0 %6,)(/
R>h )* )60'& E1--( %2&'' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/L 8H&).'%-( %&' %2%1- ,)&' 01K10'0 1-
/#'1& ).1-1)-(L
O%('0 )- /#' %N)K' &'(H6/(I #$.)/#'(1( @L@ 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0L 46/#)H2# 1- N)/# 9%('(
6'(( /#%- #%6* )* ,1006' ,%-%2'&( %2&''0 +1/# /#' (/%/','-/(I /#'&' +%( -)
9)-(10'&%N6' 01**'&'-9' %,)-2 $)H-2'& %-0 )60'& ,%-%2'&(L E)& /#' *1&(/ (/%/','-/ 1/
+%( 'K'- /#' )..)(1/'d ZI`h ,)&' $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( /#%- )60'& )-'( /#)H2#/ 1/ +%(
-)&,%6 /#%/ ,'- +)&; ,)&' )H/(10' )* /#' #),'L U'2%&01-2 /#' -)&,%61/$ )* ,'-
/%;1-2 H. % (,%66'& .%&/ )* 0),'(/19 +)&;I )60'& ,%-%2'&( +'&' (612#/6$ ,)&' 0'961-'0
/) %2&''I #)+'K'& /#' 2&'%/ 01**'&'-9' +%( )N('&K'0 N'/+''- /#' N'61'*( )* ,%-%2'&(
%-0 E1--( 1- 2'-'&%6I E1--( %2&''0 a>h ,)&' +1/# /#' (/%/','-/ /#%- ,%-%2'&(L
6.3.4.
Summary of hypothesis 3
O%('0 )- /#' &'(H6/( 1/ 9%--)/ N' 9)-*1&,'0 /#%/ /#'&' %&' 01**'&'-9' 1- N'61'*(
&'2%&01-2 +),'-X( &)6'( %,)-2 $)H-2'& %-0 )60'& ,1006' ,%-%2'&(I /#H( /#' /#1&0
#$.)/#'(1( )- -)&,( %-0 N'61'*( 9%--)/ N' %99'./'0L M#' $)H-2'& 2'-'&%/1)- )* ,1006'
,%-%2'&( 0)'( -)/ ('', /) N' 6'(( 9)-('&K%/1K' 1- /#'1& N'61'*( /#%- )60'& ,%-%2'&(V
&%/#'& 1- (),' )* /#' )N('&K'0 (/%/','-/( $)H-2'& ,%-%2'&( %&' ,)&' 9)-('&K%/1K'
/#%- )60'& )-'(L
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7
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
G- /#1( 9#%./'& *)9H( (#1*/( /) +#%/ &'%()-( ,%$ 61' N'#1-0 /#' *1-01-2(L U'(H6/( *&),
'%9# )-' )* /#' #$.)/#'('( %&' 01(9H(('0 ('.%&%/'6$ %-0 1- &'*'&'-9' /) +#%/ '**'9/ /#'$
,%$ #%K' )- /#' 6)+ .&).)&/1)- )* +),'- 1- ('-1)& ,%-%2','-/ 1- E1-6%-0L M#1( 1(
*)66)+'0 N$ 9)-96H(1)-( )* /#' (/H0$ +#'&' /#' &'('%&9# TH'(/1)-( %&' %-(+'&'0L
Career ambition and perceptions7.1.
M#' &'(H6/( (#)+ /#%/ ,%6' %-0 *',%6' ,1006' ,%-%2'&( 01**'& 1- /#'1& 9%&''&
.&'*'&'-9'( /) (),' 'J/'-/L E',%6' ,%-%2'&( %&' 6'(( +1661-2 /) 9)-(10'& .&),)/1)-(
%-0 #%K' 6)+'& 9%&''& %,N1/1)-( /#%- ,%6' ,%-%2'&( 1L'L (12-1*19%-/6$ 6'(( +),'- /#%-
,'- %1, /) %9#1'K' B8C %-0 K19' .&'(10'-/ .)(1/1)-( 9),.%&'0 /) ,'-L ]'/ % ,%P)&1/$I
)K'& R>h )* *',%6' ,%-%2'&( %&' +1661-2 /) 9)-(10'& % .&),)/1)- %-0 )K'& Z>h %(.1&'
/) %9#1'K' 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-( )& #12#'&L ^'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( %&'
)N('&K%N6' %9&)(( %66 %2' 2&)H.( NH/ %&' ,)&' .&)-)H-9'0 *)& ,%-%2'&( N'/+''- @af
\bL M#1( ,%$ .%&/1%66$ N' 0H' /) *',%6' ,%-%2'&( #%K1-2 ,)&' .&'*'&'-9'( *)& 9#160&'-
%-0 *%,16$L :)+'K'&I -) (12-1*19%-/ 01**'&'-9' 9%- N' )N('&K'0 N'/+''- +),'- +1/#
%-0 +),'- +1/#)H/ 9#160&'- 1- &'2%&0( /) %(.1&1-2 *)& %- 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ %-0
('-1)& 'J'9H/1K' ,%-%2','-/ .)(1/1)-(I /#'&'*)&' *%,16$ .&'*'&'-9'( %&' -)/ (H**191'-/
1- 'J.6%1-1-2 /#' 6)+'& -H,N'& )* +),'- (/&1K1-2 *)& /#'(' .)(1/1)-(L
B),,)-6$ .'&9'1K'0 &'%()-( *)& /#' %N)K' )N('&K'0 2'-0'& 01**'&'-9'( 1-96H0'I %,)-2
)/#'& *%9/)&(I /#%/ +),'- %&' 6'(( ('6*f9)-*10'-/ 1- /#'1& %N161/1'(I %&' -)/ 1-/'&'(/'0 1-
&'(.)-(1N6' .)(1/1)-( %-0 0'961-' .&),)/1)-( ,)&' /#%- ,'- Q('' 'L2L M%6)H('6p,p
\g=>?@I A1'0'&6' %-0 o'(/'&6H-0I =>>ZI 8H&).'X( G-(/1/H/' )* D'%0'&(#1. l
F%-%2','-/I=>??SL M#'(' &'%()-( 0) -)/ ('', /) #)60 *)& E1--1(# *',%6' ,%-%2'&(
+#) (#)+ 9)-*10'-9' 1- /#'1& %N161/1'(I /%;' %- %9/1K' %..&)%9# /) 9%&''& .6%--1-2 %-0
#%K' .&'K1)H(6$ %99'./'0 %-0 0'961-'0 .&),)/1)-( 1- /#' (%,' 'J/'-/ %( ,%6' ,1006'
,%-%2'&(L 46,)(/ b>h )* *',%6' ,%-%2'&( %&' 9)-*10'-/ /#%/ /#'$ #%K' /#' -''0'0
(;166( %-0 %N161/1'( *)& *H&/#'& 9%&''& %0K%-9','-/ /) ('-1)& 6'K'6 .)(1/1)-( )& #12#'&L
M#' TH'(/1)- )* 1-/'&'(/ /#H( N'9),'(V +#$ 0) +),'- #%K' 6)+'& 9%&''& %,N1/1)-(
/#%- ,'- 1* +),'- /#',('6K'( N'61'K' /) #%K' /#' (;166( &'TH1&'0 /) %9#1'K' /).
.)(1/1)-(3
A10'&6' %-0 "'(/'&6H-0 Q=>>ZS *1-0 /#%/ ,'- #%K' ,)&' .&'*'&'-9'( *)& .'&*)&,1-2 1-
9),.'/1/1)-( /#%- +),'-L M#1( 1( %6() N%9;'0 N$ % ('&1'( )* (/H01'( +1/#1- /#' *1'60 )*
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.($9#)6)2$ (H22'(/1-2 /#%/ ,'- %&' ,)&' 9),.'/1/1K' /#%- +),'- QB%,.N'66I =>>=SL
A10'&6' %-0 "'(/'&6H-0 Q=>>ZS *1-0 /#%/ +#16' ,'- ',N&%9' 9),.'/1/1)-I +),'- (#$
%+%$ *&), 1/I +#19# 9%- #'6. /) 'J.6%1- /#' %N('-9' )* +),'- 1- /).f6'K'6 .)(1/1)-(L
4-)/#'& &'%()- +#$ +),'- ,%$ -)/ ('6'9/ 1-/) /).f6'K'6 .)(1/1)-( 1( N'9%H(' /#'$ 0)
-)/ '-P)$ /#' &'(.)-(1N161/$ /#%/ 9),'( %6)-2 +1/# /#' /1/6'I %-0 1-(/'%0 9#))('
(.'91%61(/ .)(1/1)-( 1- +#19# /#'$ %&' N)/# 9#%66'-2'0 %-0 &'(.'9/'0 N$ )/#'&(L
46/'&-%/1K'6$I 1/ ,%$ N' /#%/ +),'- %&' 6'(( +1661-2 /) ,%;' /#' -'9'((%&$ (%9&1*19'( 1-
)&0'& /) /%;' )- ,)&' &'(.)-(1N161/$L M#'(' (%9&1*19'( ,%$ 1-96H0' 6)-2 +)&;1-2 #)H&(I
+#19# 9)-*619/ +1/# /#' 0'(1&' )& -'9'((1/$ )* 9#160 &'%&1-2L M#1( +166 N' *H&/#'&
01(9H(('0 1- /#' *)66)+1-2 9#%./'& ZL= )- *%,16$ %-0 +)&;L :H0()- Q=>??S (H22'(/(
j"),'- ,%$ N' 1-/'&-%61W1-2 % ,'((%2' /#%/ /#' K'&$ /). .)(1/1)-( %&' N'$)-0 /#'1&
&'%9#kL C- /#' )-' #%-0I 01(9&1,1-%/1)- )& %-/191.%/'0 01(9&1,1-%/1)- ,%$ #%K' /#'
1,.%9/ /#%/ ,'- %-0 +),'- #)60 01**'&'-/ .)(1/1)-(L C- /#' )/#'& #%-0I /#' 6%9; )*
*',%6' &)6' ,)0'6( %-0 ,'-/)&( ,%$ 1,.%9/ +),'- %&' ,)&' #'(1/%-/ /) 2) *)&
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Family and work7.2.
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7.3.1. Implications for the proportion of women in senior management
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Suggestions for further research7.4.
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Conclusions7.5.
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REFERENCES
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